Content uploaded by Clifford Amoako
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Clifford Amoako on Jan 15, 2014
Content may be subject to copyright.
This article was downloaded by: [Monash University Library]
On: 14 November 2013, At: 15:59
Publisher: Taylor & Francis
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House,
37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK
Journal of Transportation Safety & Security
Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/utss20
Urban Infrastructure Design and Pedestrian Safety in
the Kumasi Central Business District, Ghana
Clifford Amoako a , Patrick Brandful Cobbinah b & Rockson Niminga-Beka c
a School of Geography and Environmental Science, Faculty of Arts , Monash University ,
Clayton Campus, Melbourne , Victoria , Australia
b Charles Sturt University, School of Environmental Sciences , Box 789, Albury , 2640 ,
Australia
c Town Planning Department , Sissala East District , Tumu , Ghana
Accepted author version posted online: 14 Nov 2013.Published online: 14 Nov 2013.
To cite this article: Journal of Transportation Safety & Security (2013): Urban Infrastructure Design and Pedestrian Safety in
the Kumasi Central Business District, Ghana, Journal of Transportation Safety & Security, DOI: 10.1080/19439962.2013.861887
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19439962.2013.861887
Disclaimer: This is a version of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service
to authors and researchers we are providing this version of the accepted manuscript (AM). Copyediting,
typesetting, and review of the resulting proof will be undertaken on this manuscript before final publication of
the Version of Record (VoR). During production and pre-press, errors may be discovered which could affect the
content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal relate to this version also.
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE
Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained
in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no
representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the
Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and
are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and
should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for
any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever
or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of
the Content.
This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic
reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any
form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://
www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
1
Urban Infrastructure Design and Pedestrian Safety in the Kumasi Central Business
District, Ghana
Clifford Amoako
School of Geography and Environmental Science, Faculty of Arts, Monash University, Clayton
Campus, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia (e-mail: Clifford.amoako@monash.edu).
Patrick Brandful Cobbinah
Charles Sturt University, School of Environmental Sciences, Box 789, Albury 2640, Australia.
Rockson Niminga-Beka
Town Planning Department, Sissala East District, Tumu, Ghana
Downloaded by [Monash University Library] at 15:59 14 November 2013
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
2
Abstract
Central Business Districts (CBDs) are areas of intense economic and social interactions and
zones for pedestrian activities. However, infrastructure for pedestrian safety has not been
considered in the design of CBDs in many developing countries. Infrastructural facilities for
pedestrians are normally introduced as add-ons to the main design of the CBDs; and sometimes
create more problems than they were intended to solve. The situation is more complicated for
vulnerable groups such as children, disabled people and pregnant women. This paper investigates
the level of pedestrian protection in the CBD of Kumasi, the second largest city in Ghana. It
presents an inventory of infrastructure within the CBD for pedestrian comfort, safety and
collision avoidance. Using an empirical inventory, observations and pedestrian interviews, the
study reveals inadequate, poor location and maintenance of pedestrian infrastructure within the
Kumasi CBD. It further identifies careless use of these facilities by both motorists and
pedestrians which has contributed to high pedestrian accidents. The paper proposes the redesign
of the Kumasi CBD to improve pedestrian protection and avoid chaos.
Keywords Central Business District; Kumasi; pedestrian; pedestrian safety; pedestrian
infrastructural facilities
Downloaded by [Monash University Library] at 15:59 14 November 2013
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
3
1. Introduction
Globally, CBDs are the most heavily populated regions in the urban environment with intense
visitor flow especially in developing countries (Yaguang, 2011). In Sub-Saharan Africa,
pedestrian activity in CBDs account for approximately 50% of all daily trips. For example,
pedestrian walking accounts for 81% of all trips in Dakar (Senegal), 70% in Addis Ababa
(Ethiopia), 60% in Bamako (Mali) and Niamey (Niger), 47% in Nairobi (Kenya) and 42% in
Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso) (World Bank, 2005). Despite the high level of pedestrian activity
in urban areas of developing countries, urban infrastructure for pedestrians are mostly non-
existent. The political attitude towards pedestrians is often neglectful in terms of infrastructure
and service provision, and policy making with pedestrian space continually eroded (World Bank,
2002).
This situation is more pronounced in CBDs of developing countries where there are inadequate
side-walks/walkways along major roads, which are increasingly occupied by street vendors,
encroached upon by shop premises, or blocked by parked vehicles, motorcycles, and bicycles.
Additionally, pedestrian needs are often not considered in the provision of urban transport
infrastructure as CBDs are largely designed from a car-user perspective which often results in
lack of coherent planning for pedestrians and cyclists’ route networks (European Transport
Safety Council, 1999). The welfare of pedestrians is often sacrificed to planning for the faster
flow of vehicular traffic (Earthtec Consultancy, 2007).
Poor infrastructure planning for pedestrians in CBDs in developing countries is often
exacerbated by numerous challenges including chronic traffic congestions, pollution from
Downloaded by [Monash University Library] at 15:59 14 November 2013
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
4
outdated vehicles, unreliable public transportation systems and other environmental concerns.
The general lack of consideration for pedestrian safety also results in a high incidence of
pedestrian injuries/fatalities arising from pedestrian-vehicular collisions. Studies have shown that
traffic accidents constitute one of the major causes of death and injury in the world, accounting
for an estimated 1.2 million fatalities and 50 million injuries (Peden et al., 2004). Unlike the
developed countries where there are low pedestrian fatalities, many developing countries are
challenged with increasing pedestrian fatalities mainly due to vehicle speeding (Howard et al.,
2008; Vasconcellos, 2005; WHO, 2004), and policy makers’ common understanding of the
urban transport system as securing mobility for vehicles rather than people (Yakamine, 2004).
Given the vulnerability of pedestrians in developing countries, availability of, and improvement
in pedestrian infrastructure would create a safer urban environment as well as enhanced mobility
within CBDs. However, there have been few insights on the relationship between pedestrian
infrastructure and pedestrian safety particularly in developing countries (e.g. Lasmini &
Indriastuti, 2010; Takamine, 2004). For example, Takamine (2004) explored infrastructure
services and social inclusion of people with disabilities in East Asia and the Pacific, while
Lasmini and Idriastuti (2010) examined pedestrian facilities and traffic management in
Indonesia.
This paper contributes to this discussion by establishing the relationship between pedestrian
infrastructure and pedestrian safety in the Kumasi CBD, Ghana. The paper takes an inventory of
road infrastructures (e.g. drop off zones and walkways/sidewalks), traffic signals (e.g. street
lights and traffic lights) and road markings (e.g. pedestrian crossing) for pedestrian safety in the
Downloaded by [Monash University Library] at 15:59 14 November 2013
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
5
Kumasi CBD. The paper further examines the extent to which these infrastructural facilities have
improved pedestrian safety in the CBD.
2. Understanding the structure of CBD
2.1 Nature and land use structure of CBDs
There is no universally accepted definition of CBD amongst urban analysts, planners or planning
organisations. The idea of CBD was first proposed by Burgess (1925) in his ‘concentric city
model’. This model suggests that cities expand from inner to outer in a concentric pattern
comprising five circles or zones. The first zone which is the centre represents the city’s core
functional zone, often referred to as the CBD. According to Yaguang (2011) the CBD serves as a
place for the urban population to assemble and undertake different social, economic and
institutional activities. The CBD also serves as the heart of urban areas performing major
economic functions that sustain the urban environment in terms of employment and income
generation (Rosenberg, 2009). Geographically, CBDs may or may not be at the centre of cities.
