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Thirty-Eight Years of Training Distribution in Olympic Speed Skaters

January 2014
International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 9(1):93-9

DOI:10.1123/IJSPP.2013-0427

Source
PubMed

Authors:

Jos J. de Koning

Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam

Carl Foster

University of Wisconsin–La Crosse

Unlabelled: During the last decade discussion about training-intensity distribution has been an important issue in sports science. Training-intensity distribution has not been adequately investigated in speed skating, a unique activity requiring both high power and high endurance. Purpose: To quantify the training-intensity distribution and training hours of successful Olympic speed skaters over 10 Olympiads. Methods: Olympic-medal-winning trainers/coaches and speed skaters were interviewed and their training programs were analyzed. Each program was qualified and quantified: workout type (specific and nonspecific) and training zones (zone 1 2 mMol/L lactate, zone 2 2-4 mMol/L lactate, zone 3 lactate >4 mMol/L). Net training times were calculated. Results: The relation between total training hours and time (successive Olympiads) was not progressive (r = .51, P > .5). A strong positive linear relation (r = .96, P < .01) was found between training distribution in zone 1 and time. Zones 2 and 3 both showed a strong negative linear relation to time (r = -.94, P < .01; r = -.97, P < .01). No significant relation was found between speed skating hours and time (r = -.11, P > .05). This was also the case for inline skating and time (r = -.86, P > .05). Conclusions: These data indicate that in speed skating there was a shift toward polarized training over the last 38 y. This shift seems to be the most important factor in the development of Olympic speed skaters. Surprisingly there was no relation found between training hours, skating hours, and time.

Relationship between total net training hours per week and time. The analysis is done over a time period of 38 years. Net training time is the total training minus all rest components of the training.

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Relationship between training intensity distribution and time. Training intensity is divided into 3 zones: zone 1 £ 2 mMol/L lactate, zone 2 2-4 mMol/L lactate, zone 3 lactate > 4 mMol/L.

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Relationship between total net training hours on-ice speed skating per year and time.

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Relationship between total net training hours inline skating per year and time.

…

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ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION

International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 2014, 9, 93 -99

http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/IJSPP.2013-0427

Thirty-Eight Years of Training Distribution

in Olympic Speed Skaters

Jac Orie, Nico Hofman, Jos J. de Koning, and Carl Foster

During the last decade discussion about training-intensity distribution has been an important issue in sports

science. Training-intensity distribution has not been adequately investigated in speed skating, a unique activity

requiring both high power and high endurance. Purpose: To quantify the training-intensity distribution and

training hours of successful Olympic speed skaters over 10 Olympiads. Methods: Olympic-medal-winning

trainers/coaches and speed skaters were interviewed and their training programs were analyzed. Each program

was qualied and quantied: workout type (specic and nonspecic) and training zones (zone 1 ≤2 mMol/L

lactate, zone 2 2–4 mMol/L lactate, zone 3 lactate >4 mMol/L). Net training times were calculated. Results:

The relation between total training hours and time (successive Olympiads) was not progressive (r = .51, P >

.5). A strong positive linear relation (r = .96, P < .01) was found between training distribution in zone 1 and

time. Zones 2 and 3 both showed a strong negative linear relation to time (r = –.94, P < .01; r = –.97, P < .01).

No signicant relation was found between speed skating hours and time (r = –.11, P > .05). This was also the

case for inline skating and time (r = –.86, P > .05). Conclusions: These data indicate that in speed skating

there was a shift toward polarized training over the last 38 y. This shift seems to be the most important factor

in the development of Olympic speed skaters. Surprisingly there was no relation found between training hours,

skating hours, and time.

Keywords: polarized training, threshold training, progression

Orie, Hofman, and de Koning are with the MOVE Research

Inst, VU University Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.

Foster is with the Dept of Exercise and Sport Science, University

of Wisconsin–La Crosse, La Crosse, WI.

During the last half-century the quality of speed skat-

ing performance during international competitions such

as the Olympic Games and various world championships

has continued to improve. The simple fact that world

records continue to improve is evidence that sports

performance is progressing. Almost 50% of this improve-

ment can be explained by technological improvements

(indoor ovals, klapskates, high altitude, aerodynamic

suits, excellent ice preparation), and the other 50%, by

athletic improvement.1

With the introduction of refrigerated and covered

skating rinks, athletic improvement was expected because

there are more training facilities, training locations, and

training times available, so athletes are training more

hours under better conditions. During the last 25 years,

the availability of indoor rinks has allowed skaters to do

specic practice virtually year-round, whereas before

1987, the possibility of on-ice training was limited to ~4

mo/y. Furthermore, during the last 20 years the emer-

gence of professional speed skating teams has allowed

athletes to have longer careers and potentially enhanced

performance development.

If the possibility for increased specic training hours

is improved, another question is, has better access to

specic training resulted in a change in training pattern

and practice? One major element of the training pattern

is the training-intensity distribution. Training-intensity

distribution is generally recognized as a major compo-

nent of the development of elite athletes.2–6 Studies have

shown that athletes have 2 primary patterns of training-

intensity distribution. The 2 main training models are

the threshold and polarized training patterns.3 During the

last decade, the polarized-training model has appeared to

become more common in endurance athletes. However,

the threshold-training model is still an accepted type of

training. A number of studies have been published sug-

gesting the benet of polarized training on endurance

performance.2–6 Despite the fact that during competition

the intensity distribution is dominantly at higher intensi-

ties,4–6 endurance athletes appear to train surprisingly

little in the intensity range between the lactate threshold

and the intensity of the maximal lactate steady state.

