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Is Stress Worth it? Stress-Related Health and Wealth Trade-Offs for Entrepreneurs
Abstract
Occupational stress is associated with numerous health problems that cost organisations considerable resources. We explore whether the detrimental effects of stress on individual health are accompanied by productive effects on individual performance for self-employed people, thereby making stress somewhat “worth it” for this occupational group. Given that positive affect can serve as a stress-buffering resource, we also examine the potential for positive affect (PA) to moderate these relationships. Our hypotheses are tested using data from the NHANES I Epidemiologic Follow-up Study (NHEFS) that incorporated extensive demographic, medical history, nutritional, clinical, and laboratory data representative of the non-institutionalised civilian US population. From this dataset we created a longitudinal matched sample of 688 self-employed individuals and 688 employees, incorporating self-reported and physiological measures of stress and health. Our findings indicate that (controlling for past income and prior health) self-employed people experience greater stress than employees, and they experience a positive impact of stress on income despite a negative impact on physical health. These relationships are moderated by positive affectivity, where PA accentuates the positive effect of stress on personal income and mitigates the negative effect of stress on physical health.
... In entrepreneurial contexts, the importance of time management is magnified because temporal resources are highly constrained (Boyd & Gumpert, 1983). Yet, the current dichotomization of hybrid entrepreneurs shrouds our ability to theorize, predict, and understand meaningful variation in how hybrid entrepreneurs invest time, and how such variation affects personal and venture outcomes (Cardon & Patel, 2015). Thus, our first research question asks: ...
... Our arguments draw from the COR concept of resource caravans (Hobfoll, 2002) and entrepreneurial stress theory (Lerman et al., 2020) to predict that entrepreneurial experience encourages better resource management exchanges, and thus bounds the effects of waged time investments on well-being and venture performance. In doing so, we advance theory by showing how hybrid entrepreneurship temporal resource exchanges shape their work tension and performance, often characterized as the healthwealth tradeoff (Cardon & Patel, 2015). ...
... Specifically, by modeling time investments on a continuum, we provide greater specificity to the literature and open new doors for empirical investigation regarding how hybrid entrepreneurs differ from traditional entrepreneurs, with implications for their success and welfare. Second, we extend the literature on the health-wealth tradeoff (Cardon & Patel, 2015) to the context of hybrid entrepreneurs and time investments. ...
This paper examines how waged time investments by hybrid entrepreneurs impact the health - wealth tradeoff. Using the predictions of COR theory (Hobfoll, 1989, 2002), we found that waged time investments are positively related to work tension but not significantly related to venture performance. Thus, waged time investments have tangible well-being consequences. Surprisingly, we also found that hybrid entrepreneurs experience greater tension and lower venture performance than novice entrepreneurs as waged time investments increase. We discuss theoretical and practical implications of these findings.
... Despite advances in technology and industrialization, the demands of occupational life have increased significantly over the last decades (Schieman et al., 2009;Schaufeli and Taris, 2014). Across occupations, the level of demand is particularly high in entrepreneurship (Cardon and Patel, 2015), since entrepreneurs work long hours in unpredictable, ever-changing work environments (Morris et al., 2015). Furthermore, they must take full responsibility for the consequences of their decisions (Buttner, 1992). ...
... Overall, when creating and running their businesses, entrepreneurs are exposed to conditions that are known to generate high levels of work-related stress (Stephan and Roesler, 2010;Cardon and Patel, 2015;Torrès and Thurik, 2018). Work-related stress can be seen as a particular relationship between an individual and his/her work environment, in which the requirements of the work-related roles exceed the individual's capabilities and accessible resources, are perceived as threatening to one's wellbeing (Folkman et al., 1986); and require psychological, physiological, and behavioral efforts to exert control over the event and its outcomes (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984). ...
... In addition, entrepreneurs remain fully accountable for their businesses and employees (Parasuraman and Simmers, 2001), and to compete in highly competitive and ever-changing environments (Kariv, 2008), they often operate under severe financial constraints (Fraser et al., 2015). On the other hand, entrepreneurs do have some advantageous resources that can help them cope with stress, such as autonomy and job control (Tetrick et al., 2000;Cardon and Patel, 2015), and their stress experiences are independent of whether the firm is performing well (Gumpert and Boyd, 1984). This suggests that it is the entrepreneurs' overall daily tasks and challenges that likely induce stress (Hessels et al., 2017). ...
Entrepreneurs’ wellbeing is of unprecedented importance given their crucial role in national economies in terms of job creation and innovation. In this research, we used a mixed methods approach to investigate the direct and indirect mechanisms by which entrepreneurs’ wellbeing mediates the effects of stress on perceived entrepreneurial success. We theorize that entrepreneurs experience work-related stress and that the level of perceived wellbeing mediates the relationship between the entrepreneurs’ stress and perceived success. We also hypothesize moderation effects by dispositional positive affect. We find that stress has direct negative effects on entrepreneurs’ wellbeing and perceived success. However, an experience of positive affect significantly weakens the negative effects of stress by broadening and building entrepreneurs’ cognitions. Drawing from our theoretical and empirical findings, we discuss implications for theory and practice in the domain of entrepreneurs’ wellbeing.
... Manolova et al. (2012) found that growth intentions for women are pretty complex and driven by a combination of economic and personal reasons. Generally, entrepreneurship is regarded as a demanding activity and a stressful career (Cardon and Patel 2015). Complementing this perspective is the fact that women entrepreneurs often experience "lack of fit" challenges (Chadwick and Raver 2019; Heilman and Caleo 2018) due to widespread gender stereotypes (Lee and Huang 2018;Mustafa and Treanor 2022). ...
... Put differently, emotional exhaustion is hypothesised as the mechanism through which entrepreneurial stressors lead to adverse outcomes (in this case, the lack of growth intention amongst women entrepreneurs). Entrepreneurs generally experience stress from the multiple tasks they perform that constantly evolve as the business grows (Cardon and Patel 2015;Kollmanna, Stöckmannb, and Kensbock 2019). In addition, women entrepreneurs are affected by entrepreneurial stressors due to systematic gender constraints in scarce resource allocation (time, energy, attention, etc.). ...
... Compared to paid employees, entrepreneurs encounter various types of stressors, from the early days of venture preparation and creation stages to the daily task of running the business. This makes their work more challenging, complex, and stressful, as the entrepreneur's role is fraught with ambiguity and high levels of uncertainty (Cardon and Patel 2015;Kollmanna, Stöckmannb, and Kensbock 2019;Patzelt and Shepherd 2011). Similarly, the entrepreneurial experience is often characterised by stressors of work-life conflict emanating from work demands and responsibilities. ...
This article builds on the stressor-strain-outcome framework to explain how entrepreneurial stressors (stressor) and emotional exhaustion (strain) hinder the growth intentions of women entrepreneurs (outcome). A stress-buffering hypothesis is also used to explain how peer support can buffer the entrepreneurial stressor – emotional exhaustion – growth intention relationship. Using a sample of 300 South African women entrepreneurs, our evidence demonstrates that in addition to a significant direct effect on growth intentions, entrepreneurial stressors also contribute to an increase in emotional exhaustion. This, in turn, hinders the growth intentions of women entrepreneurs. We argue that peer support plays a vital buffering role by significantly reducing the effect of entrepreneurial stressors on emotional exhaustion, shielding women entrepreneurs from the adverse effects of entrepreneurial stressors upon venture growth intentions. Finally, implications for theory and practice are discussed.
... al., 2017). The increasing burden of mental disorders may be mainly attributed to many factors including stigma attached to mental illness, limited resources because of other competing demands, underutilization of available services, outdated frameworks and practices, and organizational fragmentation that impacts the ability to adequately assess, prioritize and respond to psychosocial disorders (WHO, 2022;Grand Challenges Canada, 2016;Johnson, Freeman & Staudenmaier, 2015;Cardon & Patel, 2015;Anthsel, 2017). Mental health is therefore a research agenda considering that there is still no cure for the disease and the negative impact this has to the global economy and value that would have been generated in the alternative in support of the achievement of the objectives of the global sustainability agenda (Vindegaard & Benros, 2020;Patel, Chisholm, Parikh et al. 2016). ...
... The basis of these empirical studies have partly been driven by the argument that entrepreneurs face working conditions that are more extreme than those of salaried employees, including higher levels of uncertainty, responsibility, and complexity; more intense time pressures; and longer working hours (Cocker, Martin, Scott, Venn & Sanderson, 2013). These work characteristics are stressors because individuals typically experience them as overwhelming and appraise them as threatening (Parker, 2014;Cardon & Patel, 2015;Fernet, Torres, Austin & St-Pierre, 2016;Freeman, Staudenmaier & Zisser, 2019). Hence the need arises to carry out more research to investigate a correlation between entrepreneurship and entrepreneurs' psychological wellbeing (Gorgievski & Stephan, 2016). ...
... Through entrepreneurship, communities improve their standard of living (Rahdari, Sepasi & Moradi, 2016;Pradhan, et al. 2017), enables self-reliance by entrepreneurs after setting up businesses that allows them to reap the rewards for themselves (Munjeyi, 2017;Sherman, Randall & Kauanui, 2016). To successfully start and effectively manage a business that could give a livelihood to support self, family and contribute to local community's economic activity, entrepreneurs need to develop their entrepreneurial skills (Cardon & Patel, 2015;Krieger, Block & Stuetzer, 2018). Through entrepreneurial training, entrepreneurs have the chance to reposition themselves in their business environment by enhancing their competencies and to finally redesign their startups towards sustainability. ...
This study on entrepreneurs’ mental health, established that progress on critical areas of the sustainability agenda has either stalled or reversed amidst coronavirus pandemic, with varied models being advanced on how best to realize the objectives of the sustainability agenda. The study also established that mental health and wellbeing has a role to play in an entrepreneurs’ decision making, motivation and action towards the realization of the sustainability agenda. However, studies on the relationship between entrepreneurship and entrepreneurs’ mental health have returned conflicting results with some indicating a significant correlation. Further, the reviewed literature has pursued discussions on the constructs of promoting entrepreneurs’ mental health separately from that of entrepreneurial competencies and government regulatory framework, in spite of the inferred indications that the three can be integrated to register impact on the objectives of the sustainability agenda. This study therefore argues that vulnerable people including those with mental illness will be left behind, though there is an opportunity to enhance action on the sustainability agenda if governments, academia and other stakeholders move beyond the current forms of engagement and have in place a programme to promote entrepreneurs’ mental health and a binding policy framework. This study has hence identified data gaps and came up with propositions for research investigation to promote entrepreneurs’ mental health, entrepreneurial competencies and legal framework in support of the realization of the global sustainability agenda.
... Among these, 24 compared samples of entrepreneurs with employees, seeking to identify if entrepreneurship is more or less stressful than employment, producing mixed results. While some studies have found that entrepreneurs experience higher stress than employees (e.g., Cardon & Patel, 2015;Dolinsky & Caputo, 2003;Jamal, 1997;Lewin-Epstein & Yuchtman-Yaar, 1991;Patel et al., 2019), others have found that they experience less stress than employees (e.g., Baron et al., 2016;Hessels et al., 2017;Kaldenberg & Becker, 1992) (see Stephan, 2018 for a review and the supplementary document for a full analysis of the these papers). By comparing samples of entrepreneurs with those who are employed, these studies infer that the nature of the entrepreneurs' work is somewhat distinct from salaried employment. ...
... A small number of studies explore the relationship between stress and entrepreneurial performance and reveal somewhat mixed results. While stress had a positive impact on the entrepreneur's income (Cardon & Patel, 2015), it has been shown to negatively affect perceived venture performance (Soenen et al., 2019;Teoh & Foo, 1997). However, employing stress coping tactics such as engaging in routinized physical exercise appear to mitigate the adverse effects of stress (Goldsby et al., 2005). ...
