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A review of visual cues associated with food acceptance and consumption
Abstract
Several sensory cues affect food intake including appearance, taste, odor, texture, temperature, and flavor. Although taste is an important factor regulating food intake, in most cases, the first sensory contact with food is through the eyes. Few studies have examined the effects of the appearance of a food portion on food acceptance and consumption. The purpose of this review is to identify the various visual factors associated with food such as proximity, visibility, color, variety, portion size, height, shape, number, volume, and the surface area and their effects on food acceptance and consumption. We suggest some ways that visual cues can be used to increase fruit and vegetable intake in children and decrease excessive food intake in adults. In addition, we discuss the need for future studies that can further establish the relationship between several unexplored visual dimensions of food (specifically shape, number, size, and surface area) and food intake.
... The decision to purchase a particular food item is strongly influenced by its appearance [1][2][3]. One such quality is food colour, which may be interpreted as an indicator of flavour, freshness, maturity or wholesomeness, and its intensity may also affect taste perception [2,4,5]. ...
... The decision to purchase a particular food item is strongly influenced by its appearance [1][2][3]. One such quality is food colour, which may be interpreted as an indicator of flavour, freshness, maturity or wholesomeness, and its intensity may also affect taste perception [2,4,5]. Therefore, food manufacturers often employ additives to improve the colour of their products and make them more attractive to consumers. ...
... Two such analyses were carried out, the first including all processed meat products analysed in the study and the second including only sausages, as this group presented the highest frequency of dyes. In the all-products model, the dependent variable was the presence of a dye in the product, marked as 1, and the lack of a dye, marked as 0. The explanatory variables were product features that were obtained from the information on the labels, including (1) food technology groups (divided into five main groups: meat preparations, smoked meats, sausages, offal meat and other meat products); (2) water as an ingredient (two categories: lack and presence of water); (3) flavours (two categories: lack and presence of flavours); and (4) covariates: protein (g/100 g of product), carbohydrates (g/100 g of product) and fat (g/100 g of product). ...
Manufacturers are obliged to label processed meat products with information concerning the additives used and nutritional values. The aim of the study was to identify the dyes most frequently used in processed meat, evaluate their influence on specific food qualities, assess whether their use was correct and review their effect on health. The analysis was based on information on the labels and images of processed meat, and used a generalised linear model with a binary dependent variable. The risks and benefits for human health were defined based on the available literature. Twelve dyes were found to be used in the manufacture of processed meat. Carmine was found in 183 of 273 (67.03%) evaluated assortments containing dyes. The occurrence of water, flavourings and high fat and carbohydrate contents increased the chances that a dye would be present in a particular product. Unauthorised use of food additives was found in 20 products, with smoked meat products demonstrating the highest number of non-compliances. In general, the dyes used with food are considered safe; however, reservations are associated with the use of E150C and E150D caramels due to their potential carcinogenic effect, and carmine and annatto due to their allergic effects.
... La percepción visual juega un papel importante en el disfrute de los alimentos, desde la presentación visual de los platos hasta la identificación de los sabores y texturas. La pérdida de visión puede llevar a una menor apreciación de la estética de los alimentos y afectar el apetito y el disfrute durante las comidas (Wadhera y Capaldi-Phillips, 2014). ...
... Particularmente, este sentido tiene su influencia en el comportamiento alimentario de las personas en la manera en cómo percibimos, manipulamos y disfrutamos lo alimentos. Tanto a través de las manos como dentro de la boca, es esencial para detectar las texturas de los alimentos, lo cual puede moldear las preferencias alimentarias (Wadhera y Capaldi-Phillips, 2014). En función de las particularidades de cada individuo, una textura puede ser más apetecible que otra o incluso llegar a percibirse como desagradable. ...