One reason for this could be the demand on glycogen

as an energetic substrate during this type of training and

the restricted training time associated with the limited

glycogen stores.7 Speed skating is a unique sport, in that

competition is dominantly at high power but also requires

signicant endurance.8,9 Furthermore, the inherent physi-

ologic response during on-ice skating is very often above

the maximal lactate steady state.

94 Orie et al

Training-intensity-distribution studies have not been

widely done in ice speed skating.8 Speed skating is differ-

ent from other endurance sports. In particular, the small

angles in knee and hip in combination with a static body

position and a long duty cycle of the skating stroke (~55%

vs ~33% during cycling and ~10% during running)10,11

results in intermittent blood-ow restriction during parts of

the skating movement. Consequently, speed skating has the

tendency to a more anaerobic character, as demonstrated in

several studies based on blood lactate measurements10–12

and muscle O2 saturation.10–13 The question arises as to if

(and how) speed skating training has evolved, given the

physiological constraints that are inherent to speed skating.

To qualify and quantify the training programs used

during the last 10 Olympiads we needed an intensity-

quantifying distribution method to evaluate these

programs. Published studies reporting the training

characteristics of endurance athletes have employed

several methods of quantifying intensity distribution.2,3,5

We choose to follow the method used by Seiler and Kjer-

land,3 because this method makes it possible to qualify

and quantify the training programs (and lactate tests) we

retrieved based on interviews with trainers, athletes, and

coaches and their stored documentation. Accordingly, the

aim of this study was to investigate the total training hours

and pattern of training-intensity distribution in elite speed

skaters. Our hypotheses were to nd an increase in train-

ing hours over the last 38 years, with a more polarized

training-intensity distribution, and given the increased

possibility of on-ice training during the last 25 years, to

nd increases in on-ice training hours.

Materials and Methods

We interviewed trainers and coaches of Dutch Olympic

medal winners in speed skating, as well as the Olympic

medal winners, in long-track middle- and long-distance

events (1500-m, 5000-m, and 10,000-m, approximate

competitive duration 2–15 min). Our analysis was limited

to male athletes. We retrieved complete training programs

of 4 Olympic Seasons (1988, 1998, 2006, and 2010) and

2 almost complete training programs (1972, missing

maximally 2 wk in total, not more than 1 wk in a row,

and 1992, missing maximally 4 wk in total, not more than

2 wk in a row). The missing weeks were discussed with

the trainers/coaches and athletes, who suggested that the

missing weeks were almost equal to the former and later

training weeks, because they were in the same period of

the training year. The athletes who trained on the analyzed

training programs were members of the National Dutch

team or of one of the commercial speed skating teams.

In total, 19 of these athletes qualied for the Olympics

(1971, 4; 1988, 3; 1992, 4; 1998, 4; 2006, 1; and 2010, 3)

and won 8 gold, 5 silver, and 4 bronze Olympic medals.

The information from the interviews allowed us to

quantify the workout intensity of each training session.

There were also testing data available from several train-

ing forms in each year. We discussed the test result for

each type of workout with the trainers/coaches to have a

better understanding of the intensity. If there were doubts

about the training intensity of a specic workout, the

workout was mimicked in a contemporary group (6 men

and 5 women) of compatibly elite speed skaters. Halfway

through these workouts and 3 minutes afterward, comple-

tion lactate concentration was obtained to allow assign-

ment of the workout to a certain zone. Measurements

were made under eld conditions (–8°C to 20°C) using

the Lactate Pro LT-1710t (ArkRay Inc, Kyoto, Japan).

The simulated workouts consisted of circuit training,

extensive and intensive endurance training, and extensive

and intensive interval training.

For each year we qualied and/or quantied each

training session on the basis of

• Training workout types: speed skating, inline skat-

ing, running, cycling, jumps, weight training, slide

board.

• Training-intensity zones: zone 1, lactate ≤ 2 mMol/L;

zone 2, lactate 2–4 mMol/L; zone 3, lactate > 4

mMol/L.4 It is difcult to distribute weight training

over these 3 training zones, so weight training was

excluded from the training distribution, but it counted

for the total training time.3

• Net training minutes: To calculate net training min-

utes we counted warm-up (5 min) + cooldown (5

min) + active training minutes (rest times within the

training were excluded). See example in Table 1.

Races were qualied as zone 3 activity, while race

preparation was rated in the zones described. For each year,

the analysis of the training program started with the rst

available training week (generally early May) and ended

on the day of the Olympic race (mid-February). The yearly

total hours were divided by the number of weeks of the

training season (40–43) to obtain training hours per week.

Table 1 Example of the Calculation of Gross and Net Training Time of 4 Different Workouts

Workout Gross Net (gross – rest)

2 h cycling 120′120′

Warm-up 5′; interval 6 × (3′—3′ rest); 5′ cooldown 46′28′

Warm-up 5′; rest 3′; interval 5 × (6′–3′ rest); 53′35′

Warm-up 10″; interval 4 × (15″–2′ rest); rest 10″; interval 6 × (10″–2′ rest) 42′12′

Training Distribution in Speed Skating 95

Results

Relationship Between Training Hours

per Week and Time

There was not a progressive increase in total training

hours (expressed as net training hours per week) across

the period of analysis (Figure 1). By comparison, during

this period the world records for the men’s 1500-, 5000-,

and 10,000-m improved on average by 18%. Probably this

does not look dramatic, but expressed in power needed

to skate at these higher speeds the increase averages

an impressive 57%. Half of this improvement can be

explained by technological improvements, and the other

half, by athletic improvement.1 The relationship between

total training hours and time (successive Olympiads) was

not signicant (r = .51, P > .5).

Relationship Between Training

Distribution and Time

Figure 2 shows the distribution of the training hours

over the 3 zones. It is clearly visible that the contribu-

tion of zone 1 has increased at the expense of zones 2

and 3. The gure shows a signicant linear increase

for the contribution of zone 1 and a signicant linear

Figure 1 — Relationship between total net training hours per week and time. The analysis is done over a time period of 38 years.