... The entrepreneur's locus of control can have a direct negative relationship with stress (Rahim, 1996) or an indirect mitigating effect through enhancing social support (Chay, 1993). High tolerance for ambiguity, risk-taking propensity (Teoh & Foo, 1997), and positive trait affect (Cardon & Patel, 2015) can also counteract the negative impact of role stress. Furthermore, openness to change enhanced the positive appraisal of the layoff before developing entrepreneurial intentions (Virick et al., 2015). ...
Despite the increasing interest in studying the concept of resilience in entrepreneurship, existing research often fails to account for stressors that induce entrepreneurs' need for resilience and coping efforts. By arguing the need to study stress, resilience, and coping together to understand how entrepreneurs build resilience in the face of adversities, we systematically review the en-trepreneurship scholarship (125 articles) on these three concepts. By critically appraising these three literatures in light of current thinking in psychology, we then develop a model of the process of building psychological resilience in entrepreneurship and offer a clear pathway for future research.
... High levels of stress and depression are an antecedent to entrepreneurial exit (Hessels et al., 2018;Przepiorka, 2016), while emotional turmoil can lead to avoidance strategies, where entrepreneurs put off the most difficult decisions to avoid even greater emotional strain, even in the certainty that failing to make a timely decision will result in greater financial loss (Shepherd, Wiklund, & Haynie, 2009). Managing the processes of a company requires confidence and overall mental well-being (Cardon & Patel, 2015;Rauch et al., 2018;Wincent & Örtqvist, 2009). ...
... In one, psychological dynamics are explored. For example, while role stress is an antecedent to low entrepreneurial satisfaction and venture performance, as well as to depression and negative impacts on family life, overall positive affect (Cardon & Patel, 2015), self-efficacy (Hessels et al., 2018) and the belief that destiny is involved in allowing the situation to be what it is (de Mol et al., 2018) all work as buffers to these effects of stress. Personal characteristics, such as high tolerance for stress, optimism, hope, and resilience are associated with persistence in the face of the harrowing situations in entrepreneurship (Shepherd, 2009), also bringing actors with these characteristics to self-select into such activities and those who do not possess them, to self-select out (Baron et al., 2016). ...
... This focus is justified for two reasons. Firstly, there is a tension between well-being and profitability, where preoccupations with well-being could be seen to stand at odds with the process of entrepreneurship (Cardon & Patel, 2015;Przepiorka, 2016). The process itself is expected to be emotionally harrowing, and profitability is often associated with exposing one's self to such emotionally harrowing situations (Rauch et al., 2018). ...
Starting from the notion that entrepreneurs' supporters, willingly provide resources, this thesis asks the question, "why do supporters willingly support entrepreneurs and their projects?" The investigation searches for the answer in relational mechanisms around the supporters. This thesis observes how a supporter's own relationships enable their response to an entrepreneur's needs. Instead of seeing network relationships as channels through which resources flow, this thesis approaches networks as relational contexts where entrepreneurs' challenges can be developed through actions that reconfigure these contexts. The mechanisms presented in this thesis reveal a social experience that guides supporters in their own lives, where support to an entrepreneur makes sense to the supporters and improves their own lives. Our conclusions show that entrepreneurs can improve their access to resources when they encourage their supporters to deepen and enrich their own relationships, both within the theme of entrepreneurship and in their general issues.
... Though the entrepreneurial process is complex, it needs enormous positive resources and energies for entrepreneurs to sustain their ventures (Lanivich, 2015). Since entrepreneurship is a stressful occupational choice (Cardon and Patel, 2015), entrepreneurs' psychological traits in terms of AWB and CWB play a vital role in their decision-making process and act as a positive resource, helping them continue their entrepreneurial journey. ...
... Excessive workload and given uncertainties in entrepreneurial journey create negative consequences for an entrepreneur's well-being. That is why becoming an entrepreneur is one of the most stressful occupational choice in the world (Cardon and Patel, 2015). One of the common and major consequences of excessive workload and demanding working conditions is the emotional exhaustion. ...
... Thus far, the emotional exhaustion framework is excessively used for organizational employees but its relevance for entrepreneurs is equally essential as its helps to understand the intrapsychological mechanism of resource trade-off among entrepreneurs. Given that entrepreneurship is stressful and emotionally demanding journey (Cardon and Patel, 2015), therefore, the analysis of psychological side of entrepreneurs has so much to learn about. ...
Purpose:
This study investigates the relationship between emotional exhaustion and entrepreneurial exit, particularly how this relationship might be invigorated by two critical psychological factors, namely cognitive well-being (CWB) and affective well-being (AWB).
Design/methodology/approach:
Binary logistic regression analysis was employed on a longitudinal data set of 997 self-employed individuals taken from the German Socio-Economic Panel (GSOEP) during years 2012-2013.
Findings:
Greater level of emotional exhaustion increases the likelihood of entrepreneurial exit. However, individuals with higher levels of affective or/and cognitive well-being are less likely to engage in the actual entrepreneurial exit behaviors.
Practical implications:
Entrepreneurial exit is one of the crucial managerial decisions made by entrepreneurs. The decision to quit is not only triggered by poor firm performance but also by various psychological factors. The authors found subjective well-being as an essential mechanism promoting entrepreneurs’ overall well-being, thus recommending that entrepreneurs psychologically distance themselves from work during off times.
Originality/value:
First, the study discovered emotional exhaustion as a crucial psychological precursor of entrepreneurial exit by focusing on actual exit instances rather than intentions and strategies to exit. That contributes to understanding the psychological mechanism involved in resource gain and loss while making exit decisions. Second, affective and cognitive well-being are found to be two crucial enablers that work as a recovery process to deal with emotional exhaustion.
... Studies on self-employment and hypertension have had mixed results (27)(28)(29)(30). Self-employment can be associated with increased stress and negative impacts on various health outcomes (31). Yet, some research suggests that selfemployment is associated with better health outcomes because of higher overall job control and autonomy (28,29,32,33). ...
... There are several likely explanations for these differences in associations across educational attainment. Self-employment may be characterized by increased stress (31) and this may be particularly acute among Black men with receive selfemployment income but are still employees for a company, business, individual, or governmental agency while also having lower educational attainment. For example, lower educational attainment is associated with pursuit of selfemployment due to financial needs (68). ...
Background
Self-employment is generally associated with better health outcomes and educational attainment can shape self-employment. Yet, Black Americans are less likely to be self-employed and analyses of self-employment and health among Black Americans are few. The aim of this study was to determine how educational attainment moderates the associations between self-employment and hypertension among Black adults.
Methods
Using data from the 2007–2018 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, participants who self-identified as non-Hispanic Black ( n = 2,855) were categorized as (1) employees with no self-employment income, (2) employees with self-employment income, or (3) having full-time self-employment. Modified Poisson regressions and multiplicative interaction terms were used to determine whether educational attainment moderated the associations between self-employment and measured hypertension (i.e., 140/90 mm Hg or anti-hypertensive medication).
Results
Most participants were employees with no self-employment income (81.9%), but 11.8% were employees reporting some self-employment income and 6.3% were self-employed full-time. About two in five (40.9%) had hypertension. Having full-time self-employment was associated with lower risk of hypertension compared to those who were employees (risk ratio = 0.82, 95% confidence interval = 0.67–0.98), and educational attainment moderated the associations among Black men such that part-time self-employment was associated with high rates of hypertension among Black men who had not completed high school.
Conclusions
These results suggest that full-time self-employment is associated with lower risk of hypertension among Black adults, but that being an employee with some self-employment income may elevate rates of hypertension among Black men depending on educational attainment. Future studies should assess pathways between self-employment and hypertension by educational attainment among Black women and men.
... Another line of investigation argues that entrepreneurship relative to organizational employment bears greater wellbeing costs because significant stressors, such as uncertainty and high workload, are ubiquitous in entrepreneurship (Lerman et al., 2020;Patel et al., 2019;Rauch et al., 2018). Empirically, studies document both higher (Nikolaev et al., 2020;Patzelt & Shepherd, 2011;Stephan et al., 2020a) and lower (Cardon & Patel, 2015;Prottas & Thompson, 2006) wellbeing for entrepreneurs compared to employees. There are also mixed findings within the same study (Bencsik & Chuluun, 2021), while other studies find no differences (Jamal, 1997;Lindström et al., 2012). ...
... Considering such justification processes, research on biomarkers of wellbeing might offer important complementary insights. Studies mapped physiological biomarkers related to negative wellbeing and stress processes, such as allostatic load (Patel et al., 2019), telomere length (Lee et al., 2020), blood pressure (Cardon & Patel, 2015;Stephan & Roesler, 2010), cortisol (Schermuly et al., 2021), oxidative stress and triglyceride levels (Patel & Wolfe, 2021). Yet, research on biomarkers of positive wellbeing, such as serotonin and oxytocin (Huppert, 2009), is missing in entrepreneurship research and in management research generally (Nicolaou et al., 2021;Nofal et al., 2017), presenting a valuable opportunity for future contributions. ...
Entrepreneurship can be fulfilling and enhance wellbeing, but also highly stressful and diminish wellbeing. This meta-analytical review synthesizes 319 effect sizes from 94 studies and 82 countries to establish whether individuals derive greater wellbeing from working for themselves or for someone else. The answer is partly positive in favor of entrepreneurship but depends on the components of wellbeing under investigation (positive wellbeing or negative wellbeing/mental illbeing) and the institutional context (especially the rule of law). We contribute by developing the component view of wellbeing as an organizing framework and by advancing an institutional perspective to guide research on entrepreneurs’ wellbeing.
... According to reviews (Lerman et al., 2021;Stephan, 2018), financial and workload stressors are the most widely explored. As they require substantial time and effort to cope with, these stressors impair well-being if poorly managed (Cardon & Patel, 2015;Lai et al., 2013;Shepherd et al., 2009). ...
... Entrepreneurs' daily business lives consist of excessive workloads, including long working hours, employee problems, and other operational issues (Cardon & Patel, 2015;Kollmann et al., 2019). ...
This study builds and tests a model that explains entrepreneurs’ emotional responses to events in their work lives while specifying the role of entrepreneurs’ personality in moderating such responses. Drawing on the cognitive appraisal theory, we hypothesize that daily entrepreneurial stressors (workload and financial) exert negative influences on two discrete emotions (fear and pride) and that entrepreneurs’ neuroticism and dispositional optimism can moderate the proposed relationships. We examined daily diary data of 61 entrepreneurs over a two-week period and found multilevel evidence of individual differences in entrepreneurs’ emotional responses to these stressors at both the between- and within-person levels of analysis. We also found that neuroticism and optimism partially account for the examined relationships across both levels. This study contributes to the literature on stress-related emotional experiences in an entrepreneurial context by taking into account the type of stressor and the temporal framework across levels of analysis.
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... Three out of six studies that compared stress levels of the self-employed and employees, showed higher psychosocial stress levels among the self-employed in comparison to different reference groups of employed persons [11,13,14]. Two studies that investigated stress among the self-employed used questionnaires specially developed for the study that were not validated [13,14]. ...
... Furthermore, in low-income countries, the self-employed appear to have a significantly lower average income than employees [62]. Since income is a strong motivator for entrepreneurs, the goal of maximizing profits in this group of individuals often comes at the expense of health [11,63]. However, health risks for the self-employed also exist in economically stronger countries, such as in North America. ...
We aimed to systematically identify and evaluate all studies of good quality that compared the occurrence of mental disorders in the self-employed versus employees. Adhering to the Cochrane guidelines, we conducted a systematic review and searched three major medical databases (MEDLINE, Web of Science, Embase), complemented by hand search. We included 26 (three longitudinal and 23 cross-sectional) population-based studies of good quality (using a validated quality assessment tool), with data from 3,128,877 participants in total. The longest of these studies, a Swedish national register evaluation with 25 years follow-up, showed a higher incidence of mental illness among the self-employed compared to white-collar workers, but a lower incidence compared to blue-collar workers. In the second longitudinal study from Sweden the self-employed had a lower incidence of mental illness compared to both blue- and white-collar workers over 15 years, whereas the third longitudinal study (South Korea) did not find a difference regarding the incidence of depressive symptoms over 6 years. Results from the cross-sectional studies showed associations between self-employment and poor general mental health and stress, but were inconsistent regarding other mental outcomes. Most studies from South Korea found a higher prevalence of mental disorders among the self-employed compared to employees, whereas the results of cross-sectional studies from outside Asia were less consistent. In conclusion, we found evidence from population-based studies for a link between self-employment and increased risk of mental illness. Further longitudinal studies are needed examining the potential risk for the development of mental disorders in specific subtypes of the self-employed.