Thus, the definition of a CBD is more functional than spatial.
Historically, CBDs were developed as market squares where farmers, consumers and merchants
met on market days to exchange, buy and sell goods (Rosenberg, 2009). In the 1900s, CBDs
developed and became centres for retail, commerce and administrative functions. At the turn of
the mid 20th century CBDs expanded to include office space, banking, shopping malls and
government institutions. CBDs, in the 21st century, have become a diverse region of
cosmopolitan activities including commercial, retail, educational, entertainment, financial, local
governance and political, health, tourism, civic and cultural uses. Additionally, the combination
Downloaded by [Monash University Library] at 15:59 14 November 2013
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
6
of gentrification and redevelopment has allowed CBDs to develop and include residential estate
uses. An example of this is San Diego’s Horton Plaza in the United States of America
(Rosenberg, 2009).
2.2 Infrastructure and pedestrian movement in CBDs
High pedestrian population in CBDs, especially in developing countries, has necessitated the
need to provide and integrate pedestrian infrastructural needs into the design, development and
the management of CBDs. Despite the high demand, CBDs in many developing countries are
characterised by poor pedestrian infrastructure compelling pedestrians to walk on carriageways
thereby contributing to increased pedestrian accidents (Lasmini & Indriastuti, 2010; Sumabrata
& Rahmah, 2002; World Bank, 2005). To facilitate socio-economic development and ensure
effective functioning of CBDs, three pedestrian infrastructural facilities are paramount: road
infrastructure such as sidewalks/walkways; traffic signals such as traffic lights; and road
markings such as pedestrian crossing (Lasmini & Indriastuti, 2010). Although studies have
shown that pedestrian walking constitutes about 50% of movement in cities of developing
countries, pedestrian infrastructure in CBDs especially in Africa is inadequate and poorly
maintained (World Bank, 2005; Zegeer et al., 2002) . The subsequent paragraphs examine the
infrastructure types needed to promote pedestrian safety in CBDs.
Road infrastructure, such as sidewalks/walkways, medians, crossing islands, curbs, drop off
zones and speed tables/ramps, has the potential to determine and affect the number and
accessibility of pedestrians in the CBD (Lasmini & Indriastuti, 2010). In many developing
countries, sidewalks not only provide avenue for safe pedestrian activity, they are also used by
Downloaded by [Monash University Library] at 15:59 14 November 2013
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
7
hawkers and vehicles due to poor urban planning designs and regulation enforcement
mechanisms. This unapproved change of use coupled with inadequate pedestrian infrastructure
reduces the width of the sidewalks and further compels pedestrians to use lanes and shoulders of
roads, which are unsafe and a discomfort to pedestrian movement in the CBD (Lasmini &
Indriastuti, 2010). For instance, a study by Sumabrata and Rahma (2003) reveals that
approximately 65% of traffic accident victims in Jakarta (Indonesia) are pedestrians and usually
occur as a result of pedestrian-vehicular collisions, due to inadequate and careless use of
pedestrian infrastructure. Additionally, sidewalks in CBDs of many developing countries do not
meet the needs of some categories of pedestrians especially the disabled, elderly and pregnant
women.
Pedestrian infrastructural facilities including traffic signals (traffic lights) and road markings
(pedestrian crossing) are necessary to ensure effective functioning of CBDs. However, research
has shown that CBDs in developing countries are often not equipped with adequate road
markings and traffic signals resulting in conflicting use (World Bank, 2005). Again, the locations
of these infrastructural facilities are considered poor resulting in careless and sometimes lack of
use of these facilities by pedestrians. This situation disturbs vehicular flow and increases
pedestrian exposure to risk (Lasmini & Indriastuti, 2010).
Ideally, pedestrian infrastructure should be integrated into the design of CBDs; however, the
situation is different in many developing countries where the available facilities appear to be
add-ons. Pedestrian infrastructural facilities common in CBDs in developing countries include
traffic lights, pedestrian crossing and sidewalks. Inadequate and poor location of pedestrian
Downloaded by [Monash University Library] at 15:59 14 November 2013
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
8
infrastructural facilities coupled with poor maintenance has compelled pedestrians to use the
CBD without these facilities (Lasmini & Indriastuti 2010; Sumabrata & Rahmah, 2003; World
Bank, 2005). CBDs in developing countries are thus characterised by increasing traffic
congestion, poor coordination of activities and ineffective management.
The development of pedestrian infrastructure should create an ideal condition for ensuring the
safety, comfort, and economy to improve pedestrian activities in the CBD. It is therefore
imperative that the design, development and operation of pedestrian infrastructural facilities in
the CBD incorporate basic pedestrian characteristics including speed, flow rate, and pedestrian
density (Lasmini & Indriastuti, 2010).
Despite the potential of CBDs to stimulate local development, there are a number of challenges
that inhibit their development and management with regard to ensuring pedestrian safety. The
major problems include traffic congestion and inadequate parking facilities, among others.
Traffic congestion occurs when the road space is used above its design capacity (Wang et al.,
2009). With activities in the CBDs attracting and generating high volumes of traffic and the
increasing use of private vehicles, CBDs have become traffic congestion zones in the urban
environment. Inadequate parking facilities due to increased use of private automobiles and no
corresponding provision of additional parking facilities, coupled with inadequate pedestrian
infrastructural facilities threaten pedestrian safety in the CBD.
2.3 Pedestrian safety in developing countries
Ensuring pedestrian safety is key to improving the walking environment in urban areas,
stimulating local economic growth and contributing to urban regeneration and social cohesion, as
Downloaded by [Monash University Library] at 15:59 14 November 2013
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
9
well as reducing unsafe traffic conditions (Kumar & Ross, 2006; Litman, 2004). Despite the
benefits of pedestrian safety measures, official statistics in 2010 indicate that globally 273,000
pedestrians were killed in road traffic fatalities (World Health Organisation [WHO], 2013a). This
accounts for 22% of all road traffic fatalities recorded globally in 2010, with Africa recording the
highest (38%) pedestrian fatalities in 2010, highlighting the seriousness of the situation (see
Table I).
Studies have identified high risk pedestrian fatality zones as areas within the urban environment
where there is inadequate consideration for pedestrian access and lack of pedestrian facilities
such as sidewalks (Ewing & Dumbaugh, 2009; Zegeer & Bushell, 2012). This situation is
particularly true in Ghanaian cities where the design of transport infrastructure has witnessed
very little change since independence (Kwakye & Fouracre, 1998). According to Kwakye and
Fouracre (1998) the nature of Ghana’s urban transport structure has led to congested city centres,
poor pedestrian infrastructure development, exposure of pedestrians to traffic accidents and poor
environmental standards. However, these pedestrian infrastructural facilities which are lacking in
many developing countries have been recognised globally as important for ensuring pedestrian
safety in the urban environment (WHO, 2013b).
Another factor contributing significantly to pedestrian accidents in the world is the speeding of
vehicles (Howard et al., 2008; Vasconcellos, 2005; WHO, 2004). As explained by Howard et al.