Net training time is the total training minus all rest components of the training.

Figure 2 — Relationship between training intensity distribution and time. Training intensity is divided into 3 zones: zone 1 £ 2

mMol/L lactate, zone 2 2–4 mMol/L lactate, zone 3 lactate > 4 mMol/L.

96 Orie et al

decreasing contribution for zones 2 and 3 (r of, respec-

tively, .96, P < .01; –.94, P < 0.01; and –.97, P < .01).

The training-intensity distribution in 1972 was essentially

representative of a classic threshold pattern, whereas

the training-intensity-distribution pattern after that has

become increasingly polarized in character.

Relationship Between Total Hours

Skating per Season and Time

Further analysis of specic components of training shows

that there is no systematic trend in the total hours of

on-ice speed skating across time (r = –.11, P > .05; Figure

3). Specic summer training for speed skating is inline

skating. The hours of inline skating show a decreasing

trend over the years (r = –.86, P > .05 (Figure 4).

Discussion

In the current study, we analyzed the training of 6

Olympic seasons over the last 38 years. For a proper

comparison of the different training years we calculated

the net training minutes, excluding the signicant recov-

ery time between repetitions during training sessions

that are often strongly interval in character. This was

done because in the rst decades of our analysis it was

precisely recorded which activities were done during

Figure 4 — Relationship between total net training hours inline skating per year and time.

Figure 3 — Relationship between total net training hours on-ice speed skating per year and time.

Training Distribution in Speed Skating 97

the training sessions, but no precise information was

retrievable about recovery times in training (example in

Table 1). For the later years we were able to retrieve this

information, and, for instance, the training logs of 2010

showed that net (actual) training time was about 60% of

gross (total) training time. We are aware of the fact that

training adaptation depends partly on proper recovery

time during a workout.14,15 However, it was not possible

to trace all the recovery times of the older training pro-

grams. These limitations are inherent to retrospective

data such as these, so we chose to report only the actual

time of effective training (net training). For comparison

of our calculated net training times with the literature,

this fraction (gross training time = ~1.67 × net training

time) needs to be taken into account. Still, the average

amount of training hours was small compared with other

endurance sports such as cycling, cross-country skiing,

swimming, and distance running. There is a strong varia-

tion in training hours within a speed skating season.16

In the winter, the speed skaters’ traveling program is

extensive. World Cup competitions and European and

World championships are organized around the world,

which is partly the reason for the low total seasonal train-

ing volume. Traveling, acclimatization to time zones and

altitude, and tapering are associated with a strong decline

in average training hours, which is partly the reason for

the low total training hours.

To explain the performance development over the

years, we rst hypothesized that the total amount of train-

ing hours would have been increased over the years. Our

analyses showed that this was not the case, although it

is well know that training volume is an important para-

meter for a training effect.17,18 One reason for the lack

of a signicant progression of training hours across time

could be the fact that specic speed skating workouts,

in crouched position as used during races, restrict blood

ow in the legs.9–13 Combined with the minimal speed

necessary for maintaining a proper technique, this could

be of such high intrinsic intensity that only a limited

volume can be tolerated, both in terms of momentary

metabolite burden and in terms of availability of glycogen

as an energetic substrate. In favor of specic adaptation,

workouts involving movements with small knee- and hip-

joint angles are important. There is evidence that muscle

load during weight-bearing activities with these small

joint angles causes blood-ow restriction. This restricted

blood ow causes an oxygen decit in the working muscle

bers, which results in a more anaerobic energy contri-

bution. This anaerobic character may explain why many

specic training hours are qualied in moderate or high

intensities (zones 2 and 3). Too much anaerobic training

might hinder endurance-capacity development.19 This is

in line with our current nding, namely, a lack of increase

in speed skating hours, a declining tendency of inline

training hours, and no increase in total training hours.

According to trainers and coaches, on-ice speed skating

training is an important factor in enhancing speed skat-

ing efciency. However, there was no increase in speed

skating hours, although there was a distinct change in

terms of spreading of the skating hours over the season.

Since the existence of covered speed skating ovals, speed

skating is possible during part of the summer. In the past,

speed skating was more concentrated during the winter

months. The spreading over the training season of the

specic training hours, which tend to be inherently high

intensity, might be an important factor in terms of allow-

ing the training distribution to evolve to a more polarized

character. Given the change in performance, this wider

distribution of skating hours appears to be benecial for

the development of athletes. Additional research is needed

to explore this process.

A remarkable result of our analysis was the obser-

vation of a dramatically changed distribution of training

hours over the different zones. There was an obvious

increase in the percentage of training hours spent in zone

1 (lactate ≤2 mMol/L) and a decrease in the percentage

of training hours in zones 2 and 3 over the years. The

observed increase in the percentage of low-intensity

training is also demonstrated in other studies of endur-

ance athletes in a variety of sports.2–6,8,20 In contrast to

our study, the study of Fiskerstrand and Seiler2 used a

2-intensity-zones model (low or high intensity). Further-

more, Seiler and Kjerland,3 Seiler,4 and Esteve-Lanao et

al5,6 (3-zone quantication model) and Yu et al8 showed,

as well, that a larger amount of low-intensity training

is effective in stimulating physiological adaptations.