... Entrepreneurs face high uncertainty, long working hours, time pressure, role conflicts, and ambiguity (Nikolova et al., 2021). While other modes of employment can also be stressful, entrepreneurs often lack resources, work alone, and lack support from colleagues (Cardon & Patel, 2015). ...
The present quantitative study examined, for self-employed workers in Ireland for the first time, the moderating effect of supervisory responsibility on the relationship between the fulfilment of basic psychological needs and well-being and how this effect may be conditioned by (1) perceived social support and (2) time spent in self-employment. The study employed a descriptive research method using cross-sectional, non-probability purposive sampling with a self-report questionnaire means of data collection. Sample (N = 53) were restricted to current or previously self-employed people with or without staff and weresourced within the island of Ireland. Statistical analysis was conducted using PROCESS macro for SPSS v4.1. For self-employed workers, results showed that (a) fulfilment of basic psychological needs is a significant predictor of well-being. (b) Supervisory responsibility has a significant moderating effect on the basic psychological needs/well-being relationship. (c) As supervisory responsibility increases, the effect of basic psychological needs fulfilment on well-being decreases. (d) Perceived social support has a moderated moderation effect on supervisory responsibility but has diminishing returns for well-being as supervisory responsibility increases. (e) Time in self-employment has a moderated moderation effect on supervisory responsibility but also has diminishing returns for well-being as supervisory responsibility increases. Results support existing but scarce research on supervisory responsibility as an extrinsic demand on the well-being of self-employed workers. Findings highlight the essential need for self-employed workers to focus on growth and developmentof self in addition to that of the business.
... Organizational stressors are highly relevant for entrepreneurs, e.g., uncertainty concerning income. Personal stressors might, for example, be personal health issues due to entrepreneurial stress (Cardon & Patel, 2015). ...
With great interest, society watches sports stars career transitions. However, not only famous Olympia winners and world champions have to reconsider their career paths in their younger years. All professional athletes, also those competing on a national level or top athletes proceeding niche sports, are confronted with the need for a completely different profession at some point in their sports career. Previous research finds a high intensity of entrepreneurship within the sports sector. Therefore, the question arises on what factors that high entrepreneurial density depends on. To better understand the specific starting position into career transition, support athletes on the way out of sports, and acknowledge the great potential of athletes with unique experiences, this dissertation is guided by the overall research question: What affects the career transition of professional athletes into an entrepreneurial career? Following the short introduction, athletes are introduced as potential second career entrepreneurs. The current state of the literature on athlete entrepreneurship in 1.2 shows that athlete entrepreneurship should be considered an own sub-research stream in deferral to the existing research on sports entrepreneurship. Section 1.3 gives a graphical overview of three studies conducted within this dissertation and provides an overview of the sub-research questions addressing different aspects of the theory of planned behavior (TPB). After that, section 1.4 shows the structure and scope of this dissertation. Study 1 in section 2 was co-authored with Andreas Kuckertz and Elisabeth S. C. Berger and addresses the suitability of top athletes as entrepreneurs. The big five personality traits (neuroticism, extraversion, openness for experience, conscientiousness, and agreeableness) and risk-propensity are investigated over top athletes (practicing low-risk or high-risk sport) and non-athletes. The results are analyzed with an analysis of variance (ANOVA) and post-hoc tests and compared to the personality traits associated with entrepreneurship. The explanatory comparison builds upon the person-job fit theory, showing the similarities between the athletes and the entrepreneurs careers. The matching personality traits lead to the conclusion that entrepreneurship might be an appropriate second career choice for athletes. The first study builds a basis for the following research in studies 2 and 3. Study 2 in section 3 concentrates on the career transition process of top athletes into an entrepreneurial career. The explorative approach identifies numerous athlete entrepreneurs drivers and barriers within eleven semi-structured interviews. Comparative causal mapping was used to identify commonalities clustered into skills and traits, outcome expectations, transitions conditions, and effects. Findings support selection as well as socialization processes of careers by retaining the person-environment fit. Furthermore, exploiting different coping strategies on possible adversities is identified as a significant advantage for athlete entrepreneurs. After identifying influencing factors on the career transition of athlete entrepreneurs, study 3 within section 4, co-authored with Celine Ströhle, concentrates on the role of resilience influencing entrepreneurial intention. Based on the assumption of athletes higher resilience level than non-athletes, resilience is examined as a determining factor on entrepreneurial intention. First, an analysis of variance (ANOVA) shows a significant difference in the level of resilience between the two groups. The structural equation analysis supported the influence of resilience on entrepreneurial intention within the frame of the TPB for top athletes and non-athletes. Furthermore, the influence of perceived behavioral control on entrepreneurial intention was found significantly different between top athletes and non-athletes Section 5 closes the dissertation by summarizing the main findings. Placing the findings in the overall context of this dissertation and highlighting the contributions to the research areas of athlete entrepreneurship, entrepreneurial career transition, and support programs and entrepreneurship education accentuates the pioneering role of this dissertation in the early development of a new vital research stream.
... Although some negative emotions can be a motivating factor for performance, if experienced chronically, over time, can have unfavourable effects on the lifestyle of a person. 1,2,3 Our senses interact with everyday situations, including any physical materials we encounter, which can stimulate an emotional engagement and may contribute to the outcome of positive or negative experiences. Humans constantly explore and interact with their environment through touching surfaces. ...
Emotional wellbeing plays a key part in the all-round health and wellbeing of an
individual. Emotions occur as a response to external or internal stimuli; when memory is evoked or when the individual perceives situations or objects through their basic senses of vision, hearing, smell, taste and touch. Research on product/ material experience suggests that often the interaction of the hand with the surface of a material evokes a multi-sensory experience connected to the physical properties of a material. This could, along with sensations and perceptions, also affect the emotional experience. This study focuses on haptic sensations, proposing the development of an emotion lexicon designed to capture the range of emotions evoked through the touch of various materials, with a view on how materials can be approached in a design process for better wellbeing. The collection of experimental materials used in this study represent a range of everyday textures loosely categorised into sensorial groups with bi-polar attributes of smooth vs. rough, dry vs. sticky, warm vs. cold and soft vs. hard. Selected �materials were presented to participants to touch whilst hidden from their view. Based on the dimensional model of emotion in psychology and subjective responses to each material, it was found that rough and sticky materials elicited unpleasant/ activated emotions whereas smooth and dry materials elicited pleasant/ deactivated emotions. Hard and cold materials elicited unpleasant/ deactivated emotions while soft and warm materials elicited pleasant/ deactivated emotions. It was interesting to note subjective emotional adjectives describing each material when the sense of touch was isolated. This highly significant and interdisciplinary data in regard to emotional categorisation of materials and development of Touch-Emotion lexicon is relevant to a variety of diverse disciplines of psychology, design, material science and health.
... For instance, in Caplan's (1994) examination of stress, anxiety, and depression among healthcare managers, nearly 60% of the studied executives reported experiencing high levels of stress and anxiety while Bernin's (2002) study of managerial stress and health found that managers reported higher psychological demands and intellectual discretion than other professional groups, leading to high levels of stress and harmful health consequences. This managerial stress is especially concerning in the context of the sensing and seizing dynamic managerial capabilities as past research has indicated that entrepreneurial focused managers/entrepreneurs experience greater stress than typical employees (Cardon & Patel, 2015). ...
Extant literature has established the importance of individual dynamic managerial capabilities to the enterprise level sensing, seizing, and reconfiguring capacities of an organization. Despite theorization that heterogeneity in executive thought processes and thinking disposition stands causal for the oft observed differences in managerial capability between executives, little is known about the individual level antecedents of this cognitive heterogeneity which ultimately influences the direction of the entire firm. In response to calls for future investigation into this critical gap, the present paper draws upon a micro-level theory heretofore underutilized in the strategic realm – self-leadership – to examine how executives’ cognitive processes impact their entire firm. In pursuit of this goal, the cognitive-based thought self-leadership theory is utilized to more thoroughly explain the drivers of heterogeneity among the underlying cognitive capabilities of managers’ crucial dynamic managerial capabilities. In this way, the present study theorizes how specific individual executive cognitive processes (thought self-leadership strategies – e.g., self-talk, mental imagery) can influence the firm-level strategic decisions of innovation and expansion and thus impact overall organizational performance, through the bolstering of individual cognitive capacities and resulting managerial capabilities.
... Pursuing potential opportunities often involves unpredictable and dynamic environments, which pressure entrepreneurs' cognitive resources and decision-making capabilities (Baron, 1998;Busenitz & Barney, 1997). Given the strain entrepreneurs operate under (Cardon & Patel, 2015;Stephan, 2018), they must periodically disengage from venturing activities to recover (e.g., through sleep, hobbies, and spending time with family Stephan, 2018]). ...
Entrepreneurial action can be directed toward identifying, generating, and exploiting potential business opportunities that can cause harm to others. Over and above the “rules of the game” of the economic system, we theorize on destructive entrepreneurial actions that result from entrepreneurs’ impaired regulation of their decision making. Specifically, we build on the entrepreneurial action literature and draw on regulation theories of goal attainment and moral disengagement to develop an impaired-regulation model of destructive entrepreneurial actions. This model contributes to the entrepreneurship literature by providing new insights into (1) why some entrepreneurs are more susceptible to engaging their ventures in destructive entrepreneurial actions, (2) everyday entrepreneurs (the “who”) engaging in destructive entrepreneurial actions (i.e., the “how” and “why”), and (3) when and why some entrepreneurs respond to their destructive entrepreneurial actions by becoming repentant do-gooders while others grow into serial offenders.
... Once the venture fails, most of the individuals have less capacity to afford the economic costs. On the other hand, entrepreneurship has been treated as a systematic activity, including enterprise development programs, product creations and channel distributions, which might cause mental stress for individuals [11,12]. Entrepreneurs may bear the great pressure from their business, who might be in tense chronically with the persistent decline of happiness. ...
Digital literacy has been increasingly important among workers in the labour market, and it also has been viewed as a micro reflection of the growing of China’s digital economy. Internet use is an integral part of workers’ digital literacy, which has a significant influence on entrepreneurial decision-making. This paper aims to explore the direct impact of Internet use on entrepreneurship, analyzing the mechanism and group differences of Internet use. It has a practical meaning to China’s policies of promoting employment. Based on the data of China Labour Dynamics Survey (CLDS), the paper uses Probit model and 2SLS regression analysis to examine the direct impact of Internet use on entrepreneurship, and to analyze its mechanism by adopting the mediation effect model. The study indicates that Internet use has significantly increased the probability of starting a business, the impact has been stronger on the new generation, rural residents and the groups with work experience. Further analysis shows that Internet use not only increases venture capital, social capital and income, but also helps to shape individual workers’ learning ability, which has an indirect effect on promoting entrepreneurship. The above results show the way of promoting workers’ willingness of entrepreneurship, which are expanding Internet access, promoting policies of improving workers’ Internet skills, focusing on cultivating comprehensive cognitive abilities including risk awareness and learning abilities.
... Research is beginning to emerge on how entrepreneurs can reduce their stress despite being in a potentially stressful environment. Some studies show that having positive affect (a tendency to experience positive emotions) decreases the effects of stress, both objectively and subjectively (Cardon and Patel, 2015). Others show that active coping strategies to deal with stress have a positive impact on entrepreneur wellbeing (Uy et al., 2013). ...
Purpose
A career in entrepreneurship is stressful, especially during the start-up phase. Training programs for these nascent entrepreneurs are designed to improve entrepreneurial competencies and, more generally to generate learnings. Although learning outcomes can reduce stress, the conditions under which this can happen are not fully understood. The study looks particularly at the effect of learning, interaction with other participants and gender.