(2008), vehicle speeding (i.e. driving above the speed limit) is recognized globally as a major
contributor to both the number and severity of traffic accidents. Developing countries have been
identified to be high risk zones, regarding pedestrian accidents resulting from vehicle speeding
Downloaded by [Monash University Library] at 15:59 14 November 2013
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
10
(Vasconcellos, 2005; WHO, 2004). Howard et al. (2008) assert that managing vehicle speed
involves a wide range of strategies, including setting and enforcing speed limits, engineering
measures designed to reduce speeds, and public education and awareness creation, which are
often poorly implemented in developing countries.
It has been established throughout the literature that CBDs are very useful in the city
development process as they serve as nerve centres. Furthermore, the functionality of a CBD is
determined by the availability and adequacy of user infrastructure especially pedestrian
infrastructural facilities. These facilities have been observed throughout the literature as critical
for ensuring the safety of pedestrians in the CBD. Their inadequacy and poor maintenance,
coupled with vehicle speeding have resulted in increasing pedestrian-vehicular collisions, and an
uncomfortable and unsafe urban environment in many developing countries such as Indonesia.
This situation has not only affected business activities in the CBDs of developing countries but
has also resulted in traffic related fatalities.
2.4 Historical development of the Kumasi CBD
The Kumasi CBD, formerly known as Kwaman during the reign of Nana Oti Akenten (1663-
1697), was originally built by King Osei Tutu l in the 1680s to serve as the capital of the Ashanti
Kingdom. Prior to 1920, the CBD was a small residential area with Kejetia, Asafo and Central
markets areas swamp and shrub. The 20th century was characterised by a rapid transformation of
the city centre with the construction of the military fort at Adum. The presence of the fort
became a source of attraction for traders and pedestrians to transact business due to the security
the fort provided. The establishment of the fort led to the extension of the railway line from
Downloaded by [Monash University Library] at 15:59 14 November 2013
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
11
Sekondi (coastal area) to Kumasi (inland) in 1903 serving as the major form of transportation in
addition to walking. The road linking the north through Mampong was built to promote trade in
1921 with the completion of the Accra-Kumasi railway in 1923.
The development of the transportation routes facilitated commercial and industrial activities in
the CBD. This resulted in the emergence of establishments such as Basel factory, the Bank of
West Africa, the prisons, the Army Barracks, cocoa and general goods sheds along the railway.
Commercial activities in the CBD were facilitated by the construction of the Kejetia lorry park,
and the central market in 1924 providing transport of goods to and from Kumasi. The Kumasi
Metropolitan Assembly, the institution responsible for the socio-economic and physical
development of the city, took over the operations and management of the CBD following the
introduction of the decentralisation concept in Ghana in 1988. Due to the geographical and
functional centrality of the CBD (see Figure I), commercial and service activities have
increasingly exceeded the planning and management capacity of the city authorities leading to
chaos in the CBD. The following sections examine the case of pedestrian infrastructure in
ensuring safety and comfort of pedestrians in the Kumasi CBD, Ghana.
3. Approaches and methods
3.1 Research setting
Kumasi, the capital of the Asante State and the current Ashanti Region, has undergone several
political, cultural, physical and demographic changes over the past century (1900-2010). With its
status as the second largest city in Ghana, Kumasi has over the last 100 years been the main
commercial and traditional capital of the Ashantis (major ethnic group) of Ghana (Amaoko &
Downloaded by [Monash University Library] at 15:59 14 November 2013
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
12
Korboe, 2011). Kumasi serves as the most important commercial centre not only in Ghana but
across West Africa because of its geographical location and road network (see Figure I).
Kumasi CBD covers Adum, Central Post Office area, Asafo Market, Kejetia Lorry terminal and
Central Market as shown in Figure II. With a total land area of 294.5 acres, Kumasi CBD,
located at the centre of the city, conforms to Burgess (1925) concentric city model. The CBD
area lies between latitudes 6.35oN–6.40oS and longitudes 1.30oW–1.35oE, with an elevation
between 250–300 metres above sea level. It is bounded to the north by Ashanti New Town, to
the east by Bompata, Fante New Town and Asafo and to the south by Asokwa, and is the
administrative and commercial capital of the Kumasi metropolis. The CBD is currently
developing vertically as inadequate land area is available to support the physical lateral growth in
commercial activities. The increase in commercial activities without adequate consideration for
pedestrian safety has led to many pedestrian challenges in the CBD including traffic congestion
and inadequate road networks resulting from hawkers’ invasions of streets and sidewalks.
3.2 Study method
The following methods and approaches were followed in undertaking this study:
Acquisition of a street map of the Kumasi CBD area from the Kumasi Metropolitan
Town and Country Planning Department. The map shows the major streets of the central
business district which were of relevance to the study. The map assisted in the location of
all installed road infrastructures along streets for pedestrian use;
Downloaded by [Monash University Library] at 15:59 14 November 2013
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
13
Based on initial reconnaissance survey, 14 streets within the CBD were selected for
detailed study. The selection was based on the number of installed pedestrian
infrastructural facilities and the number of pedestrians that used the road between
06:00hours and 18:00hours Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). Streets were selected as the
basis for the field survey due to the absence of public spaces within the CBD, apart from
major transport terminals at Adum and Kejetia;
Along the selected streets, a detailed inventory of infrastructural facilities for pedestrian
safety and comfort was carried out. This was done taking into consideration the
efficiency of their location, distribution within the CBD and their level of usage. The
specific streets that were selected and their length are shown in Table II. The selected
streets are also shown in Figure II.
Twenty five pedestrians were selected along each street, different categories of
pedestrians were targeted (see Table III). The interviews covered issues on personal
knowledge, protection, comfort and level of usage of pedestrian infrastructure.
Enumerators were located along the selected streets to interview pedestrians during the
study hours. This survey was conducted through semi-structured interviews. Pedestrians’
responses were recorded while their movements within the CBD were observed to
address the absence of reliable data on the number of pedestrians that visit the city centre
daily. An initial reconnaissance revealed uniform answers from pedestrians questioned.
As a result, the study further assessed this through an intensive inventory and
observations. Table III shows the categorisation of respondents.
Downloaded by [Monash University Library] at 15:59 14 November 2013
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
14
4. Results and discussions
4.1 Land use inventory of the Kumasi CBD
As presented in Table IV, the land use inventory of the Kumasi CBD include commercial, civic
and culture, mixed commercial and residential, open spaces, education, industry and sanitation
uses. Commercial land use accounts for approximately 70% of the land area of the CBD and
comprises the markets, retail shops, and lorry terminals. The retail shops trade in general goods
including textiles, provisions, electrical appliances and mobile phones. According to the Kumasi
Metropolitan Town and Country Planning Department, the high demand for commercial shops
has resulted in the conversion of about 56% of the residential units into commercial use (e.g.
shops). The increasing commercial activities coupled with the high demand for commercial
space in the CBD has resulted in high rent usually between GH¢1,750.00 (US$ 1,167.00) and
GH¢2,940.00 (US$ 1960.00) per plot of land (100 feet by 90 feet) in the CBD.
Civic and cultural activities constitute 24.2% of the total land area and include facilities such as
public institutions, offices and churches. Open spaces in the CBD occupy only 2.3% of the total
land area, these include green areas and road reservations. It must however be noted that open
spaces in the CBD are continually encroached upon by unauthorised activities such as hawking.