Although different experimental research designs were

used (cross-sectional in Seiler and Kjerland3 and Esteve-

Lanao et al,5,6 quasi-experimental in Yu et al8), their

results demonstrate that a larger percentage of training

in zone 1 was benecial. Geijsel21 reported in 1979 that

marathon skaters who had formerly done a lot of skat-

ing simulations (high intensity) became better as they

added more cycling (lower intensity) to their training

program. In addition, Seiler and Kjerland3 and Yu et al8

reported that training at low intensities in combination

with a much smaller amount of training hours at moderate

intensity (zone 2) compared with high intensity (Zone 3)

is even more effective. This combination of low and high

intensities is called polarized training. Our data showed

that both moderate and high training zones declined over

time but the percentage of moderate training intensities

is still higher than the percentage at high training intensi-

ties. This is reasonably attributable to the inherently high

intensity of skating training, such that even the so-called

endurance sets cannot be accomplished in zone 1 and

became zone 2 activities.22

A potential limitation of the 3-intensity-zone quanti-

cation model used in the current study is the resolution

of the intensity zones. The division of the high-intensity

zone in only 1 zone with lactate >4 mMol/L is especially

open to discussion. In this relatively large zone many

different training intensities specic for the different

competitive race distances can be used. Stepto et al23

identied 5 intensity zones at 80%, 85%, 90%, 100%,

and 175% of the subjects’ maximal power output within

our zone 3. They showed a U-shaped relation between

physiological adaptation and training intensity. Because

98 Orie et al

of this U-shaped relation, the conclusion can be made

that zone 3 is polarized by itself. In that case it could

be more appropriate to speak about a 3-wave model. To

avoid the early mentioned limitation and to get a better

understanding of training-intensity distribution, in future

investigations a method with a better differentiation in

this zone could be benecial.

Conclusion

Our data indicate that for successful middle- and long-

distance speed skaters there was a shift toward polarized

training over the last 38 years. Surprisingly, there was no

increase in net training hours and hours of on-ice skating

over these years, while performance increased consider-

ably. The current ndings clearly show the importance

of training-intensity distribution.

Practical Application

Our ndings could be an important guide for trainers/

coaches to balance their training programs and to transfer

results from research in other sports to speed skating. On

the basis of the presented ndings it can be concluded

that changes in training-intensity distribution were an

important factor in the development of speed skating

during the last 38 years.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank coaches, trainers, and athletes for their

time and willingness to cooperate in this research project.

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proportional distribution of training at different intensities during different phases of the season by elite athletes participating in a variety of endurance sports

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Jul 2024
SPORTS MED

Background Our scientific understanding of the mechanistic and practical connections between training session prescriptions, their execution by athletes, and adaptations over time in elite endurance sports remains limited. These connections are fundamental to the art and science of coaching. Objective By using successful Norwegian endurance coaches as key informants, the aim of this study is to describe and compare best practice session models across different exercise intensities in Olympic endurance sports. Methods Data collection was based on a four-step pragmatic qualitative study design, involving questionnaires, training logs from successful athletes, and in-depth and semi-structured interviews, followed by negotiation among researchers and coaches to assure our interpretations. Twelve successful and experienced male Norwegian coaches from biathlon, cross-country skiing, long-distance running, road cycling, rowing, speed skating, swimming, and triathlon were chosen as key informants. They had been responsible for the training of world-class endurance athletes who altogether have won > 370 medals in international championships. Results The duration of low-intensity training (LIT) sessions ranges from 30 min to 7 h across sports, mainly due to modality-specific constraints and load tolerance considerations. Cross-training accounts for a considerable part of LIT sessions in several sports. Moderate (MIT)- and high-intensity training (HIT) sessions are mainly conducted as intervals in specific modalities, but competitions also account for a large proportion of annual HIT in most sports. Interval sessions are characterized by a high accumulated volume, a progressive increase in intensity throughout the session, and a controlled, rather than exhaustive, execution approach. A clear trend towards shorter intervals and lower work: rest ratio with increasing intensity was observed. Overall, the analyzed sports implement considerably more MIT than HIT sessions across the annual cycle. Conclusions This study provides novel insights on quantitative and qualitative aspects of training session models across intensities employed by successful athletes in Olympic endurance sports. The interval training sessions revealed in this study are generally more voluminous, more controlled, and less exhaustive than most previous recommendations outlined in research literature.

Training Methods of Long-Distance Runners for 5-10 Km Competitions: A Bibliometric Analysis

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2024

This study aimed to map the scientific production on training methods for 5 to 10 km long-distance running by means of a bibliometric analysis. PubMed, SciELO and Lilacs databases were used, and data were collected until December 31, 2019. The analysis included experimental studies with the intervention of training methods in runners. Data were analyzed descriptively. It was found that the first article was published in 1981 and 2018 was the year with the highest number of publications. The United States was the country with the highest number of publications, authors and journals. The most frequently cited methods were continuous execution and interval execution. Consequently, the main results were an increase in running economy, VO2max and a reduction in time trial.

Comparison of Polarized Versus Other Types of Endurance Training Intensity Distribution on Athletes’ Endurance Performance: A Systematic Review with Meta-analysis