Design/methodology/approach
A six-month three-wave longitudinal study of 120 nascent entrepreneurs has been conducted to investigate the before-and-after effects of training on stress reduction. The training is specially designed to develop competencies, share knowledge about business creation and support the development of the project, not to reduce per se stress.
Findings
The training has no direct effect on stress levels. However, results indicate that interacting with others has a positive moderating effect on training as stress reduction, just as gender has. Specifically, women reduce their stress through training while men see theirs increasing. The authors conclude that breaking isolation through training is a relevant way to reduce entrepreneurial stress for nascent entrepreneurs.
Research limitations/implications
Training programs offer different ways to deliver the learning content (online, in cohorts, in the continuous entrance, etc.). The findings of this study suggest ensuring that the participants will have opportunities to interact with others as it reduces the stress on nascent entrepreneurs. Nevertheless, the authors cannot demonstrate that this has a long-term effect as our timeframe is limited to six months.
Originality/value
This research investigates the stress-reduction effect of training, which is not a common outcome studied related to training. This highlights the importance of looking at other more distal outcomes as nascent entrepreneurs may seek other peripheral outcomes from training, like seeking a sense of belonging or wanting to break isolation.
... Estos sucesos forman parte de una de las aventuras más estimulantes y adictivas que ha producido la humanidad: el emprendedorismo. Ser emprendedor de alta tecnología es una actividad altamente adictiva, productora de estrés y suele afectar la salud, pero recompensada con mayores ingresos económicos (Harris, 1999;Cardon, 2015). Es evidente que la desconexión entre ciencia y tecnología tiene un origen cultural, pues desde 1969 hay una caída que atraviesa transversalmente a gobiernos democráticos y no-democráticos, y a partidos de diferente signo político que gobernaron Argentina. ...
Este libro contiene una propuesta, un punto de partida, de un plan nacional educativo, científico y tecnológico. Está apoyada fuertemente en nuestras universidades nacionales y en desarrollar el espíritu emprendedor entre los más de 13000 jóvenes becarios y 37000 investigadores, para la transferencia activa de los resultados prácticos de la investigación científica. Esto permitirá el desarrollo de empresas argentinas innovadoras de alcance global.
A modo de ejemplo, una sola de estas empresas podría generar riquezas similares a las que producen la industria citrícola o la azucarera del norte argentino. Para convencerse, simplemente imagine cuanto puede ganar una empresa farmacéutica argentina por la venta en todo el mundo, de un remedio contra el Cáncer, Parkinson, o de un nuevo antibiótico.
Para mucha gente, es una enorme sorpresa conocer que en los laboratorios de científicos argentinos, se descubren y prueban una enorme y maravillosa lista de productos de alta tecnología incluyendo, una gran cantidad de antibióticos; drogas para tratar el Parkison y Alzheimer; drogas contra diferentes tipos de Cáncer; drogas anti-hipertensivas, anti-metastásicas, contra la fibrosis quística, anti-inflamatorias, antipatogénicas, debridantes, analgésicas, antidiarréicas, hipoglucemiante, drogas contra la adicción a la nicotina; drogas contra el asma y antivirales; sustancias que bloquean la radiación UV; biosensores de uso agrícola, médico e industrial; métodos para la producción de biodiesel; nuevas especies vegetales; nuevos biomateriales para ingeniería de tejidos; nuevas aleaciones para prótesis médicas o de aplicación industrial; nuevos nanomateriales para aplicaciones biomédicas o electrónicas; nuevos algoritmos para ahorro energético; dispositivos ópticos avanzados; celdas solares de alta eficiencia; bacterias para limpiar suelos contaminados; drogas anticoagulantes; alimentos funcionales: quesos, leches, yogures, jarabes y jugos; sustancias fungicidas; drogas multiefecto (antibiótica, anti-inflamatoria, debridante, analgésica, cicatrizante, antipatogénica); neuronas artificiales; dispositivos médicos; aceites antitumorales; etc…
Todos estos inventos –salvo honrosas excepciones-… ¡nadie los fabrica ni vende!. ¿Porqué? Hay dos causas principales, la falta de defensa de los derechos de propiedad intelectual que produce el estado –el patentamiento-, y la falta de desarrollo del espíritu emprendedor entre los becarios e investigadores argentinos, que permitiría crear empresas de alta tecnología.
Respecto del patentamiento, al publicar los investigadores sus inventos sin patentarlos antes, violan el primer requisito de una patente, la novedad, motivo por el cual ya nadie fabricará el invento, por más maravilloso que sea, o peor aún, muchos no querrán investigar algo que nunca se fabricará.
El patentar es un requisito imprescindible, pues una patente otorga un monopolio de venta de 20 años, al emprendedor que quiera transformar un invento de laboratorio en un producto comercial.
Para entender la importancia del patentamiento, imaginemos que usted inventó la cura para un tipo de Cáncer. Su droga es maravillosa y funcionó en el laboratorio, en animales experimentales y en pruebas pre-clínicas. Inmediatamente usted publica su hallazgo y describe como fabricar la droga. ¿A continuación la fabrica y vende…?: ¡no!. Los estados antes deben asegurarse que su droga funciona y no daña a seres humanos, a través de un gran conjunto de pruebas clínicas, que le solicitarán los organismos reguladores de todos los países donde pretenda vender. Esas pruebas le llevaran años, miles de pacientes, millones de dólares y expedientes de cientos de miles de hojas y recién entonces podrá vender su droga.
Supongamos que consigue la plata necesaria (aquí ya no funciona el estado, lo deben invertir capitales privados), hace las pruebas y comienza a vender su invento. En ese momento, como usted publicó como hacer su droga y para qué sirve, cualquier hijo de vecino podrá fabricarla, y venderla más barata, pues él no gastó un peso en hacerla validar, ¡ya lo hizo usted!. Resultado final: usted se suicida agobiado por las deudas, pues no podrá devolver las inversiones que recibió.
Respecto de la segunda causa, aún está profundamente arraigada en los investigadores argentinos, la idea de que transformar sus inventos en productos es tarea de otros, lo cual induce a nuestros jóvenes a creer que los doctores (los Ph.D.) solo sirven para hacer investigación.
Como investigadores es nuestra obligación realizar esa transformación, y no necesariamente significa que nos transformaremos en empresarios. El ciudadano común aporta con sus impuestos el dinero necesario para que investiguemos, y espera que cuando encontremos o inventemos algo que lo pueda beneficiar…, ¡hagamos que esos beneficios lleguen a él!.
Parte de nuestro tiempo debe invertirse en la transformación, es la manera en que ayudaremos a generar empresas de alta tecnología ¡no es tarea de otros ¡, ¡es nuestra!. El destino de nuestra querida Argentina está en nuestras manos…
El estado intentó la transferencia de tecnologías, a través de la enorme tarea desarrollada por la Agencia Nacional de Promoción Científica y Tecnológica, y por nuevas políticas implementadas por el CONICET. Sin embargo, históricamente los científicos argentinos no generan patentes, ni participan en la creación de empresas de alta tecnología. Por supuesto, hay honrosas excepciones, pero son solo eso, excepciones, y no alcanzan a generar una masa crítica necesaria para el despegue. ¿Los motivos?, básicamente desconocimiento y un conjunto de mitos y conceptos erróneos tales como hacer ciencia es incompatible con negocios, al dedicarme a generar un producto a partir de mis hallazgos científicos pierdo el tiempo; la empresa debo crearla yo y eso distraerá mi tiempo como investigador; las patentes me impiden avanzar en mi carrera; nadie sabe hacer patentes; debo publicar pues es mi única obligación y de eso vivo; yo no puedo participar en una empresa; los científicos de renombre en el resto del mundo no hacen negocios, yo hago ciencia básica y eso no tiene que ver con negocios ni patentes…,etc.
Cada afirmación de la lista de mitos tiene su respuesta, baste conocer a modo de ejemplo, que el Dr. Roger Guillemin , premio Nobel de medicina, es asesor de empresas y tiene más de 10 patentes , además de sus 346 publicaciones científicas. Un ejemplo local se lo aclarará más, el Dr. Gabriel Rabinovich un investigador cordobés que trabaja en Buenos Aires, tiene 255 publicaciones, es 45 años más joven que Guillemin, y tal vez sea nuestro próximo premio Nobel, este investigador…¡ tiene patentes!, ¡y muy buenas patentes!. El Dr. Rabinovich no se queda en las patentes, también intenta hacer que los frutos prácticos de sus investigaciones lleguen a la gente, y eso implica hablar de negocios y conversar sobre temas más prácticos con abogados, empresarios y tecnólogos.
Si usted tiene dudas, busque algún científico renombrado de países exitosos, y averigüe que patentes tiene y de que empresas es asesor o fundador. Se sorprenderá lo común que es este tipo de producción. Hay países que basan su crecimiento en las innovaciones que nacen en las universidades.
Esta propuesta apunta a tres motores que propulsarán el desarrollo argentino: Educación, Ciencia y Tecnología. Todos están profundamente interrelacionados, pues sin educación no habrá científicos, sin ciencia no habrá tecnologías innovadoras, y sin emprendedores que desarrollen estas tecnologías innovadoras nos mantendremos soja-petróleo dependiente en un callejón sin salida. Nos apoyamos fuertemente en las universidades nacionales, pues allí está la mayor fuerza innovadora de Argentina. La mayor parte de los investigadores son docentes universitarios, y las universidades públicas en particular, están distribuidas con un profundo sentido federal, el cual será base del éxito de esta propuesta. Por supuesto también están incluidos en esta propuesta los científicos que pertenecen a otras instituciones académicas o tecnológicas, tal como el INTI o la CNEA, y aquellos que son 100% CONICET. Todos, sin excepción, pueden ayudar a transformar Argentina en el país que soñamos.
Para tener éxito se necesita del trabajo conjunto de políticos, científicos y empresarios. Fundamentalmente de la clase política, pues solo la acción de leyes de promoción educativa, científica y tecnológica, y de una justa redistribución de los actuales recursos económicos, permitirá el crecimiento y desarrollo aquí propuesto.
Para definir esta propuesta, se analizan un conjunto de factores, incluyendo los salarios universitarios; el presupuesto de las UU.NN.; la inversión en educación universitaria; posición de las UU.NN. en rankings mundiales; el grado de transparencia en la ejecución presupuestaria de las UU.NN.; los servicios a terceros brindados por las UU.NN.; la educación pública primaria, secundaria y las pruebas PISA; la calidad educativa; el estado de la producción científica y tecnológica, la distribución de los presupuestos universitarios y legislativos, y la facilidad para la creación de empresas en Argentina.
Cada factor es analizado y de cada uno se obtienen propuestas, que se pueden resumir en profesionalización plena de todos los educadores argentinos; inclusión de ciencia y tecnología en la vida cotidiana de todos niveles educativos; aumento de los presupuestos universitarios y del nivel de transparencia en las ejecuciones presupuestarias de las UUNN; relocalización de recursos presupuestarios desde el poder legislativo hacia educación, ciencia y tecnología; feroz incentivo a la creación de empresas de base tecnológica, a partir de los frutos prácticos de la investigación científica; impulso a la protección de los derechos de propiedad intelectual que producen los investigadores argentinos; impulso al emprendedorismo entre los científicos; y un sistema federal de creación de riquezas entre las entidades académicas argentinas.
... Women, regardless of their educational, professional, or social status, are assigned the conventional roles of home and family care and are required to fulfill them. In order to satisfy these demands, the female entrepreneur must deal with a great deal of tension in order to maintain a worklife balance (Cardon and Patel 2015). ...
Job stress affects and influence the mental, physical and well-being of an entrepreneur. The objectives of this study were to examined the relationship between work-family conflict, role overload and business environment on the commitment of microentrepreneurs in Abuja. The study adopted a cross-sectional research design, data were obtained via online survey, only the 65 questionnaires were return. Data were analyzed using SPSS 23 and hypotheses were tested with linear regression. Findings from the study indicate a positive relationship between work family conflict, role overload and work environment. and the study recommended that future studies should enlarge the sample size of this study and identify other job stress variable that were not included in this study..