Mixed residential and commercial use properties constitute 3% of the total land area, while
educational land use, mainly primary schools occupies 0.2% of the land area. Industrial land use
occupies only 0.08% of the total land area and sanitation uses in the CBD occupy 0.08% and are
mainly public toilet facilities and a refuse drop off sites.
4.2 Pedestrian distribution in the Kumasi CBD
Downloaded by [Monash University Library] at 15:59 14 November 2013
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
15
Given the Kumasi CBD’s geographical and functional centrality as well as the variety and order
of services it provides, the study findings show that the CBD generates about 60% of all trips
made in Kumasi. These trip makers break their bulk once they arrive at the city centre and access
various locations via the internal streets’ network. The internal movement by the trip makers
determines the number of pedestrians on each street and how the installed road facilities
guarantee their safety. The survey collected data on the number of pedestrians on key streets
within the CBD and are presented in Table V.
Pedestrian densities in the Kumasi CBD were categorised into three classes; high (1000 and
more persons per acre of land), medium (500-999 persons per acre of land) and low (below 500
persons per acre of land) pedestrian zones along the selected streets (see Figure IV). As shown in
Table V, Guggisburg (now Osei Tutu I Avenue), Adum and Fuller Roads appear to be the most
pedestrianised streets in the CBD. Guggisburg Road receives about 1,297 pedestrians
representing 10% of the total 12,813 pedestrians in the CBD. Adum Road recorded 1,160
pedestrians representing 8.96%, while Fuller Road receives about 1,427 pedestrians representing
11% of the pedestrians. The interview revealed that the concentration of pedestrians on these
roads is a result of pedestrian activities (e.g. retailing) and services (e.g. banking) located along
these roads. Making reference to the Fuller Road, many pedestrians mostly market women
explained that the road attracts more pedestrians because it connects and provides major access
to the Central Market and the Asafo Market. The majority of pedestrians interviewed along the
Guggisburg Road also indicated that it is a commercialised street which provides pedestrians
with key services (e.g. consumables). Many of the financial institutions and retail household
equipment shops are located along this street and it further serves as an alternative road to the
Downloaded by [Monash University Library] at 15:59 14 November 2013
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
16
Central Market, apart from the Fuller Road. In relation to the Adum Road, interviewees
attributed the high number of pedestrians it attracts to the location and activities of many second
hand cloth vendors.
The location of the selected streets on a radio-centric internal road pattern coupled with a high
level of accessibility to services attracts many pedestrians to the CBD. The interview findings
suggest that pedestrians visit the CBD area for the purposes of buying goods (e.g. consumables),
seeking services (e.g. banking), and travelling given the location of major bus terminals (e.g.
Kejetia Lorry Terminal) in the CBD.
4.3 Traffic characteristics of the Kumasi CBD
The Kumasi CBD has been modeled on a radial ring road pattern (see Figure I), with a high level
of accessibility to several parts of the city. It is also the major transportation hub for the Ashanti
Region. The study findings show that the CBD generates high levels of traffic that traverse the
metropolis to the other districts leading to many problems, including an increase in on-street
parking as shown in Figure III. Other problems include the conversion of open spaces in the
CBD into bus terminals and parking lots, and encroachment of pedestrian walkways by
unauthorised users (e.g. street hawkers).
The traffic condition in the Kumasi CBD can be broadly categorised into two groups: private
vehicles and taxis which generate 70% of traffic movement and account for 30% of all trips; and
“trotro” (mini buses) and heavy buses which constitute 30% of the traffic mix and account for
70% of pedestrian trips to and from the CBD. This has resulted in high parking demand within
the CBD leading to unauthorised parking. Interviews with the pedestrians and field observations
Downloaded by [Monash University Library] at 15:59 14 November 2013
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
17
revealed the general uncontrolled on-street parking and encroachment of pedestrian walkways by
unauthorised users on most of the roads, especially along the Fuller Road which has impeded
pedestrian movement in the CBD. Also, this situation has led to the introduction of some traffic
management practices including a one way traffic system and decongestion on the study
corridors. According to the pedestrians, these management practices have yielded poor results as
the underlying challenges (pedestrian infrastructural facilities) have not been considered leading
to the common pedestrian-vehicular conflicts in the CBD.
4.4 Pedestrian safety issues in the Kumasi CBD
With an estimated population of 12,813 pedestrians using 14 streets in the CBD, pedestrian
infrastructural facilities have become the measure of free movement and safety in the midst of
moving vehicles. Given this background, the study explored the number of infrastructural
facilities installed on these streets for the safety of pedestrians. Table VI presents pedestrian
infrastructural facilities that were considered.
The distribution pattern of pedestrian infrastructural facilities in the CBD suggests that
pedestrians prefer using streets with many infrastructural facilities installed on and along them.
The study findings show that pedestrians consider such streets as safe. For example, the
Guggisburg Road, which has all road facilities considered in the study (see Table VI), attracts the
highest numbers of pedestrians following Fuller Road due to the pedestrian infrastructural
facilities installed on and along it, which are essential in ensuring pedestrian safety.
Pedestrian movement and safety in the CBD appears to have been compromised because of the
absence of important infrastructural facilities such as pedestrian crossings and walkways on
Downloaded by [Monash University Library] at 15:59 14 November 2013
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
18
many of the streets (see Table VI). Field observations further reveal that the absence of
pedestrian infrastructural facilities has compelled pedestrians to share the road with moving
vehicles. Interviews with the pedestrians show that the situation is compounded by uncontrolled
on-street parking and inadequate bus terminals in the CBD. As presented in Table VI, although 7
out of the 14 streets have designated sections for on-street parking, only the Guggisburg Road
was observed to be monitored by the metropolitan task force who directs vehicles in and out of
parking lots. The pedestrians expressed concerns about the inadequate and uncoordinated
pedestrian facilities indicating that motorists park their vehicles on the streets without
consideration for road traffic regulations and pedestrian safety in the CBD, and further bemoaned
increasing pedestrian accidents in the CBD.
Official statistics available from the National Road Safety Commission of Ghana confirm that
pedestrian accidents are high in Ghana and particularly the Ashanti region. In 2010, the Ashanti
Region recorded 80% of the total national road traffic accidents. Of this figure (80%), the
Kumasi metropolis recorded 22.6% of all accidents in the Region. In relation to pedestrian
accidents, Table VII shows that Kumasi recorded the highest number of cases (40%) in 2010.
Moreover, about 71% of pedestrian accidents in 2013 were classified fatal while minor injury
was recorded in 27% of cases. This emphasises the high occurrence of pedestrian accidents in
Kumasi and further supports Peden et al.’s (2004) assertion that traffic accidents constitute one
of the major causes of death and injury in the world, accounting for an estimated 1.2 million
fatalities and 50 million injuries.
Downloaded by [Monash University Library] at 15:59 14 November 2013
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
19
Underscoring the gravity of pedestrian accidents in the Kumasi CBD are the records from the
Kumasi Motor Transport and Traffic Unit (MTTU) of the Ghana Police Service which indicate
that the CBD recorded 456 cases of pedestrian accidents in 2010. These pedestrian accidents
occurred on the 14 study corridors which are the major arterial roads within the CBD. Table VIII
presents the distribution of pedestrian accidents along the major arterial roads in the CBD.