Article

Full-text available

May 2024
SPORTS MED

Background Polarized training intensity distribution (POL) was recently suggested to be superior to other training intensity distribution (TID) regimens for endurance performance improvement. Objective We aimed to systematically review and meta-analyze evidence comparing POL to other TIDs on endurance performance. Methods PRISMA guidelines were followed. The protocol was registered at PROSPERO (CRD42022365117). PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science were searched up to 20 October 2022 for studies in adults and young adults for ≥ 4 weeks comparing POL with other TID interventions regarding VO2peak, time-trial (TT), time to exhaustion (TTE) or speed or power at the second ventilatory or lactate threshold (V/P at VT2/LT2). Risk of bias was assessed with RoB-2 and ROBINS-I. Certainty of evidence was assessed with GRADE. Results were analyzed by random effects meta-analysis using standardized mean differences. Results Seventeen studies met the inclusion criteria (n = 437 subjects). Pooled effect estimates suggest POL superiority for improving VO2peak (SMD = 0.24 [95% CI 0.01, 0.48]; z = 2.02 (p = 0.040); 11 studies, n = 284; I² = 0%; high certainty of evidence). Superiority, however, only occurred in shorter interventions (< 12 weeks) (SMD = 0.40 [95% CI 0.08, 0.71; z = 2.49 (p = 0.01); n = 163; I² = 0%) and for highly trained athletes (SMD = 0.46 [95% CI 0.10, 0.82]; z = 2.51 (p = 0.01); n = 125; I² = 0%). The remaining endurance performance surrogates were similarly affected by POL and other TIDs: TT (SMD = – 0.01 [95% CI -0.28, 0.25]; z = − 0.10 (p = 0.92); n = 221; I² = 0%), TTE (SMD = 0.30 [95% CI – 0.20, 0.79]; z = 1.18 (p = 0.24); n = 66; I² = 0%) and V/P VT2/LT2 (SMD = 0.04 [95% CI -0.21, 0.29]; z = 0.32 (p = 0.75); n = 253; I² = 0%). Risk of bias for randomized controlled trials was rated as of some concern and for non-randomized controlled trials as low risk of bias (two studies) and some concerns (one study). Conclusions POL is superior to other TIDs for improving VO2peak, particularly in shorter duration interventions and highly trained athletes. However, the effect of POL was similar to that of other TIDs on the remaining surrogates of endurance performance. The results suggest that POL more effectively improves aerobic power but is similar to other TIDs for improving aerobic capacity.

The proportional distribution of training by elite endurance athletes at different intensities during different phases of the season

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2023

The present review examines retrospective analyses of training intensity distribution (TID), i.e., the proportion of training at moderate (Zone 1, Z1), heavy (Z2) and severe (Z3) intensity by elite-to-world-class endurance athletes during different phases of the season. In addition, we discuss potential implications of our findings for research in this field, as well as for training by these athletes. Altogether, we included 175 TIDs, of which 120 quantified exercise intensity on the basis of heart rate and measured time-in-zone or employed variations of the session goal approach, with demarcation of zones of exercise intensity based on physiological parameters. Notably, 49% of the TIDs were single-case studies, predominantly concerning crosscountry skiing and/or the biathlon. Eighty-nine TIDs were pyramidal (Z1 > Z2 > Z3), 65 polarized (Z1 > Z3 > Z2) and 8 "threshold" (Z2 > Z1 = Z3). However, these relative numbers varied between sports and the particular phases of the season. In 91% (n = 160) of the TIDs >60% of the endurance exercise was of low intensity. Regardless of the approach to quantification or phase of the season, cyclists and swimmers were found to perform a lower proportion of exercise in Z1 (<72%) and higher proportion in Z2 (>16%) than athletes involved in the triathlon, speed skating, rowing, running, crosscountry skiing or biathlon (>80% in Z1 and <12% in Z2 in all these cases). For most of the athletes their proportion of heavy-to-severe exercise was higher during the period of competition than during the preparatory phase, although with considerable variability between sports. In conclusion, the existing literature in this area does not allow general conclusions to be drawn. The methods utilized for quantification vary widely and, moreover, contextual information concerning the mode of exercise, environmental conditions, and biomechanical aspects of the exercise is often lacking. Therefore, we recommend a more comprehensive approach in connection with future investigations on the TIDs of athletes involved in different endurance sports.

SLEEP QUALITY AND CHRONOTYPE DIFFERENCES IN CORRELATION TO THE BALANCE CONTROL IN JUVENILE ELITE SPEED SKATERS

Article

Dec 2022

Pavel Kulma

Sleep is one of the main tools of regeneration, thanks to which physical and psychological parameters are restored and thus balances the negative impact of stress on the human body. The aim of the study is to analyze sleep quality and chronotype differences in correlation to the balance control in juvenile elite speed skaters. For the research survey it was selected 20 speed skaters (age average 17.6 years) from four elite Czech speed skating clubs. The following methods were used: content analysis, Life Rhythm and Sleep Questionnaire, University of Pittsburgh Questionnaire on Sleep Quality (PSQI), and a battery of functional balance tests. The measured data were analyzed by descriptive statistics using numerical and graphical methods, absolute and relative frequencies. The analysis of the results showed a positive correlation between the M-E score and the performance in the functional balance tests, and also showed a significant difference in the Bass test between men and women. Furthermore, it was found that men achieved a lower M-E score than women Deteriorated level of mental health was found in 10% of the examined speed skaters. The research survey thus showed that the global trend of today's society, which is a strong inclination to the evening typology, also applies to juvenile elite athletes, which is an undesirable phenomenon in terms of balance control and performance in speed skating. The results of the presented study may be useful for training focus of coaches or athletes.

Training for Elite Team-Pursuit Track Cyclists—Part II: A Comparison of Preparation Phases in Consecutive World-Record-Breaking Seasons