... Predictions regarding the effects of social skills on stress Stress has been identified as a key challenge for entrepreneurs (e.g. Buttner, 1992;Cardon and Patel, 2015;Raver, 2019, 2020;Klyver et al., 2018;Lerman et al., 2020;Nambisan and Baron, 2019;Pollack et al., 2012;Semerci, 2016;Wincent and € Ortqvist, 2009). Whilst Baron and Markman (2003) explore the important role of "social competence", i.e. the use of social skills in accessing and deploying social capital (for example, accessing social support as discussed below) in financial terms, there is less evidence on how these skills might impact on entrepreneurs' stress levels. ...
Purpose
This paper examines how some specific psychological characteristics and stress levels of small and medium-sized enterprise (SME) key decision-makers (founders/managers) (KDMs) influence firm goal attainment based on two firm aspiration types.
Design/methodology/approach
This study hypothesizes that perceived resilience, social skills (self-promotion, ingratiation, expressiveness, social adaptability), and stress of SME KDMs will differently influence firm performance goal achievement based on firm historical versus social aspirations. IBM AMOS v27 is used to test these hypotheses on survey data of 267 Australian SME KDMs.
Findings
The study reveals that KDMs’ perceived resilience, social skills and stress differentially impact the achievement of firm performance goals when selecting firm-level historical and social aspirations. Resilience and some specific social skills can even have a detrimental effect on achieving firm goals when applying historical and social aspirations. Historical aspirations are based on the firm’s performance history, while social aspirations are based on the performance of a reference group of competitor firms. The differences in the relationship between these characteristics and the two aspiration types are also explained. Furthermore, the study reveals the important role of perceived stress levels in achieving firm performance goals, using both aspiration types.
Originality/value
This study is the first to investigate how the perceived use of some specific psychological characteristics of SME KDMs influence the ability to meet firm performance goals based on the discretionary use of historical and social aspirations and the relationship between these aspiration types. In this context, the paper explains the reasons for the differences and similarities in their use. Thus, this study provides an important empirical contribution to research on the emergent domain of micro-foundational SME goals.
... There is growing interest in entrepreneurs' physical and mental well-being (White & Gupta, 2020;Wiklund, Nikolaev, Shir, & Foo, 2019). Stress is ubiquitous among entrepreneurs , and PA acts as a stress-buffering resource, mitigating the negative influence of stress on entrepreneurs' health (Cardon & Patel, 2015). Furthermore, the entrepreneurial journey is full of ups and downs, which deplete entrepreneur's psychological resources . ...
Research on the role of affect in the entrepreneurial process has surged over time, resulting in a vibrant field of inquiry. To advance scholarship in this area, we conduct an inductive analysis of 162 published articles, critically analyzing the state of research on affect in entrepreneurship. We develop an organizing framework to capture three major conversations in existing research—affect valence (feelings), discrete emotions, and emotional competencies—and encompass several outcomes studied within each conversation. We find that limited work has been done to explore the antecedents of affect (both feelings and discrete emotions), anticipated affect deserves greater consideration, and affective influence of stakeholders on entrepreneurs remains overlooked. Research on negative affect and emotional competencies also remains scarce in the entrepreneurship literature. Future inquiry would do well to take a multilevel approach to affect, explore affective phenomena over time, and cast light on the role of emotional competencies in the entrepreneurial process. We also spotlight crucial empirical advancements, including big data and artificial intelligence, for affect research going forward.
... Entrepreneurs sometimes report more negative affect compared to other workers (Jamal, 2007;Reid et al., 2018; for an exception, see . The chronic negative affect that entrepreneurs experience overtime is also evident from allostatic load (the wear and tear on the body due to psychological distress) and physical health markers (Cardon & Patel, 2015;Cocker et al., 2013;Patel et al., 2019), demonstrating the link between negative affect and mental and physical well-being. Beyond well-being, negative affect influences entrepreneurial outcomes. ...
Entrepreneurship can provide personal fulfillment but is uniquely poised to also provoke emotional suffering. Scholarly attention on negative moods and emotions (affect) in entrepreneurship has gained momentum, yet reviews to date have focused on the consequences of affect while our understanding of its antecedents remains fragmented. This neglect is concerning as the conditions that trigger negative emotions are consequential to entrepreneurial cognition, behavior, and well-being. In the current article, we synthesize the findings of 52 empirical sources that contribute to our knowledge of the antecedents of negative affect during entrepreneurship activity. This results in a framework of entrepreneurs’ negative affective antecedents organized by (1) the temporary state of the self, (2) the entrepreneurial occupation, (3) interactions with others, and (4) venture circumstances. Overall, this systematic effort contextualizes affect in entrepreneurship and provides a roadmap for future research that is more closely representative of the diverse lived experiences of entrepreneurs.
... Job satisfaction of the self-employed has been the subject of attention of entrepreneurship researchers; research on this area compares the situation of the self-employed with than of the waged employed and it focusses on how particular features of self-employment -such as autonomy, flexibility, stress, and othersdo contribute to their job satisfaction (Jamal, 1997;Schjoedt, 2009;Millán et al., 2013;Hytti et al., 2013;Abreua et al., 2019). There are not many studies providing in-depth knowledge of entrepreneurs' situation in other domains of life; although, some papers dealing with stress do also address some health-related issues (Cardon & Patel, 2015;Nikolova, 2019). The family domain of life has been marginally addressed by scholars interested in work-family conflict (Ford et al., 2007;Prottas & Thompson, 2006). ...
This paper studies the anatomy of entrepreneurs’ satisfaction with life, which refers to the relationship between life satisfaction, satisfaction in domains of life, and affective, evaluative, and sensory experiences of being well. The paper focuses on owner-manager entrepreneurs, who, as managers, lead their firms and take major business decisions and, as owners, have room to deviate from the exclusive procurement of profits to pursue their happiness. The study of entrepreneurs’ anatomy of life satisfaction provides insight on how they lead their firms and how they weight the well-being repercussions of their business decisions. The paper distinguishes between family-firm and nonfamily-firm entrepreneurs, and it shows that there is heterogeneity in entrepreneurs’ anatomy of life satisfaction; with the life satisfaction of family-firm entrepreneurs being strongly driven by family satisfaction and by negative affect, while the life satisfaction of nonfamily-firm entrepreneurs is strongly driven by work satisfaction. These differences in the anatomy of entrepreneurs’ life satisfaction do correspond with observed differences in the organization and behavior of family and nonfamily firms, which suggests that the anatomy of life satisfaction provides insight on how entrepreneurs weight their business decisions and lead their firms. The empirical exercise is based on an original survey applied to Spanish entrepreneurs in 2019.
... Though clearly acting as a negativity buffer (Bavik et al., 2020), this emotional support was found to be an ongoing, consistent process that was embedded in the everyday interactions of households. Our study therefore extends the conversation about whether entrepreneurs are more or less stressed than non-entrepreneurs (Baron, et al., 2013;Cardon and Patel, 2015) by suggesting that ongoing stress-buffering through emotional support is a necessary requirement of entrepreneurial persistence. Not only does this study reveal that emotional support may be far more integral to the process of entrepreneurship than is currently assumed (Danes et al., 2009), but also that, in certain high-stress contexts, stress-buffering may become a main effect of social support. ...
While it is well-established that entrepreneurs benefit from social support, little is known about how and when instrumental and emotional support from household members facilitate entrepreneurial action and persistence. Through a longitudinal, qualitative study, we develop a conceptual framework that shows how social support from the household becomes an integral part of the everyday activities of entrepreneurs. In contrast to the perception of social support as static, our findings illustrate it as a dynamic, ongoing process which is core to business start-up and growth over time. We also challenge the perspectives that households are simply repositories of resources and entrepreneurs passive recipients of support by demonstrating that social support is necessarily interactive, whereby entrepreneurs and households play a collaborative role in entrepreneurship. Finally, we join the debate concerning mechanisms of social support by suggesting that the main effect model and buffering hypothesis are not contradictory, but are instead interdependent.
... Entrepreneurs' well-being, is not only an outcome, but also an antecedent. In particular, entrepreneurs' well-being is a critical psychological resource for entrepreneurs to cope with stress when pursuing success, for that the work state of entrepreneurs can be extremely stressful because of uncertainty, complexity, and risk of failure, including time pressure and long work hours (Patzelt and Shepherd, 2011;Hahn et al., 2012;Uy et al., 2013;Cardon and Patel, 2015;Baron et al., 2016;Stephan, 2018). As such, entrepreneurs' well-being is a significant psychological resource that influences the role of entrepreneurs' Darwinian social identity on CSR. ...
Although the impact of entrepreneurs’ social identity on successful entrepreneurship has attracted much scholarly attention, it is often to evaluate successful entrepreneurship through direct channel to financial performance. Recently, there is a growing body of researches beginning to pay attention to the impact of entrepreneurs’ social identity on corporate social responsibility (CSR) regarded as indirect social aspect channel to successful entrepreneurship. However, little is known regarding how entrepreneurs’ Darwinian social identity affects CSR, which in turn, affects business performance. This study addresses this issue by combining stakeholder theory with social identity theory, to investigate the relationship between entrepreneurs’ Darwinian social identity and business performance via CSR. In addition, the moderating effect of entrepreneur’s well-being is further examined to uncover the interaction effect of the individual psychological resource on business performance. The empirical results indicate that entrepreneurs’ Darwinian social identity contributes positively to CSR, so as further to business performance. In addition, this relationship is further found to be significantly moderated by entrepreneurs’ well-being. The results indicate that entrepreneurs can achieve business success via CSR, by which entrepreneurs can further acquire successful entrepreneurship through caring more about their well-being.
... Even though the self-employed often appear healthier than comparable employed groups, this relation might occur because healthier workers rather choose to be self-employed (Rietveld et al., 2015). Indeed, self-employment is associated with increased stress and decreased physical health, because self-employed individuals often place high demands on themselves in order to achieve economic success (Cardon and Patel, 2015). In addition, Binder and Coad (2016) found that only voluntary self-employment is associated with increased work, life and health satisfaction, whereas involuntary self-employment did not show this relation. ...
Crowdwork is a new form of digitally enabled work in which organizations assign tasks to an anonymous group of workers via platform intermediaries. For crowdworkers, crowdwork offers both opportunities and risks. On the one side, crowdworkers enjoy high flexibility on when, where, and how much to work. On the other side, risks comparable to other forms of atypical employment arise: no labor regulation, unstable income, and uncertainty about whether enough tasks are available. Regulation of working hours lies within the crowdworkers’ own authority. Also, crowdwork in industrialized nations is often conducted during leisure times as a side-job to some other kind of employment. In accordance with Conservation of Resources Theory, we state that when leisure time gets used up with crowdwork, regeneration cannot occur and health declines. On a sample of N =748 German crowdworkers recruited from four different platform types, we analyzed whether participation in crowdwork is linked to increased somatic symptoms compared to regularly employed personnel. We found that crowdworkers show significantly increased somatic symptoms as compared to a German norm sample, that are stable across different kinds of tasks and platforms, gender, and age groups, and that is statistically due to the extent of participation in crowdwork. Specifically, we found that total work hours per week were not associated with an increase in somatic symptoms, but we did find associations with strain-based work–family conflict and the primary motivation to do crowdwork being to earn money. Consequences for research and labor regulations are discussed.
... This is especially important for entrepreneurs, for whom psychological well-being is a central motivator in their work (Stephan, 2018). At the same time, entrepreneurs appear to be more susceptible to changes in their psychological well-being, for example, showing a higher baseline of stress even outside of crises compared with corporate employees (Cardon & Patel, 2015). Previous reviews have emphasized the importance of considering the contextual factors influencing entrepreneurs' psychological well-being in particular (Stephan, 2018). ...