Although globally, vehicle speeding has been identified and recognised as a major contributory
factor in both the number and severity of traffic accidents (Howard et al., 2008; Vasconcellos,
2005; WHO, 2004), interview results show that vehicle speeding plays an insignificant role in
road accidents in the Kumasi CBD. Interviews with pedestrians in the Kumasi CBD revealed the
leading causes of pedestrian accidents to include the use of rickety vehicles (e.g. sporadic brake
failure), lack of control of pedestrian movements due to inadequate and poor location of
pedestrian infrastructure, lack of enforcement of traffic regulations by city authorities, and poor
post accident handling of victims. Also, a study by Adarkwa and Boansi (2011) found that,
because of increasing traffic congestion in Kumasi, the maximum speed limit for vehicles in the
CBD has been reduced to 3-18km/h, instead of 20-30km/h. The Fuller Road, for example, has a
speed limit of 18km/h.
Moreover, the data from the MTTU of the Ghana Police Service indicate that vehicle speeding
played an insignificant role in the pedestrian fatalities in the CBD, as issues relating to
inadequate pedestrian infrastructural facilities, poor road conditions, and poor handling of
vehicles (because most commercial motorists are illiterates), were widely mentioned in the
Downloaded by [Monash University Library] at 15:59 14 November 2013
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
20
MTTU accident records. Other causes identified in the MTTU accident records include poorly
placed or unavailable road signs, and tiredness and/or drunkenness among commercial motorists.
The pedestrian accidents presented in Table VIII supports Kwakye and Fouracre (1998)
observations on poor design of CBDs and limited infrastructural facilities especially for
pedestrians in Ghanaian cities which have made the CBDs’ pedestrian unfriendly. The field
observations of pedestrian facilities along the study streets (see Table VI) and the analysis of
pedestrian accidents along these streets (see Table VIII) revealed that more pedestrian accidents
occurred on the streets with less pedestrian infrastructural facilities. For example, Prempeh I
Street which has only two infrastructural facilities (walkway and traffic lights) recorded the
highest cases of pedestrian accidents (71) in 2010. The interview findings also show that
pedestrians believe the present chaotic situation in the CBD is a result of inadequate pedestrian
infrastructure, indicating that there is a link between pedestrian infrastructure and pedestrian
safety.
Despite this relationship between pedestrian infrastructure and pedestrian safety, Takamine
(2004) observes that policy makers, particularly in developing countries, often interpret urban
transport system as securing mobility for vehicles rather than people. Takamine’s (2004)
observation applies to the situation in the Kumasi CBD. Although studies have shown that
pedestrian walking constitute 50% of movement in cities in developing countries, pedestrian
infrastructural facilities in the CBDs, including Kumasi are inadequate (see World Bank, 2005;
Zegeer et al., 2002).
Downloaded by [Monash University Library] at 15:59 14 November 2013
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
21
Although there are inadequate pedestrian infrastructural facilities in the Kumasi CBD, interviews
with pedestrians and field observations further show careless use of the available infrastructure.
For example, it was observed that pedestrians do not adhere to traffic light regulations as they
crossed roads from any part considered safe by them. Although the majority of pedestrians
expressed concerns about faded pedestrian crossings and malfunctioning traffic lights and street
lights, it was observed on the Guggisburg Road, which has all the pedestrian infrastructural
facilities, that pedestrians were not using these facilities, particularly pedestrian crossings. As a
consequence, the Guggisburg Road recorded the third highest number of cases of pedestrian
accidents in 2010 (see Table VIII). The study findings show that this practice of careless use of
pedestrian facilities is becoming a culture as some pedestrians consider such practice as normal,
and further supports Lasmini and Indriastuti’s (2010) finding on careless use of pedestrian
infrastructure in Indonesia.
4.5 Infrastructural facilities and their influence on various pedestrian groups in the Kumasi CBD
As earlier discussed, there appears to be a direct relationship between pedestrian infrastructural
facilities and pedestrian accidents in the Kumasi’s CBD. This section of the paper examines the
adequacy of pedestrian infrastructural facilities in the CBD and how these facilities have
influenced the movement of different groups of pedestrians. The pedestrian infrastructural
facilities relating to pedestrian crossing, walkways, drop-off zones, and on-street parking were
considered.
4.5.1 Pedestrian crossing
Downloaded by [Monash University Library] at 15:59 14 November 2013
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
22
As presented in Table VI, five of the study streets do not have pedestrian crossing facilities. The
remaining streets with pedestrian crossing facilities were also considered inadequate by the
pedestrians. A review of the CBD map provided by the Kumasi Town and Country Planning
Department showed that many pedestrian crossing facilities on the study streets were not part of
the original design of the CBD but instead add-ons, following pedestrian complaints especially
on Guggisburg Road and Prempeh II Street. It was observed that there are uncertainties
surrounding movement at pedestrian crossings which triggers confusion between pedestrians and
drivers. Interviews with pedestrians, mostly pregnant women, identified poor maintenance of
street crossing facilities such as fading paints of pedestrian markings and malfunctioning street
lights as key pedestrian safety concerns which inhibit their movement and threaten their safety.
According to the interviewees, the drill at these crossings was to approximate a safe distance
between them and an oncoming vehicle to make a crossing. As a consequence, motorists flash
their lights or blow their horns to alert pedestrians, mainly women and children to give way
when they attempt to cross the roads.
4.5.2 Limited pedestrian walkways
In the Kumasi CBD, the study findings reveal 42.9% of the streets do not have walkways for
pedestrian usage. As shown in Table VI, these streets include Apimpua Street, Prempeh II Street,
Adum Street, Asomfo Street, Palm Walk Avenue and the Bank Road. This suggests that about
5,570 pedestrians using these streets are compelled to walk on and at the edges of the streets. The
pedestrians strongly attributed the high pedestrian accidents along these streets to the absence of
facilities like walkways. With reference to the Adum Road, pedestrians asserted that pedestrian
Downloaded by [Monash University Library] at 15:59 14 November 2013
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
23
accidents are recorded every month on this road. Although the Adum Road is only 0.6km long, it
recorded the fourth highest number of pedestrian accidents in 2010 (see Table VIII). Pedestrians
interviewed along the Fuller and Guggisburg Roads also indicated that the few available
sidewalks have been taken over by hawkers and other unauthorised users because of the
increasing economic activities and limited space in the CBD. Field observations show that this is
common for all major arterial roads in the CBD due to poor enforcement of regulations by the
city authorities. To the pedestrians, particularly the disabled and children, this situation creates
discomfort for them as their movement within the CBD is made difficult and unsafe.
4.5.3 Limited Drop off Zones/Bus Stops
Within the Kumasi CBD, the study findings show that there are only three bus stops which are
all located along the Guggisburg Road (see Figure V and Table VI). Although, the metropolitan
task force have designated zones at which commuters can drop off from vehicles along the Fuller
Road, field observations reveal weak enforcement of the use of these designated zones as
pedestrians’ board vehicles anywhere along the road resulting in an uncontrolled movement of
pedestrians in the CBD, especially during peak hours (early mornings and evenings).
Pedestrians, mainly pregnant women and aged men, described the situation as uncomfortable and
expressed disappointment with the location of these bus stops, arguing that they are located
further away from pedestrian activity zones in the CBD. According to the interviewees, the
inadequate bus stops coupled with poor location of available bus stops has encouraged more
pedestrians to board vehicles on the road rather than the bus stops. This was observed to be a
common occurrence and is of concern as it creates unavoidable traffic on the roads.