Article

Aug 2024

Purpose : To compare the training characteristics of an elite team pursuit cycling squad in the 3-month preparation phases prior to 2 successive world-record (WR) performances. Methods : Training data of 5 male track endurance cyclists (mean [SD]; age 23.4 [3.46] y; body mass 80.2 [2.74] kg; 4.5 [0.17] W·kg ⁻¹ at LT 2 ; maximal aerobic power 6.2 [0.27] W·kg ⁻¹ ; maximal oxygen uptake 65.9 [2.89] mL·kg ⁻¹ ·min ⁻¹ ) were analyzed with weekly total training volume by training type and heart rate, power output, and torque intensity distributions calculated with reference to the respective WRs’ performance requirements. Results : Athletes completed 805 (82.81) and 725 (68.40) min·wk –1 of training, respectively, in each season. In the second season, there was a 32% increase in total track volume, although track sessions were shorter (ie, greater frequency) in the second season. A pyramidal intensity distribution was consistent across both seasons, with 81% of training, on average, performed below LT 1 power output each week, whereas 6% of training was performed above LT 2 . Athletes accumulated greater volume above WR team pursuit lead power (2.4% vs 0.9%) and torque (6.2% vs 3.2%) in 2019. In one athlete, mean single-leg-press peak rate of force development was 71% and 46% higher at mid- and late-phases, respectively, during the preparation period. Conclusions : These findings provide novel insights into the common and contrasting methods contributing to successive WR team pursuit performances. Greater accumulation of volume above race-specific power and torque (eg, team pursuit lead), as well as improved neuromuscular force-generating capacities, may be worthy of investigation for implementation in training programs.

Training for Elite Team-Pursuit Track Cyclists—Part I: A Profile of General Training Characteristics

Article

Aug 2024

Purpose : To profile the training characteristics of an elite team pursuit cycling squad and assess variations in training intensity and load accumulation across the 36-week period prior to a world-record performance at the 2018 Commonwealth Games. Methods : Training data of 5 male track endurance cyclists (mean [SD]; age 21.9 [3.52] y; 4.4 [0.16] W·kg ⁻¹ at anaerobic threshold; 6.2 [0.28] W·kg ⁻¹ maximal oxygen uptake 68.7 [2.99] mL kg·min ⁻¹ ) were analyzed with weekly total training volume and heart rate, power output, and torque intensity distributions calculated with reference to their 3:49.804 min:s.ms performance requirements for a 4-km team pursuit. Results : Athletes completed 543 (37) h ⁻¹ of training across 436 (16) sessions. On-bike activities accounted for 69.9% of all training sessions, with participants cycling 11,246 (1139) km ⁻¹ in the training period of interest, whereas 12.7% of sessions involved gym/strength training. A pyramidal intensity distribution was evident with over 65% and 70% of training, respectively, performed at low-intensity zone heart rate and power output, whereas 5.3% and 7.7% of training was performed above anaerobic threshold. The athletes accumulated 4.4% of total training volume at, or above, their world-record team pursuit lead position torque (55 N·m). Conclusions : These data provide updated and novel insight to the power and torque demands and load accumulation contributing to world-record team pursuit performance. Although the observed pyramidal intensity distribution is common in endurance sports, the lack of shift toward a polarized intensity distribution during taper and competition peaking differs from previous research.

Health problems among elite Dutch youth long track speed skaters: a one-season prospective study

Article

May 2024

Objectives To describe the frequency, type, and severity of health problems in long-track speed skating to inform injury prevention strategies. Methods We prospectively collected weekly health and sport exposure data on 84 highly trained Dutch athletes aged 15–21 years during the 2019/2020 season using the Oslo Sports Trauma Research Centre questionnaire on Health Problems and the trainers’ documentation. We categorised health problems into acute or repetitive mechanisms of injury or illness and calculated incidences (per 1000 sports exposure hours), weekly prevalence and burden (days of time loss per 1000 sports exposure hours) related to the affected body region. Results We registered 283 health problems (187 injuries, 96 illnesses), yielding an average weekly prevalence of health problems of 30.5% (95% CI 28.7% to 32.2%). Incidence rates were 2.0/1000 hours for acute mechanism injuries (95% CI 1.5 to 2.5) and 3.2/1000 hours for illnesses (95% CI 2.6 to 3.9). For acute mechanism injuries the head, shoulder and lumbosacral region had the highest injury burden of 5.6 (95% CI 4.8 to 6.5), 2.9 (95% CI 2.3 to 3.5) and 2.2 (95% CI 1.7 to 2.8) days of time loss/1000 hours, respectively. For repetitive mechanism injuries, the knee, thoracic spine, lower leg and lumbosacral region had the highest injury burden, with 11.0 (95% CI 9.8 to 12.2), 6.8 (95% CI 5.9 to 7.7), 3.9 (95% CI 3.2 to 4.6) and 2.5 (95% CI 1.9 to 3.1) days of time loss/1000 hours, respectively. Conclusion Our study demonstrated a high prevalence of acute and repetitive mechanism injuries in speed skating. These results can guide future research and priorities for injury prevention.

Optimizing Interval Training at Power Output Associated With Peak Oxygen Uptake in Well-Trained Cyclists

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2013
J STRENGTH COND RES

The purpose of this study was to investigate the acute physiological responses of interval protocols utilizing the minimal power output (MAP) that elicits peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak) as exercise intensity and different durations of work intervals during intermittent cycling. In randomized order, thirteen well-trained male cyclists (VO2peak = 67 ± 6 ml·kg·min) performed three different interval protocols to exhaustion. Time to exhaustion and time ≥ 90% of VO2peak was measured with MAP as exercise intensity and work duration of the intervals equals either 80% of Tmax, 50% of Tmax, or 30 s with recovery period being 50% of the work duration at intensity equal to 50% of MAP. The major findings was that the interval protocol using 30 s work periods induced longer time ≥ 90% of VO2peak and longer work duration at MAP intensity than the interval protocols using work periods of 50% of Tmax or 80% of Tmax (p< 0.05). There was no difference between the protocols using work periods of 50% of Tmax or 80% of Tmax. In conclusion, the present study suggests that the 30 s work interval protocol acutely induces a larger exercise stimulus in well trained cyclists than the protocols using work periods of 50% of Tmax or 80% of Tmax. The practical application of the present findings is that fixed 30 s work intervals can be used to optimize training time at MAP and time ≥ 90% of VO2peak in well-trained cyclists utilizing MAP exercise intensity and a 2:1 work:recovery ratio.