... Beyond resourcefulness, the concept of a strategic mindset has implications for advancing a wide array of entrepreneurial theories. Specifically, we expect a strategic mindset to have implications for understanding how and why entrepreneurs make decisions (Shepherd et al., 2015), recognize and assess opportunities (Davidsson et al., 2021;Scheaf et al., 2020), cope with stress (Cardon and Patel, 2015;Lerman et al., 2020), and it may provide interesting insights as to why entrepreneurs decide to pivot from one opportunity to another (Kirtley & O'Mahony, 2020). In sum, strategic mindset represents an exciting opportunity for advancing the entrepreneurship literature with respect to how metacognition influences entrepreneurial traits, attitudes, and behaviors. ...
This study tests a situated metacognitive model of entrepreneurial action to highlight how action (or inaction) during the entrepreneurial process is influenced by both individual traits and one's metacognitive ability, namely one's strategic mindset. Integrating theory on resourcefulness and metacognition, we show how entrepreneurs who are more frugal tend to engage in less action in developing their new venture (i.e., enacting fewer innovative behaviors and putting forth less effort) as compared to less frugal entrepreneurs. However, we explain that this direct (negative) relationship is mediated by one's strategic mindset, such that the indirect effect of frugality on both innovative behavior and level of effort enacted towards one's new venture is positive (rather than negative). Overall, this study extends the construct of strategic mindset to the entrepreneurship literature and highlights the crucial role that metacognition can play regarding one's socio-cognitive decision-making process and subsequent entrepreneurial behaviors.
... Entrepreneurs and small business owners are especially likely to be negatively affected by crises like the Covid-19 pandemic, because their businesses are often resource constrained (Doern, Williams, & Vorley, 2019). Moreover, their well-being is particularly at risk as their businesses are closely intertwined with their identity (Cardon, Wincent, Singh, & Drnovsek, 2009) and their highly stressful work (Cardon & Patel, 2015;Lerman, Munyon, & Williams, 2020;Wach, Stephan, Weinberger, & Wegge, 2020) leaves little capacity to respond to the additional demands that crises ...
Post-COVID-19 working conditions have been the primary reason behind increased stress among business owners. There is an ever-rising need for entrepreneurial work engagement in their jobs to mitigate the increased entrepreneurial work pressures caused by uncontrolled digitization, enhanced consumer power, and brutal competition. Therefore, this study intends to respond to the existing practical and empirical gaps by investigating the relationships between entrepreneurial job demands (EJD), work-related stress, entrepreneurial job resources (EJR), and entrepreneurial work engagement (WE) for their role in generating entrepreneurial success (ES), especially in the Chinese context. It also tested the mediating role of work-related stress and entrepreneurial work engagement on the relationship between job demands, job resources, and entrepreneurial success. Structured questionnaires were circulated among the targeted respondents (i.e., business owners across China) using quantitative techniques, followed by PLS-SEM for data analysis, as these are the best-suited techniques, considering the context and time constraints. The results verified the impact of job demands on work-related strain, followed by the inverse direct impact of work-related strain on entrepreneurial success. This study found the significant impact of entrepreneurial job resources on entrepreneurial work engagement, followed by the positive impact of WE on entrepreneurial success. Likewise, work engagement’s mediating role was validated, while work-related strain could only negatively mediate the relationship between EJD and ES. Likewise, this study has practical and empirical implications for practitioners and researchers to be mindful of their employees’ emotional states by providing sufficient resources and psychological interventions to ensure business success.
Technostress is an important by-product of information and communication technologies (ICT). The technostress literature suggests focusing on specific dimensions of technostress, such as techno-overload, which describes when ICT usage demands to work faster and longer. However, only a few studies have dealt with the technostress of small business owners, let alone techno-overload. This is surprising since work overload in general has been identified as an important dimension of job stress for small business owners, and technostress has been identified as an important impediment for workers in general. The aim of the current study is to investigate the effect of techno-overload on well-being outcomes (as a composite measure consisting of physical well-being, mental well-being, sleep quality, burnout, and loneliness) using three data sets of French small business owners. Our results indicate a strong negative correlation between techno-overload and our composite measure of well-being for all three data sets. We interpret our findings for several different disciplines: information systems, small business owners and entrepreneurship, health and well-being, psychology and organization studies. Our data also allow for the identification of contextual effects – the COVID-19 pandemic – since one survey was conducted before, one at the start of, and one during the pandemic.
The relationship between coach and client is an essential factor for coaching success. This coach-client relationship has previously been equated with the working alliance as the common agreement on tasks and goals, and the coach-client bond. As entrepreneurial coaching differs from other coaching formats due to the entrepreneurs’ close connection to their company and the coaches being considered sparring and networking partners, the coach-client relationship may go beyond the working alliance in entrepreneurial coaching. The following exploratory study investigated within a standardized business-related coaching process with business coaches the effect of different coaching relationship factors on the success of entrepreneurial coaching in a field setting. Therefore, 18 male entrepreneurs participated in a three-month coaching with questionnaires before and after the coaching process. The results indicate that not only working alliance in terms of tasks and goals but also perceived empathy, closeness, and perceived need supportive behaviour matter for coaching success, suggesting that entrepreneurial coaching may benefit from a relationship that goes beyond the working alliance. As this study is exploratory without a control design, future research is needed to test this finding with a bigger sample and with different control and experimental conditions. Particularly interesting would be to test it with a mixed-method approach with a more varied sample including entrepreneurs of different age, gender, and demographical background. In addition, future studies could investigate this going beyond the working alliance in other coaching contexts, such as team coaching and peer coaching.
This study examines factors affecting social entrepreneurs’ passion, focusing on their motives, job stress, and perceived work competence. The analysis of the survey data of 264 self-identified social entrepreneurs working in different types of organizations reveals that other-oriented motives are strongly associated with passion while self-oriented motives are not. The results also show that job stress is negatively correlated with social entrepreneurs’ passion. When the perceived work competence is included as a mediator, however, it alters the nature of the job stress-passion relationship, suggesting that job stress can positively affect social entrepreneurs’ passion when they perceive a high level of competence. The findings also suggest that perceived work competence reinforces the positive relationship between other-oriented motives and passion. This paper concludes with practical implications for social entrepreneurship education.
An emerging body of research has documented that self-employed people are more likely to report higher levels of eudaimonic well-being (EWB; e.g., autonomy, competence, meaning) than their employed counterparts. In this paper, we examine why the self-employed perceive their lives as psychologically more fulfilling even though they face more complex and competing occupational demands that can expose them to more stressors. Specifically, we hypothesize that the self-employed are more likely to engage in problem-focused coping—productive and proactive behaviors and thoughts aimed to help them overcome challenges (e.g., planning and active coping)—and less likely to engage in emotion-focused coping—behaviors and thoughts to merely make them feel better (e.g., venting and denial)—which, in turn, can promote higher levels of EWB. Using data from Waves 2 and 3 of the National Study of Midlife in Development in the United States, we find supportive evidence for our theory. More importantly, we show that the well-being benefits from self-employment accrue almost entirely because the self-employed are more likely to use problem-focused coping as opposed to emotion-focused coping. In a series of robustness tests, including random-effects models, matching estimators, and twin and sibling fixed-effects, we further demonstrate the relevance of coping as a key explanatory mechanism in the relationship between self-employment and EWB.
Soziales Unternehmertum, das eine soziale Mission mit einem gut durchdachten Geschäftsmodell verbindet, wird als vielversprechende neue unternehmerische Form gesehen, die einen großen Beitrag zu sozial nachhaltigerem Wirtschaften leisten kann. Dieses Kapitel gibt einen Überblick über das soziale Unternehmertum und geht hierbei insbesondere auf (i) das Konzept des sozialen Unternehmens als hybrides Unternehmen, (ii) die sozialunternehmerische Absicht und ihre Einflussfaktoren auf verschiedenen Ebenen, (iii) ausgewählte Herausforderung für soziale Unternehmen und (iv) den Stand der Forschung zu Wohlbefinden im sozialunternehmerischen Kontext ein. Es werden aktuelle und zentrale theoretische und empirische Forschungsergebnisse präsentiert und kurz zukünftige Forschungsperspektiven dargestellt.
Purpose
An anomaly of entrepreneurship literature was that, despite serious efforts required to manage a business, few studies had investigated entrepreneurs' health conditions at the end of their careers. This study investigated whether one's entrepreneurship in a lifetime enhanced their health after a career plateau.
Design/methodology/approach
The authors tested the main effect and mediating effects of entrepreneurs' life habits and self-esteem, respectively, using two longitudinal representative examples with 8,984 and 12,686 participants.
Findings
Results indicated that entrepreneurship significantly improved individuals' general lifetime health condition. Moreover, life habits (e.g. vigorous activities or sports, light activities, drinking habits and diet habits) and self-esteem significantly mediated the relationship between entrepreneurship and lifetime health. Entrepreneurs tended to have better health due to healthier life habits and higher self-esteem than salaried employees. In this paper, the authors also discussed theoretical and practical implications.
Originality/value
The authors proposed and found that, to counter the harsh requirements of entrepreneurial actions, entrepreneurs need to seek personal physical and psychological resources, and these resources can benefit their health even after decades.
Zusammenfassung
In einer Online-Umfrage befragten wir 252 Coaches und analysierten ihre Einstellung zur Coaching-Forschung, Faktoren, die ihre Einstellung beeinflussen, und wie sich ihre Haltung wiederum auf ihre Bereitschaft zur Teilnahme an Coaching-Forschung auswirkt. Die Faktorenanalyse ergab vier verschiedene Einstellungsfaktoren: (1) Mehrwert und (2) Schaden durch Coaching-Forschung, (3) Effektivitätszweifel, (4) Aufwand im Zusammenhang mit der Teilnahme an Coaching-Forschung. Die Erfahrung der Coaches (d. h. Novizen vs. Expert:innen; mit Coaching-Ausbildung vs. ohne) sagte die Einstellung zur Coaching-Forschung voraus, insbesondere für die Faktoren (2) und (3). Alle vier Faktoren sowie eine frühere Forschungsteilnahme sagten signifikant die Bereitschaft zur Teilnahme an Coaching-Forschung voraus.
Stress is the dynamic state of a person who faces opportunities, restrictions, or demands associated with what he or she wants and whose consequences are professed as indeterminate and important. In the complex and dynamic business environment there are infinite variety of pressures and demands that can cause stress. Women also face serious conflicts between their married life and workplace demands. High work pressure, long working hours, role conflicts, etc. expose entrepreneurs to stress situations. Considering the above, this research work aims to identify the main causes of stress among female entrepreneurs and suggest ways to deal with this stress.
Although entrepreneurs' work tends to be highly stressful, it is unclear how specific work stressors influence entrepreneurs' work outcomes. Drawing on the challenge-hindrance stressor framework (CHSF), we examine how both challenge and hindrance stressors influence entrepreneurs' creativity. Additionally, to investigate a more complete view of the entrepreneurial stress process, we integrate the CHSF with theory on leisure crafting to examine how proactively structuring one's leisure might help entrepreneurs deal with stress and maintain creativity. Results from a time-lagged study of 258 entrepreneurs showed that challenge stressors were positively and directly related to entrepreneurs' creativity, whereas hindrance stressors were not. Hindrance stressors increased engagement in leisure crafting, which enhanced creativity, highlighting a positive indirect effect of hindrance stressors on entrepreneurs' creativity. These findings provide generative insights into the nature of stressors and the micro-foundational mechanisms of stress and leisure within entrepreneurship.
The association between personality traits, life balance domains, and work addiction among entrepreneurs was investigated. Multiple regression and canonical correlation analysis of 106 participants indicate a significant relationship between personality traits, life balance domains, and work addiction. In particular, neuroticism was positively related to work addiction, as suggested in earlier studies. Among all the life balance domains five of the 10 life balance domains had a significant positive relationship with work addiction: positive orientation, substance use, sleep disturbance, stress/anxiety, and friendship. Results obtained from this study will help career and mental health counselors better understand entrepreneurs’ needs and life balance domains. By identifying neuroticism and stress levels among entrepreneurs, career counselors can better understand work addiction tendencies and use appropriate interventions accordingly.