Downloaded by [Monash University Library] at 15:59 14 November 2013
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
24
4.5.4 On-street parking
The study findings show that high space demand for commercial activities in the CBD has
placed more emphasis on on-street parking compared to off-street parking. As illustrated in
Figure III, about 50% of the internal roads in the CBD have on-street parking zones over a
distance of about 3.64km of the total of 7.82km of road length considered. It was found that the
on-street parking was introduced in response to the increasing commercial activities in the CBD.
Off-street parking accounts for 42.8% of all designated parking areas in the CBD covering
temporary spaces provided for future development of off-street parking facilities and those that
were provided by institutions, especially banks for their staff and customers. Interviews with the
pedestrians revealed that some of the off-street parking facilities are actually located on
pedestrian walkways and have obstructed pedestrian movement in the CBD particularly for the
disabled, pregnant women and children. Examples of such cases were reported widely by
pedestrians along the Adum Road.
The above findings demonstrate the inadequacy of pedestrian infrastructural facilities in the
CBD. Also, most of the available pedestrian infrastructural facilities in the CBD appear not to be
part of the original design of the CBD but add-ons as commercial activities increase. This
suggests that the original design of the CBD did not give pedestrian movement and safety
priority. The lack of consideration of pedestrian movement and safety in the design of the CBD
has affected all categories of pedestrians including the disabled, pregnant women and children.
4.6 Improving pedestrian safety and infrastructure: Analysis of efforts and the way forward
Downloaded by [Monash University Library] at 15:59 14 November 2013
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
25
The structure of any CBD is complex and made up of several interrelated elements which are
necessary to ensure the effective functioning of the business district. Considering the importance
of pedestrian infrastructural facilities in enhancing pedestrian safety and achieving a functional
CBD, this section of the paper highlights and analyses major interventions undertaken by the city
authorities in Kumasi to improve pedestrian safety through the provision of basic infrastructural
facilities.
The commitment of city authorities in Kumasi to provide pedestrian infrastructure in the CBD is
evident in the development plans and policies. The 2002-2006 Strategic Plan of the Department
of Urban Roads-Kumasi, had among its objectives to construct sidewalks/walkways in the CBD
and other parts of the Kumasi metropolis as part of the Minor Rehabilitation and Upgrading
Programme. The programme was intended to provide vulnerable users of the CBD, especially
pedestrians and cyclists, equitable passage within and outside the CBD area. Special traffic
management projects such as walkways and ramps intended to safeguard pedestrians and cyclists
formed part of the strategic plan. The strategic plan shows a gradual shift from motorised modes
of transport in the CBD to non-motorised modes of transport, to enhance pedestrians’ activities
and ensure their safety. It must however be indicated that the strategic plan especially
programmes intended to improve pedestrian infrastructure in the CBD presented many
challenges such as inadequate funding, poor coordination and collaboration among the various
stakeholders impeded the objectives of the plan.
The current Land Use Master Plan prepared by the Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly to guide the
development and activities within and outside the CBD has a long term objective of creating
Downloaded by [Monash University Library] at 15:59 14 November 2013
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
26
accessibility and traffic circulation to the various social and economic areas within the Kumasi
metropolis. In relation to the CBD, the Land Use Master Plan provides a framework for
managing traffic. Projects described in the Plan include layout improvements and signalisation of
critical intersections at the CBD such as the construction of broad and raised walkways, speed
ramps, and refuge islands; construction of the Asafo Market-UTC Bridge; discouraging informal
businesses on streets; implementation of a one-way road system in Adum; and control of on-
street parking and expansion of off-street parking space. These projects are targeted at reducing
pedestrian accidents while stimulating socio-economic development. Successful implementation
of these projects in the plan would create a more functional and efficient CBD. However, lack of
political priority, insufficient funding and public education appear to impede the successful
implementation of these projects as little progress has been made following the introduction of
the plan in 2010.
Although city authorities have shown commitment to improve the conditions of pedestrian
infrastructure in the CBD, their efforts have yielded little success. Inadequate consideration
given to pedestrian infrastructure in the original design of the CBD appears to have caused these
challenges. Additionally, poor location coupled with inadequate consideration for the various
categories of pedestrians has contributed to the poor and careless use of the available
infrastructural facilities by pedestrians. Pedestrians such as pregnant women, disabled and
children often find it difficult to use these facilities especially for street crossing. Despite the
add-ons to the existing pedestrian infrastructural facilities, inadequate public education and
enforcement mechanisms have hindered the use of these facilities, as there is a growing culture
of carelessness amongst pedestrians. Moreover, these facilities especially the
Downloaded by [Monash University Library] at 15:59 14 November 2013
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
27
sidewalks/walkways have become a sanctuary for hawkers and other unauthorised users in the
CBD.
Poor maintenance of pedestrian infrastructures is also of concern. Pedestrian infrastructural
facilities especially street lights, traffic lights and street crossing are poorly maintained in the
Kumasi CBD generating unavoidable traffic and chaos. As earlier discussed, some of the traffic
lights in the CBD cease to work without any immediate measures to direct traffic and paintings
of some pedestrian crossing marks in the CBD have in the majority faded compelling pedestrians
to cross the road at any point considered safe.
The paper thus recommends the redesign of the Kumasi CBD to incorporate modern pedestrian
facilities and further avoid chaos resulting from pedestrian-vehicular conflicts and unauthorised
use of space. As noted by Lasmini and Indriastuti (2010), the designs of CBDs in many
developing countries do not consider the flow rate, speed and density of pedestrians. The
redesigning of the Kumasi CBD should consider these factors to improve the safety of
pedestrians. Also, the development of CBDs in developing countries, particularly Kumasi CBD,
should consider the needs of the various pedestrians especially the disabled and elderly people,
pregnant women and children. The paper proposes regular maintenance of pedestrian
infrastructural facilities by city authorities to ensure pedestrian safety, as well as the provision of
additional infrastructural facilities necessary for pedestrian safety and activities. Moreover,
strengthening of the enforcement mechanisms in the CBDs of developing countries to ensure that
activities are carried out in their designated locations, in addition to public education on the
Downloaded by [Monash University Library] at 15:59 14 November 2013
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
28
importance of road traffic regulations are important to improving pedestrian safety and activities
in CBDs.
5. Conclusion
This paper has presented the structure and analysis of the state of pedestrian infrastructural
facilities in the Kumasi CBD, and how these facilities have influenced pedestrian safety. Key
findings include:
Unlike global trends, pedestrian accidents in the Kumasi CBD were not due to vehicle
speeding. Rather, pedestrian fatalities and injuries were due to faulty vehicles (e.g.
sporadic brake failure), poor handling of vehicles by illiterate motorists, lack of control of
pedestrian movements due to inadequate and poor location of pedestrian infrastructure,
lack of enforcement of traffic regulations by city authorities, careless use of existing
pedestrian infrastructure, and poor post accident handling of victims;
The major challenges of pedestrian safety in CBDs of many developing countries include
poor planning and management of, and inadequate pedestrian infrastructural facilities;
The study revealed that many of the available pedestrian infrastructural facilities in the
CBD are add-ons, but not part of the original design of the CBD;
Also, the few infrastructural facilities that do exist are considered poor by the pedestrians
due to the poor location and lack of coordination among facilities; and
Downloaded by [Monash University Library] at 15:59 14 November 2013
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
29
Issues regarding the infrastructural needs of the various pedestrian groups (e.g. disabled,
children, etc.) were not considered in the original design of the pedestrian facilities in the
CBD.