A Quasi-Experimental Study of Chinese Top-Level Speed Skaters' Training Load: Threshold Versus Polarized Model

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2012

To examine the effectiveness of threshold and polarized models in the training organization of Chinese top-level sprint speed skaters using a 2-y quasi-experimental design. Two years (2004-05 and 2005-06 seasons) of the Chinese national speed-skating team's daily training load (N = 9; 5 men, 23.6 ± 1.7 y, weight 76.6 ± 4.1 kg, competitive experience 5.0 ± 0.8 y, 500-m time 35.45 ± 0.72 s, 1000-m time 71.18 ± 2.28 s; 4 women, 25.3 ± 6.8 y, 73.0 ± 8.5 kg, 6.3 ± 3.5 y, 37.81 ± 0.46 s, 75.70 ± 0.81 s) were collected and analyzed. Each season's training load included overall duration (calculated in min and km), frequency (calculated by overall sessions), and training intensity (measured by ear blood lactate or estimated by heart rate), Their performances at national, World Cup, and Olympic competitions during the 2 seasons (2004-06), as well as lactate data measured 15 and 30 min after these competitions, were also collected and analyzed. Based on the lactate data (<2, 2-4, >4 mmol/L), training zones were classified as low, moderate, and high intensity. The total durations and frequencies of the training load were similar across the seasons, but a threshold-training model distribution was used in 2004-05, and a polarized- raining-load organization in 2005-06. Under the polarized-training model, or load organization, all speed skaters' performance improved and their lactate after competition decreased considerably. Training-intensity distribution based on a polarized-training model led to the success in top Chinese sprint speed skaters in the 2005-06 season.

What is Best Practice for Training Intensity and Duration Distribution in Endurance Athletes?

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2010

Stephen Seiler

Successful endurance training involves the manipulation of training intensity, duration, and frequency, with the implicit goals of maximizing performance, minimizing risk of negative training outcomes, and timing peak fitness and performances to be achieved when they matter most. Numerous descriptive studies of the training characteristics of nationally or internationally competitive endurance athletes training 10 to 13 times per week seem to converge on a typical intensity distribution in which about 80% of training sessions are performed at low intensity (2 mM blood lactate), with about 20% dominated by periods of high-intensity work, such as interval training at approx. 90% VO2max. Endurance athletes appear to self-organize toward a high-volume training approach with careful application of high-intensity training incorporated throughout the training cycle. Training intensification studies performed on already well-trained athletes do not provide any convincing evidence that a greater emphasis on high-intensity interval training in this highly trained athlete population gives long-term performance gains. The predominance of low-intensity, long-duration training, in combination with fewer, highly intensive bouts may be complementary in terms of optimizing adaptive signaling and technical mastery at an acceptable level of stress.

World Records: How Much Athlete? How Much Technology?

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2010

Jos J. de Koning

The quality of performance during international competitions such as the Olympic Games and various world championships is often judged by the number of world records attained. The simple fact that world records continue to improve is evidence that sports performance is progressing. Does this also mean that athletes are improving? Is the continual progression of world-record performances evidence that contemporary athletes are superior to the athletes who performed in the past? Technological developments may obscure insight into the athletic enhancement made by athletes over the years. This commentary tries to separate technological and athletic enhancement in the progression of world records by the use of a power balance model.

Training Methods and Intensity Distribution of Young World-Class Rowers

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2009

To describe the distribution of exercise types and rowing intensity in successful junior rowers and its relation to later senior success. 36 young German male rowers (31 international, 5 national junior finalists; 19.2 +/- 1.4 y; 10.9 +/- 1.6 training sessions per week) reported the volumes of defined exercise and intensity categories in a diary over 37 wk. Training categories were analyzed as aggregates over the whole season and also broken down into defined training periods. Training organization was compared between juniors who attained national and international senior success 3 y later. Total training time consisted of 52% rowing, 23% resistance exercise, 17% alternative training, and 8% warm-up programs. Based on heart rate control, 95% of total rowing was performed at intensities corresponding to <2 mmol x L(-1), 2% at 2 to 4 mmol x L(-1), and 3% at >4 mmol x L(-1) blood lactate. Low-intensity work remained widely unchanged at approximately 95% throughout the season. In the competition period, the athletes exhibited a shift within <2 mmol exercise toward lower intensity and within the remaining approximately 5% of total rowing toward more training near maximal oxygen consumption (VO(2max)) intensity. Retrospectively, among subjects going on to international success 3 y later had their training differed significantly from their peers only in slightly higher volumes at both margins of the intensity scope. The young world-class rowers monitored here exhibit a constant emphasis on low-intensity steady-state rowing exercise, and a progressive polarization in the competition period. Possible mechanisms underlying a potential association between intensity polarization and later success require further investigation.