This study investigated the effect of perceived entrepreneurial stress on entrepreneurial resilience with the well-being of an individual entrepreneur in mediating role and perceived online social support moderating this relationship. Using survey data collected from 204 entrepreneurs in two major towns in Kenya, considered entrepreneurial hubs were analyzed. To uncover this relationship, confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to test the discriminant validity of the measurement model. Hierarchical multiple regression was used to test four hypotheses in seven models to estimate direct, indirect and interaction effects. The results showed that perceived entrepreneurial stress and the well-being of individual entrepreneurs are significantly negatively related; this study also found out that the well-being of individual entrepreneurs and entrepreneurial resilience are positively related. For moderation effect, perceived online social support positively moderated the relationship between the well-being of individual entrepreneurs and entrepreneurial resilience. Finally, to test the indirect effect, bootstrapping analysis was used to identify mediation effects. The bootstrapping indirect test results revealed that the well-being of individual entrepreneurs mediates the relationship between perceived entrepreneurial stress and entrepreneurial resilience. This study outlines online communities as an avenue where entrepreneurs can access online social support that can facilitate entrepreneurial resilience during crises and to foster resilience among entrepreneurs despite adversity, entrepreneurs need to consider making a culture of seeking and providing social support online to fellow entrepreneurs and online communities.
Entrepreneurs work in an uncertain, novel, and high-stakes environment. This environment can lead to disagreements and conflicts over how to develop, grow, and run a business venture, thus triggering destructive social interactions. This research sheds light on the role of destructive interpersonal relationships by examining daily perceived social undermining from work partners and how and when this perceived undermining affects entrepreneurs' work engagement. Building on a resource-based self-regulation perspective, we develop a theoretical model of the self-regulation impairment process whereby an entrepreneur's perceived social undermining disrupts sleep quality at night, which dampens work engagement the next day. We further theorize trait resilience as a self-regulation capacity that buffers this impairment process. We test the model in a study based on daily surveys over 10 workdays from 77 entrepreneurs. The results largely support our hypotheses and further indicate that trait resilience is more crucial for less experienced entrepreneurs. Our study contributes to research on how entrepreneurs' interpersonal relationships—particularly destructive ones—affect entrepreneurial well-being.
Purpose:
Passion is considered a critical aspect of entrepreneurship. According to the dualistic model of passion (DMP), entrepreneurs’ passion for their work can be harmonious or obsessive, leading to different personal and work outcomes. Drawing on DMP and the self-determination theory, this paper investigates these two types of passion for work and their effects on entrepreneurs’ subjective well-being (SWB), psychological strain and social loneliness.
Design/methodology/approach:
The authors conducted a self-administered online survey with 312 entrepreneurs in Turkey. The authors selected the sample using purposive sampling and referrals through snowballing via associations, university start-up organizations, entrepreneur lists and personal networks. The data are analyzed using multiple regression analysis.
Findings:
The results show that harmonious passion is negatively related to strain, while obsessive passion is positively related to both strain and social loneliness. Furthermore, both types of passion are associated with higher SWB. Finally, age moderates the relationship between obsessive passion and SWB.
Practical implications:
The findings draw attention to another dark side to entrepreneurship and a useful perspective to raise awareness that entrepreneurs may think positively of obsessive passion and ignore the negative consequences.
Originality/value:
This study contributes to the literature by showing that both positive and negative consequences of passion may co-exist based on the entrepreneurs’ self-perceptions. It also contributes to the very scarce research in non-western, emerging contexts in entrepreneurial passion research and constitutes the first study conducted on this topic in Turkey.
In this paper, we examine the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the well-being of entrepreneurs. We surveyed a representative sample of Swedish entrepreneurs and wage employees at different stages of the COVID-19 pandemic. The survey data, combined with register data, show that the COVID-19 outbreak has a negative effect on the well-being of entrepreneurs in terms of increased perceived stress. However, this negative effect is weaker for entrepreneurs who feel younger than their chronological age and entrepreneurs who are geographically distant from the epicenter of the crisis.
In 1995 the American College of Sports Medicine and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention published national guidelines on Physical Activity and Public Health. The Committee on Exercise and Cardiac Rehabilitation of the American Heart Association endorsed and supported these recommendations. The purpose of the present report is to update and clarify the 1995 recommendations on the types and amounts of physical activity needed by healthy adults to improve and maintain health. Development of this document was by an expert panel of scientists, including physicians, epidemiologists, exercise scientists, and public health specialists. This panel reviewed advances in pertinent physiologic, epidemiologic, and clinical scientific data, including primary research articles and reviews published since the original recommendation was issued in 1995. Issues considered by the panel included new scientific evidence relating physical activity to health, physical activity recommendations by various organizations in the interim, and communications issues. Key points related to updating the physical activity recommendation were outlined and writing groups were formed. A draft manuscript was prepared and circulated for review to the expert panel as well as to outside experts. Comments were integrated into the final recommendation.
Primary recommendation:
To promote and maintain health, all healthy adults aged 18 to 65 yr need moderate-intensity aerobic (endurance) physical activity for a minimum of 30 min on five days each week or vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity for a minimum of 20 min on three days each week. [I (A)] Combinations of moderate- and vigorous-intensity activity can be performed to meet this recommendation. [IIa (B)] For example, a person can meet the recommendation by walking briskly for 30 min twice during the week and then jogging for 20 min on two other days. Moderate-intensity aerobic activity, which is generally equivalent to a brisk walk and noticeably accelerates the heart rate, can be accumulated toward the 30-min minimum by performing bouts each lasting 10 or more minutes. [I (B)] Vigorous-intensity activity is exemplified by jogging, and causes rapid breathing and a substantial increase in heart rate. In addition, every adult should perform activities that maintain or increase muscular strength and endurance a minimum of two days each week. [IIa (A)] Because of the dose-response relation between physical activity and health, persons who wish to further improve their personal fitness, reduce their risk for chronic diseases and disabilities or prevent unhealthy weight gain may benefit by exceeding the minimum recommended amounts of physical activity. [I (A)]
The entrepreneurial-intentions literature implicitly assumes that all intending entrepreneurs have similar growth aspirations, despite the observed dichotomy of growth- and independence-oriented new ventures. We integrate the ‘individual-opportunity nexus’ with heterogeneous opportunities into the entrepreneurial intentions model such that intending entrepreneurs may exhibit different growth intentions which drives their choice between growth- or independence-oriented new ventures. The individual's predisposition for growth (or not) will depend on the interaction of the salient outcomes offered by the opportunity with the attitudes of the individual towards those outcomes, and by differences in entrepreneurial self-efficacy. We find that the attitudinal antecedents differ for growth compared to independence intentions, and suggest a way to identify intending entrepreneurs who are predisposed to growth.
The present study tested dispositional goal orientation as an explanation for variation in responses to high job demands. Survey data from 322 university employees demonstrated that job demands were positively related to fatigue, for all combinations of goal orientation. In line with our main proposition, only when an individual's performance orientation was stronger and his or her mastery orientation was weaker, were higher perceived job demands accompanied by a decline in job satisfaction. The managerial implications of these findings are discussed.
ABSTRACT Previous research indicates that entrepreneurs are generally high in dispositional optimism—the tendency to expect positive outcomes,even when such expectations are not rationally justified. The present research investigates the effects of such optimism and finds that in general, there is a negative relationship between entrepreneurs’ optimism and the performance (i.e., revenue and employment growth) of their new ventures. These effects, however, are moderated by past experience in creating new ventures and industry dynamism, such that the negative relationship between entrepreneurs’ optimism,and new venture performance,is stronger for experienced than inexperienced entrepreneurs, and stronger in dynamic than in stable environments. These findings indicate that the effects of entrepreneurs’ optimism on new venture performance,are contingent on key behavioral and environmental variables. In this
This paper re‐examines the commonly observed inverse relationship between perceived risk and perceived benefit. We propose that this relationship occurs because people rely on affect when judging the risk and benefit of specific hazards. Evidence supporting this proposal is obtained in two experimental studies. Study 1 investigated the inverse relationship between risk and benefit judgments under a time‐pressure condition designed to limit the use of analytic thought and enhance the reliance on affect. As expected, the inverse relationship was strengthened when time pressure was introduced. Study 2 tested and confirmed the hypothesis that providing information designed to alter the favorability of one's overall affective evaluation of an item (say nuclear power) would systematically change the risk and benefit judgments for that item. Both studies suggest that people seem prone to using an ‘affect heuristic’ which improves judgmental efficiency by deriving both risk and benefit evaluations from a common source—affective reactions to the stimulus item. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
More than a decade ago, Low and MacMillan identified three elements indispensable to an understanding of entrepreneurial success: process, context, and outcomes. Since their critique, three important advances include (a) a shift in theoretical emphasis from the characteristics of entrepreneurs as individuals to the consequences of their actions, (b) a deeper understanding of how entrepreneurs use knowledge, networks, and resources to construct firms, and (c) a more sophisticated taxonomy of environmental forces at different levels of analysis (population, community, and society) that affect entrepreneurship. Although our knowledge of entrepreneurial activities has increased dramatically, we still have much to learn about how process and context interact to shape the outcome of entrepreneurial efforts. From an evolutionary approach, process and context (strategy and environment) interact in a recursive continuous process, driving the fate of entrepreneurial efforts. Thus, integrating context and process into research designs remains a major challenge. Such integration constitutes a necessary step to a more complete evolutionary approach and a better understanding of entrepreneurial success.
This study tested three main effects: (1) the effect of job stressors (role conflict, role ambiguity, role overload, and role insufficiency) on strain (depression, anxiety, cognitive disturbance, and anger); (2) the effects of locus of control and social support on job stress and strain; and (3) the moderating (interaction) effects of locus of control and social support on the relationship between stress and strain. These relationships were tested with questionnaire data from two random samples of 238 entrepreneurs and 288 managers. Results from a multivariate analysis of variance showed that the entrepreneurs and managers differed significantly on stress, locus of control, and social support. Results from hierarchical regression analyses, after controlling for the demographic variables, found support for all ten main effects and one of the four moderating effects.
This study investigated different ways in which work stressors, sense of coherence (SOC), and negative affectivity (NA) might influence strain. Three models covering direct, moderating. and mediating effects between the variables were tested for hyperresponsitivity, causality, perception, selection, and stressor-creation mechanisms. The sample consisted of 205 hospital employees (nurses, physicians, and medical technicians). Work stressors. SOC. NA, and strain were measured and analyzed in structural equation models and with analyses of variance. Besides direct effects on strain, significant perception, selection, and stressor-creation mechanisms of SOC could be identified. After controlling for SOC and NA, work stressors remain substantial predictors of strain.
"In private life, we try to induce or suppress love, envy, and anger through deep acting or "emotion work," just as we manage our outer expressions of feeling through surface acting. In trying to bridge a gap between what we feel and what we "ought" to feel, we take guidance from "feeling rules" about what is owing to others in a given situation. Based on our private mutual understandings of feeling rules, we make a "gift exchange" of acts of emotion management. We bow to each other not simply from the waist, but from the heart. But what occurs when emotion work, feeling rules, and the gift of exchange are introduced into the public world of work? In search of the answer, Arlie Russell Hochschild closely examines two groups of public-contact workers: flight attendants and bill collectors. The flight attendant's job is to deliver a service and create further demand for it, to enhance the status of the customer and be "nicer than natural." The bill collector's job is to collect on the service, and if necessary, to deflate the status of the customer by being "nastier than natural." Between these extremes, roughly one-third of American men and one-half of American women hold jobs that call for substantial emotional labor. In many of these jobs, they are trained to accept feeling rules and techniques of emotion management that serve the company's commercial purpose. Just as we have seldom recognized or understood emotional labor, we have not appreciated its cost to those who do it for a living. Like a physical laborer who becomes estranged from what he or she makes, an emotional laborer, such as a flight attendant, can become estranged not only from her own expressions of feeling (her smile is not "her" smile), but also from what she actually feels (her managed friendliness). This estrangement, though a valuable defense against stress, is also an important occupational hazard, because it is through our feelings that we are connected with those around us. On the basis of this book, Hochschild was featured in Key Sociological Thinkers, edited by Rob Stones. This book was also the winner of the Charles Cooley Award in 1983, awarded by the American Sociological Association and received an honorable mention for the C. Wright Mills Award. © 1983, 2003, 2012 by The Regents of the University of California.