In recognition of the above findings, regarding the increase in pedestrian accidents and
inadequate and poor location of pedestrian infrastructural facilities, this paper has made
recommendations to improve pedestrian safety and functionality of CBDs in developing
countries, particularly the Kumasi CBD;
First, the paper recommends the strengthening of enforcement mechanisms in the CBDs
of developing countries to enhance pedestrian safety. This would ensure that activities in
the CBDs of developing countries are carried out at their designated locations, and
possibly avoid conflict of use;
In addition, city authorities should demonstrate political commitment to providing and
maintaining infrastructural facilities necessary for ensuring pedestrian safety and
supporting pedestrian activities in the CBDs of developing countries;
Furthermore, the paper proposes public awareness campaign to educate both pedestrians
and motorists on the need to observe road traffic regulations in the CBDs of developing
countries. This would avoid pedestrian-vehicular collisions, and enhance the safety of
pedestrians; and
Downloaded by [Monash University Library] at 15:59 14 November 2013
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
30
In relation to the case study area, the paper has proposed redesign of the Kumasi CBD to
meet various pedestrian needs and avoid conflicts and accidents resulting from change of
use and unauthorised activities.
Downloaded by [Monash University Library] at 15:59 14 November 2013
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
31
References
Adarkwa, K. K. & Poku-Boansi, M., (2011). Rising vehicle ownership, roadway challenges
and traffic congestion in Kumasi In: K.K Adarkwa (Ed) Future of the Tree -Toward
Growth and Development of Kumasi (pp 128-152 ), Kumasi, Ghana: KNUST Printing
Press.
Amoako, C. & Korboe, D., (2011). Historical development, population growth and present
structure of Kumasi In: K.K Adarkwa (Ed) Future of the Tree -Toward Growth and
Development of Kumasi (pp 35-54), Kumasi, Ghana: KNUST Printing Press.
Burgess, E. W. (1925). The growth of the city: An introduction to a research project, In: R.E.,
Park, Burgess, E.W. & McKenzie, R.D. (Eds.) The city (pp. 47-62), Chicago: The
University of Chicago Press.
Department of Urban Roads, (2005). Consultancy services for urban transport planning and
traffic management studies for Kumasi and Tamale. Final Report Vol. 2. Department of
Urban Roads, Kumasi.
Earthtec Consultancy (PTY) Ltd, (2007). Best Practices in Non-motorised Transport Planning,
Implementation and Maintenance. Gaborone: Earthtec.
European Transport Safety Council, (1999). Safety of Pedestrians and Cyclists in Urban Areas.
Europe: ETSC.
Ewing, R. & Dumbaugh, E. (2009). The built environment and traffic safety: a review of
empirical evidence. Journal of Planning Literature, 23: 347–367.
Downloaded by [Monash University Library] at 15:59 14 November 2013
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
32
Howard, E., Mooren, L., Nilsson, G., Quimby, A. & Vadeby, A. (2008). Speed Management: A
Road Safety Manual for Decision-Makers and Practitioners. Geneva: Global Road Safety
Partnership
Kumar, S. & Ross, W. (2006). Effects of pedestrianisation on the commercial and retail areas:
study in Khao San road, Bangkok. World Transport Policy & Practice, 13:37–47.
Kwakye, E. A. & Fouracre, P. R., (1998). Urban transport policy reform in Ghana, In CODATU
VIII Conference, Cape Town, South Africa.
Lasmini, A. & Indriastuti, A.K., (2010). Optimization of safe pedestrian facilities and traffic
management, a case study of Malang, Indonesia. Journal of Economics and
Engineering, 4, 8-14.
Litman, T.A. (2004). Economic value of walkability. World Transport Policy & Practice, 10: 5–
14.
Peden, M. Scurfield, R. Sleet, D. Mohan, D. Hyder, A.A., Jarawan, E, & Mathers, C. (eds.),
(2004), World Report on Road Traffic Injury Prevention. Genva, Switzerland: World
Health Organisation.
Rosenberg, M., (2009). The CBD or Central Business District is the core of the city.
http://geography.about.com/od/urbaneconomicsgeography/a/cbd.htm
Sumabrata, J. & Rahmah, A., (2003). Behavior of transportation system in Jakarta. Spektrum, 3.
Takamine, Y., (2004). Infrastructure Services and Social Inclusion of Persons with Disabilities
and Older Persons in East Asia and the Pacific. Japan: University of Ryukyu.
Downloaded by [Monash University Library] at 15:59 14 November 2013
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
33
Vasconcellos, E. A. (2005). Traffic accident risks in developing countries: Superseding biased
approaches. ICTCT extra workshop, Campo Grande
Wang, G., Bai, S. & Ogden, J.M., (2009). Identifying contributions of on-road motor vehicles to
urban air pollution using travel demand model data. Transportation Research, Part D 14,
pp. 168–179. http://escholarship.org/uc/item/2700q8x1#page-1
World Bank, (2002). Cities on the Move- A World Bank Urban Transport Strategy Review
Washington D.C: World Bank.
World Bank, (2005). Non-motorized transport in African cities: Lessons from experience in
Kenya and Tanzania, Sub-Saharan Africa Transport Policy Program, SSATP Working
Paper, No. 80.
World Health Organization (2004). World Report on Road Traffic Injury Prevention, Geneva:
WHO.
World Health Organisation (2013a). Global Status Report on Road Safety 2013: Supporting a
Decade of Action. Geneva: WHO.
World Health Organisation (2013b). Pedestrian Safety: A Road Safety Manual for Decision-
Makers and Practitioners. Switzerland: WHO Press.
Yaguang, S., (2011). Development and characteristics of central business district under the
philosophy of health. Procedia Engineering 21, pp. 258-266.
Downloaded by [Monash University Library] at 15:59 14 November 2013
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
34
Zegeer, C.V. & Bushell, M. (2012). Pedestrian crash trends and potential countermeasures from
around the world Accident Analysis & Prevention, 44:3–11
Zegeer C., Seiderman, C., Lagerwey, P., Cynecki, M., Ronkin, M. & Schneider, R. (2002).