Effects of Concurrent Training on Oxidative Capacity in Rat Gastrocnemius Muscle

Article

Mar 2013
MED SCI SPORT EXER

Purpose: Training for improvement of oxidative capacity of muscle fibers may be attenuated when concurrently training for peak power. However, because of fiber type-specific recruitment, such attenuation may only account for high-oxidative muscle fibers. Here, we investigate the effects of concurrent training on oxidative capacity (as measured by succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) activity) by using task-specific recruitment of the high- and low-oxidative compartment of rat medial gastrocnemius muscle (GM). Methods: Forty rats were subjected to 6 wk of peak power training (PT, n = 10), endurance training (ET, n = 10), concurrent peak power and endurance training (PET, n = 10), or no training (control, n = 10). SDH activity, mRNA expression of SDH, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator 1α (PGC-1α), receptor-interacting protein 140, and BCL2/adenovirus E1B 19 kDa-interacting protein 3 as well as PGC-1α protein levels were analyzed in the low- and high-oxidative region of the GM. Results: In the low-oxidative compartment, PT and PET induced a 30% decrease in SDH activity of Type IIB fibers compared with controls and ET (P < 0.001) without changes in mRNA or protein levels. In the high-oxidative compartment, after ET, SDH mRNA levels were 42% higher and RIP140 mRNA levels 33% lower compared with controls, which did not result in changes in SDH activity. Conclusion: These results indicate that in compartmentalized rat GM, peak power on top of endurance training attenuated transcription of mRNA for mitochondrial proteins in high-oxidative muscle fibers. In low-oxidative Type IIB fibers, peak power training substantially decreased SDH activity, which was not related to lower SDH mRNA levels. It is concluded that PT and PET enhanced mitochondrial degradation in the low-oxidative compartment of rat GM.

Effect of Race Distance on Muscle Oxygenation in Short-Track Speed Skating

Article

Aug 2012
MED SCI SPORT EXER

Purpose: Previous work identified an asymmetry in tissue desaturation changes in the left and right quadriceps muscles during on-ice skating at maximal speed in males. The effect of changing race distance on the magnitude of desaturation or leg asymmetry is unknown. Methods: Six elite male skaters (age = 23 ± 1.8 yr, height = 1.8 ± 0.1 m, mass = 80.1 ± 5.7 kg, midthigh skinfold thickness = 7 ± 2 mm) and four elite female skaters (age = 21 ± 4 yr, height = 1.6 ± 0.1 m, mass = 65.2 ± 4.3 kg, midthigh skinfold thickness = 10 ± 1 mm) were studied. Subjects completed time trials over three race distances. Blood lactate concentration and O2 uptake measurements were combined with near-infrared spectroscopy measures of muscle oxygenation (TSI) and blood volume (tHb) in the right and left vastus lateralis. Results: Neither race distance nor gender had a significant effect on the magnitude of maximal muscle desaturation (ΔTSI(max)). Pattern of local changes in tHb during individual laps was dependent upon subtle differences in skating technique used for the different race distances. Linear regression analysis revealed asymmetry between the right and left leg desaturation in males during the final stages of each race distance, but not in females. At all race distances, local muscle desaturation reached maximal values much more quickly than global VO(2peak). Conclusion: The use of wearable near-infrared spectroscopy devices enabled measurement of muscle oxygenation during competitive race simulation, thus providing unique insight into the effects of velocity and technique changes on local muscle oxygenation. This may have implications for training and race pacing in speed skating.

NIRS Measurements with Elite Speed Skaters: Comparison Between the Ice Rink and the Laboratory

Article

Jan 2013
ADV EXP MED BIOL

Wearable, wireless near-infrared (NIR) spectrometers were used to compare changes in on-ice short-track skating race simulations over 1,500 m with a 3-min cycle ergometry test at constant power output (400 W). The subjects were six male elite short-track speed skaters. Both protocols elicited a rapid desaturation (∆TSI%) in the muscle during early stages (initial 20 s); however, asymmetry between right and left legs was seen in ΔTSI% for the skating protocol, but not for cycling. Individual differences between skaters were present in both protocols. Notably, one individual who showed a relatively small TSI% change (-10.7%, group mean = -26.1%) showed a similarly small change during the cycling protocol (-5.8%, group mean = -14.3%). We conclude that NIRS-detected leg asymmetry is due to the specific demands of short-track speed skating. However, heterogeneity between individuals is not specific to the mode of exercise. Whether this is a result of genuine differences in physiology or a reflection of differences in the optical properties of the leg remains to be determined.

Blood Lactate Diagnostics in Exercise Testing and Training

Article

Mar 2011

A link between lactate and muscular exercise was seen already more than 200 years ago. The blood lactate concentration (BLC) is sensitive to changes in exercise intensity and duration. Multiple BLC threshold concepts define different points on the BLC power curve during various tests with increasing power (INCP). The INCP test results are affected by the increase in power over time. The maximal lactate steady state (MLSS) is measured during a series of prolonged constant power (CP) tests. It detects the highest aerobic power without metabolic energy from continuing net lactate production, which is usually sustainable for 30 to 60 min. BLC threshold and MLSS power are highly correlated with the maximum aerobic power and athletic endurance performance. The idea that training at threshold intensity is particularly effective has no evidence. Three BLC-orientated intensity domains have been established: (1) training up to an intensity at which the BLC clearly exceeds resting BLC, light- and moderate-intensity training focusing on active regeneration or high-volume endurance training (Intensity < Threshold); (2) heavy endurance training at work rates up to MLSS intensity (Threshold ≤ Intensity ≤ MLSS); and (3) severe exercise intensity training between MLSS and maximum oxygen uptake intensity mostly organized as interval and tempo work (Intensity > MLSS). High-performance endurance athletes combining very high training volume with high aerobic power dedicate 70 to 90% of their training to intensity domain 1 (Intensity < Threshold) in order to keep glycogen homeostasis within sustainable limits.

Training and testing in marathon speed skating

Article

Oct 1979

J. M. Geijsel

Previous longitudinal studies have shown that speed skaters always reach much better performances on bicycle ergometer at the end of speed skating season in March than at the end of pre-season training in October. In pre-season, training consisted only of running and doing several skating exercises and simulations. This type of training had no effect on endurance times on bicycle ergometer. In this study in 1975-1976 six well trained marathon speed skaters in pre-season mainly trained on racing cycles. As opposed to the same and other groups in previous years, who trained in the traditional way, endurance times at a continuous high load of 5.0 watt per kg. body weight increased significantly. So it could be stated that (racing) cycling is a more specific training for speed skaters than running.