Hambrick, Finkelstein, and Mooney advance propositions concerning the effects of job demands on executive leadership and decision-making behaviors. I aim to encourage further thinking in this area, with comments flowing from a consideration of the stress and decision-making literature and the positive affect and problem-solving behavior literature. This perspective suggests both a finer-grained conceptualization of the executive job demands construct informed by specific characteristics of decision problems and a finer-grained conceptualization of executive decision behaviors focused on elements reflecting correspondence and coherence outcomes of decisions.
The purpose of this paper is to provide a perspective for our discussions of the effects on health of coping with stress. I shall also cover briefly some topics, such as neurophysiological mechanisms, epidemiological evidence, and the effects of stress on the cardiovascular and immune systems, not strongly represented in other papers, pose some key issues for theoretical clarification, and suggest some urgent problems for further research. Although I shall discuss possible neurophysiological mechanisms first, the historical sequence often has been from clinical observations, to experimental models, and then to neurophysiological mechanisms.
Human physiological systems are highly responsive to positive social interactions, but the organizational importance of this finding largely has been unexplored. After reviewing extant research, we illustrate how consideration of the physiology of positive social interactions at work opens new research questions about how positive social interactions affect human capacity and how organizational contexts affect employee health and physiological resourcefulness. We also address the practical implications of integrating physiological data into organizational research. Our paper invites a fuller consideration of how employees' bodies are affected by everyday work interactions and, in so doing, encourages a stronger tie between human physiology and organizational research.
Executive jobs vary widely in the difficulty they pose for their incumbents, yet research on top executives and strategic decision making has largely ignored this reality. We build on work in industrial/organizational psychology to develop the construct of executive job demands; discuss its major determinants; propose some of its key implications for strategic choices and leadership behaviors; and propose the usefulness of this construct in advancing research on numerous fronts, including agency theory, executive compensation, and upper echelons.
We examine the relationships between bank branch employees' felt job stress, organizational commitment, job experience, and performance. Our findings are consistent with the attention view of stress. Employees with higher levels of affective commitment and higher levels of job experience channeled felt stress more effectively into sales performance. Felt stress had neutral to negative effects on performance for employees with lower levels of commitment and job experience. Commitment, like stress, was more strongly related to performance when employees had more job experience. The results suggest that consideration of moderators of the stress-performance relationship is important both theoretically and practically.
Previous research has demonstrated the association between cardiovascular disease and education. However, few studies have described the incidence of hypertension, a risk factor for cardiovascular disease, by education or other socioeconomic status indicators. To examine the association between hypertension incidence and education, the authors analyzed data from the First National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES I) Epidemiologic Followup Study (NHEFS) (1971-1984). The relative risk of hypertension incidence (blood pressure ≥ 160/95 and/or using antihypertensive medication) by education was calculated for non-Hispanic Whites (aged 25-64 years) and non-Hispanic Blacks (aged 25-44 years) normotensive at baseline using Cox proportional hazards models. The age-adjusted relative risk of hypertension incidence among persons with less than 12 years of education compared with those with more than 12 years was significant among non-Hispanic Whites aged 25-44 years (men: relative risk (RR) = 2.14, 95% confidence interval (Cl): 1.29, 3.54; women: RR = 2.06, 95% Cl: 1.39, 3.05) but not among non-Hispanic Blacks (RR = 1.16, 95% CI: 0.63, 2.14). Relative risks for non-Hispanic White men remained stable after adjusting for age, systolic blood pressure, body mass index, and region of residence; relative risks for non-Hispanic White women were reduced but remained significant. Non-Hispanic White men and women aged 45-64 years with less than 12 years of education were not at higher risk of developing hypertension compared with their more educated counterparts. These results demonstrate a significant interaction between age and education with an independent association between education and hypertension incidence among younger but not older non-Hispanic White men and women.
This article analyzes major problems of Korean immigrant entrepreneurs in the United States. It is based on interviews with 557 Korean immigrants in Los Angeles, ethnic newspaper articles and personal observations of the Korean community. Korean entrepreneurs' long hours of work are detrimental to their physical and psychological well-being. Also, because of their business concentration in low-in-come, minority areas, Korean entrepreneurs are subject to frequent armed robberies, shoplifting, strikes, boycotts and other forms of rejection. Korean entrepreneurs are vulnerable to exploitation because of their dependence upon outgroup members for supplies of merchandise and their dependence on landlords for leases of store buildings. Korean immigrants are engaged in low level, blue collar businesses, and thus most Korean entrepreneurs face the problem of status inconsistency. Finally, Korean immigrants' segregation into the ethnic sub-economy, while enhancing ethnic attachment and ethnic solidarity, hinders cultural and social assimilation.
The politics perceptions literature has historically failed to determine the impact of dispositional factors. To address this gap, the current study examined the moderating effects of negative (NA) and positive affect (PA) on the perceptions of politics–job satisfaction relationship. It was hypothesized that individuals high on both NA and PA would report lower job satisfaction scores when politics were perceived to be high. In Study 1, data gathered from 752 employees of a large university in the southeastern United States confirmed these hypotheses. In Study 2, 311 full-time employees representing a wide array of occupations provided support for the PA×politics perceptions interaction, but not for the NA×politics perceptions interaction. Implications of these results, strengths and limitations, and avenues for future research are provided.
This study examined the differences between self-employed and salaried employees among members of a visible minority in Canada and USA with regard to job stress and quality of working life (QWL). Data were collected by means of a structured questionnaire using the procedure of mail-back completed questionnaires (n = 325). One-way ANOVA, MANOVA and two-way ANOVA were used to analyze the data. The self-employed experienced higher job stress and health problems, and participated more actively in voluntary organizations, than salaried employees. The two groups did not differ in job satisfaction. Self-employed spent significantly less leisure time with their families than salaried employees. Limited support for age and education, as moderator of employment type and outcome variables, was found. Results are discussed in light of the previous empirical evidence on self-employment and quality of working life.
Matched sampling is often used to help assess the causal effect of some exposure or intervention, typically when randomized experiments are not available or cannot be conducted. This book presents a selection of Donald B. Rubin's research articles on matched sampling, from the early 1970s, when the author was one of the major researchers involved in establishing the field, to recent contributions to this now extremely active area. The articles include fundamental theoretical studies that have become classics, important extensions, and real applications that range from breast cancer treatments to tobacco litigation to studies of criminal tendencies. They are organized into seven parts, each with an introduction by the author that provides historical and personal context and discusses the relevance of the work today. A concluding essay offers advice to investigators designing observational studies. The book provides an accessible introduction to the study of matched sampling and will be an indispensable reference for students and researchers.
This paper defines and describes entrepreneurial creativity, which is the generation and implementation of novel, appropriate ideas to establish a new venture. Entrepreneurial creativity can be exhibited in established organizations as well as in start-up firms. The central thesis of this paper is that entrepreneurial creativity requires a combination of intrinsic motivation and certain kinds of extrinsic motivation — a motivational synergy that results when strong levels of personal interest and involvement are combined with the promise of rewards that confirm competence, support skill development, and enable future achievement.
Because of their importance in creating wealth—both personal and societal—entrepreneurs have long been the subject of intensive study. Past research has focused on important issues such as: Why do some people, but not others, recognize or create new opportunities? Why do some, but not others, try to convert their ideas and dreams into business ventures? And why, ultimately, are some entrepreneurs successful and others not?Efforts to answer these questions in terms of the personal characteristics of entrepreneurs generally yielded disappointing results: contrary to what informal observation suggests, entrepreneurs do not appear to differ greatly from nonentrepreneurs with respect to various aspects of personality. As a result, a growing number of researchers have recently adopted a different approach—one emphasizing the role of cognitive processes in entrepreneurship. This perspective suggests that valuable insights into the questions posed above may be obtained through careful comparison of the cognitive processes of entrepreneurs and other persons.Whereas informative research has already been conducted within this framework, the present study seeks to expand this developing perspective by building additional conceptual bridges between entrepreneurship research and the large, extant literature on human cognition. Basic research on human cognition suggests that our cognitive processes are far from totally rational; in fact, our thinking is often influenced by a number of sources of potential bias and error. It is suggested here that entrepreneurs often work in situations and under conditions that would be expected to maximize the impact of such factors. Specifically, they face situations that tend to overload their information-processing capacity and are characterized by high levels of uncertainty, novelty, emotion, and time pressure. Together, these factors may increase entrepreneurs’ susceptibility to a number of cognitive biases.Several cognitive mechanisms that may exert such effects and that have not previously been considered in detail in the literature on entrepreneurship are examined. These include: counterfactual thinking—the effects of imagining what might have been; affect infusion—the influence of current affective states on decisions and judgments; attributional style—tendencies by individuals to attribute various outcomes to either internal or external causes; the planning fallacy—strong tendencies to underestimate the amount of time needed to complete a given project or the amount of work that can be achieved in a given time; and self-justification—the tendency to justify previous decisions even if they result in negative outcomes. Each mechanism is described, and specific hypotheses concerning its potential impact on the thinking of entrepreneurs are proposed.A final section of the article touches briefly on methods for testing hypotheses concerning these mechanisms and explores the implications of this cognitive perspective for future entrepreneurship research. This section emphasizes the fact that a cognitive perspective can provide researchers in the field with several new conceptual tools and may also facilitate the development of practical procedures for assisting entrepreneurs.
This paper integrates three major traditions of economic thought into a model of entrepreneurial decision making. Several testable hypotheses are formulated, and the model is estimated using a 33-year sample of aggregate time-series data for the U.S.
Drawing on theories from the coping and entrepreneurship literatures, we investigated the relationship between the entrepreneurs’ active and avoidance coping on psychological well-being (PWB) and the moderating role of prior start-up experience on this relationship. Data from 156 entrepreneurs indicate that the use of avoidance coping positively predicted immediate PWB for entrepreneurs with more start-up experience. Notably, this relationship was negative for entrepreneurs with less start-up experience. We also found that over the extended period, entrepreneurs who used avoidance coping had improved PWB only if they also used active coping. Theoretical and practical contributions to the entrepreneurship and coping research are discussed.
In this paper I use the psychological literature on grief to explore the emotion oi business failure, suggesting that the loss of a business from failure can cause the self-employed to feel grief—a negative emotional response interfering with the ability to leam from the events surrounding that loss. I discuss how a dual process of grief recovery maximizes the leaming from business failure.
Résumé:
De nombreux rapports ont révélé une corrélation entre le climat et le crime. Dans le présent article, nous examinons le lien entre les facteurs climatiques et les autopsies médico-légales, et nous montrons que le taux de meurtres, d'homicides involontaires et de blessures corporelles ayant causé la mort est plus élevé les jours ensoleillés que les jours sans soleil. Un plus grand nombre d'autopsies a été associé aux jours où le temps était instable. Outre le fait que les gens sont plus actifs les jours ensoleillés, un temps instable ou inconfortable peut être lié à des crimes induits par un stress psychiatrique. Un plus grand nombre de délits de fuite se produisent les jours pluvieux que les jours sans pluie, et un temps instable peut aussi être associé à des crimes routiers. Nous en concluons que les facteurs météorologiques, en plus des facteurs sociaux, ont des effets importants sur le nombre de meurtres et de victimes de délits de fuite.
Abstract:
Many reports have indicated a correlation between climate and crime. Here, we examine the correlation between climatic factors and forensic autopsies, and show that higher rates of murder, manslaughter, and bodily injury resulting in death occur on sunny days than on non-sunny days. The largest number of autopsies was associated with days on which the weather was unstable. In addition to increased activity of people on sunny days, unstable and uncomfortable weather may result in crime through induction of psychiatric stress. More hit-and-run cases occurred on rainy days than on non-rainy days, and unstable weather may also be associated with traffic crimes. We conclude that weather factors, in addition to social factors, are important in murder and in fatalities due to hit-and-run traffic crimes.