Pedestrian facilities users’ guide: providing safety and mobility. Federal Highway
Administration, March, FHWA-RD-01-102,
http://katana.hsrc.unc.edu/cms/downloads/PedFacility_UserGuide2002.pdf
Downloaded by [Monash University Library] at 15:59 14 November 2013
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
35
TABLES
Table I Global Pedestrian Fatalities in 2010 (Total=273,000)
Region Pedestrian Fatalities (%)
Africa 38
Americas 23
Eastern Mediterranean 28
European 27
South East Asia 12
Western Pacific 25
World 22
Source: Derived from WHO, 2013b, pp. 10
Table II Selected Streets and their Lengths
Street Name Length (km)
1. Fuller Road 1.00
2.Guggisberg Road/Osei Tutu I Avenue 1.90
3. Adum Road 0.60
4. Steward Avenue 0.90
5. PrempehI Street 0.60
6. Prempeh II Street 0.80
7. Apimpua Road 0.40
8. Bank Road 0.40
9. Bantama Street 0.50
10. Palm Walk Avenue 0.35
11. Nsenie Road 0.29
12. Asomfo Road 0.40
13. Ntomme Road 0.35
14. Apremsu Road 0.23
Source: Derived from Department of Urban Roads (2009)
Downloaded by [Monash University Library] at 15:59 14 November 2013
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
36
Table III Categorisation of Pedestrians
Category Frequency Percentage (%)
Pregnant women 49 14
Other women 97 28
Disabled 91 26
Children (under 18 years) 39 11
Men 74 21
Total 350 100
Source: Field Survey, October 2011
Table IV Land Use Inventory of the Kumasi CBD
Land use Acreage Percentage (%)
Mixed residential commercial 6 3.00
Commercial 158.8 70.0
Civic and cultural 56.3 24.2
Industrial 0.2 0.08
Educational 0.5 0.20
Open space 0.5 2.30
Sanitation 0.2 0.08
Total 223.2 100
Source: Field Survey, October 2011
Downloaded by [Monash University Library] at 15:59 14 November 2013
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
37
Table V Pedestrian Count on CBD Street during Peak Hours
Street Distance(Km) Pedestrian Count Percentage
Fuller Road 1.0 1,427 11.0
Guggisburg Road 1.90 1,297 10.0
Adum Road 0.60 1,160 8.96
Steward Road 0.90 1,038 8.0
Prempeh I Street 0.60 900 6.96
Prempeh II Street 0.80 519 4.0
Apimpua Road 0.40 908 7.0
Bank Road 0.40 1,038 8.0
Bantama Street 0.50 1,152 8.9
Palm walk Avenue 0.35 1,167 9.0
Nsenie Road 0.29 519 4.0
Asomfo Road 0.40 778 6.0
Ntomme Road 0.35 389 3.0
Apremsu Road 0.23 648 5.0
All Roads 12,940
Source: Field Survey, October 2011
Downloaded by [Monash University Library] at 15:59 14 November 2013
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
38
Table VI Inventory of Road Infrastructural Facilities
Road Infrastructure/ Facility
Street Name Leng
th
(km)
Pedestri
an
Walkw
ay
Pedestri
an
Crossin
g
Pedestri
an
Island
Bus
Sto
p
Traff
ic
Ligh
t
On-
street
parkin
g
Off –
street
parking
Stree
t
Ligh
t
Foot
Brid
ge
Guggisburg
Road 1.9 Yes 3 6 3 4 2 3 16 1
Bantama Road 0.50 Yes 1 4 NIL
6 NIL NIL 10 NIL
Nsenie Road 0.29 Yes 1 1 NIL
NIL 1 NIL NIL NIL
Apremsu Road 0.23 Yes NIL 2 NIL
NIL NIL NIL NIL NIL
Apimpua Road 0.40 NIL NIL NIL NIL
NIL 4 NIL NIL NIL
Prempeh II
Street 0.80 NIL 4 1 NIL
4 5 NIL NIL NIL
Adum Road 0.60 NIL 3 NIL NIL
10 NIL 5 NIL NIL
Asomfo Road 0.40 NIL 1 NIL NIL
NIL 1 NIL NIL NIL
Steward Road 0.90 Yes 1 NIL NIL
4 NIL 3 NIL NIL
Palm walk
Avenue 0.35 NIL 1 NIL NIL
NIL NIL 1 NIL NIL
Prempeh I
Street 0.60 Yes NIL NIL NIL
6 NIL NIL NIL NIL
Ntomme Road 0.35 Yes NIL NIL NIL
NIL 1 2 NIL NIL
Fuller Road 1.0 Yes 3 NIL NIL
NIL NIL NIL 22 2
Bank Road 0.40 NIL NIL NIL NIL
NIL 3 1 NIL NIL
Source: Field Survey, October 2011
Downloaded by [Monash University Library] at 15:59 14 November 2013
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
39
Table VII Road Accidents in the Kumasi Metropolis (2010)
Casualty Severity Road User
Class Fatal Fatal
(%) Severe
Injury Severe
Injury
(%)
Minor
Injury Minor
Injury
(%)
Total %
Pedestrian 72 70.6 130 52.2 131 27.2 333 40.0
Car 10 9.8 36 14.5 130 27.0 176 21.2
Heavy
Cargo
Vehicle
4
3.9
14
5.6
24
5.0
42
5.1
Bus/minibus
7 6.9 39 15.7 152 31.6 198 23.8
Motor cycle 4 3.9 25 10.0 26 5.4 55 6.6
Pickup 2 2.0 2 0.8 13 2.7 17 2.0
Bicycle 3 2.9 3 1.2 5 1.0 11 1.3
Total 102 100 249 100 481 100 832 100
Source: National Road Safety Commission, 2010. Fatality when a person involved in a road
traffic crash dies; Severe injury refers to accident in which at least one person is detained in
hospital for more than 24 hours; Minor injury: when injuries only require first-aid attention
Downloaded by [Monash University Library] at 15:59 14 November 2013
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
40
Table VIII Pedestrian Accidents in the CBD of Kumasi, 2010
Pedestrian Accidents
Fatality Severe injury Minor injury Recorded Accidents
Name of Street
Freq
% Freq. % Freq. % Freq. %
Fuller Road 20 13.6 27 16 18 12.9 65 14.3
Guggisburg
Road
19
12.6
13
8.1
16
11.2
48
10.5
Adum Road 12 8.2 16 9.5 8 5.4 36 7.9
Steward Road 5 3.2 10 6 13 9.6 28 6.1
Bantema Road 8 5.5 12 7.4 13 9.3 34 7.5
Prempeh II
Street 6 3.9 8 4.9 8 5.8 22 4.8
Apimpua Road 0 0 6 3.6 9 6.3 15 3.3
Bank Road 0 0 10 5.8 11 8.2 21 4.6
Prempeh I
Street 26 17.5 30 18.3 14 10.2 71 15.6
Palm Walk
Avenue
10
6.8
9
5.2
11
8
30
6.6
Asenie Road 11 7.2 7 4.2 5 3.3 22 4.8
Asomfo Road 16 10.5 5 2.8 7 4.8 27 5.9
Ntomme Road 9 6.2 7 4.2 4 2.8 20 4.4
Apremsu Road 7 4.8 7 4 3 2.2 17 3.7
Total 150 100 166 100 140 100 456 100
Source: MTTU; Ghana Police Service, 2010. Fatality when a person involved in a road traffic
crash dies; Severe injury refers to accident in which at least one person is detained in hospital
for more than 24 hours; Minor injury: when injuries only require first-aid attention
.
Downloaded by [Monash University Library] at 15:59 14 November 2013
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
41
FIGURES
Figure I The Kumasi CBD in Metropolitan Context
Source: Urban Roads Department, 2010
Downloaded by [Monash University Library] at 15:59 14 November 2013
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
42
Figure II Location of Selected Streets in the Kumasi CBD
Downloaded by [Monash University Library] at 15:59 14 November 2013
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
43
Figure III Parking Conditions in the Kumasi CBD
Source: Town and Country Planning Department-Kumasi, 2008
Downloaded by [Monash University Library] at 15:59 14 November 2013
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
44
Figure IV Pedestrian Density Map of the Kumasi CBD
Downloaded by [Monash University Library] at 15:59 14 November 2013
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
45
Figure V Pedestrian Infrastructural Facilities in the Kumasi CBD
Downloaded by [Monash University Library] at 15:59 14 November 2013