El comportamiento alimentario es un fenómeno complejo que resulta de la interacción de nuestro organismo para hacerle frente al ambiente alimentario que nos rodea o que se podría presentar o no en un tiempo cercano. Es a través de lo que vemos, oímos, tocamos, saboreamos y olemos que podemos captar las señales necesarias para ejecutar conductas públicas o privadas que aseguraran que consigamos responder a necesidades biológicas como el hambre, cumplamos con normas sociales establecidas y no escritas y satisfagamos alguna necesidad emocional. Cuando se compromete alguno de los sentidos, es seguro que tendrá una repercusión en nuestra vida diaria y en cómo nos alimentamos. Este escrito es una perspectiva que pretende dar foco a las implicaciones en el comportamiento alimentario de las personas cuando se vive con una discapacidad sensorial.
... Visual processes related to the sense of taste and preference, such as the expectation of color influencing taste and preference, influence the preference for a dish and stimulate the desire to eat (Ueda et al., 2020). Additionally, being visually exposed to a new food can reduce neophobia and facilitate acceptance (Wadhera and Capaldi-Phillips, 2014). This process is also related to the perception of food through sight and, consequently, the process of perceiving meals. ...
... When examining research on consumers' perceptions of food, it becomes evident that vision plays a crucial role in the dining experience, particularly influencing appetite and acceptance of food (Cornell et al., 1989;Wadhera and Capaldi-Phillips, 2014;Jang and Kim, 2015;Ueda et al., 2020). In other words, how a meal looks provides a wealth of information and, most importantly, helps identify the food being considered. ...
... To avoid over-application of chemical products, growers require alternatives to ensure delivery of quality fruit (Korsten, 2006). Peel color in fruits is a quality attribute that influences consumer preference, and induces the expectation of flavor, taste and palatability (Wadhera & Capaldi-Phillips, 2014). Therefore, it is useful to construct color scales using instruments such as colorimeters, digital image processing and other objective color determination techniques to reduce the subjectivity of operators in the field or postharvest (Castro-Camacho et al., 2013). ...
... Para evitar el exceso de la aplicación de productos químicos, los productores requieren alternativas para asegurar la entrega de frutos con calidad (Korsten, 2006). El color de la cáscara en los frutos es un atributo de calidad que influye en la preferencia del consumidor, e induce la expectativa de sabor, gusto y palatabilidad (Wadhera & Capaldi-Phillips, 2014). Por ello, es útil construir escalas de colores utilizando instrumentos como colorímetros, procesamiento digital de imágenes y otras técnicas de determinación objetivas de color para reducir la subjetividad de los operadores en campo o postcosecha (Castro-Camacho et al., 2013). ...
Avocado scab causes great economic losses in Mexico and the world. This study aimed to provide an automatic method of quantifying this symptom. The proposed method uses polygonal regions from the a-b plane of the CIE L*a*b* color format to identify a color (even with variations) and different avocado fruit shades. The polygons were used to determine the scab percentage in 70 Hass avocado fruit images. The scab percentage was estimated with a diagrammatic scale, and the regression equation y = 0.5848x, with an r 2 = 0.80, was found when comparing these results with scab percentages obtained from digitized images (observed). With the method presented in this study, the equation y = 0.9923x was found, with an r2 = 0.8672, so the proposed automatic method performed better.
... For example, children with 43 ASD reported that they could not eat strawberries because the aggregates on the surface 44 were too much for their eyes (Heart-net, 2019). In general, eating behavior is influenced not 45 only by olfactory and gustatory information but also by visual information (Blechert et al.,46 2016; Kokaji & Nakatani, 2021;Spence et al., 2022;Wadhera & Capaldi-Phillips, 2014). In 47 the case of strawberries, the introspective reporter may have been more stressed by visually 48 related features than by smell or taste. ...
... Food neophobia has been suggested to be related to picky eating (N. C. Cole et al.,65 2017) and visual function (Wadhera & Capaldi-Phillips, 2014). Food neophobia is the most 66 prevalent of a variety of eating behavior problems in individuals with ASD (Kuschner 67 et al., 2015;Williams et al., 2000). ...
... This situation is possibly linked to wide (and most likely mutual) dissemination of photos and videos related to food. As a result, the ubiquity of food messages now extends beyond mainstream media (cookbooks, magazines, and television) to online social platforms such as the blogs, websites, Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, and Pinterest (Wadhera et al. 2014). ...
... Research suggests external cues have a significant influence on food consumption behaviour in adults (Wadhera et al. 2014). Additionally, a classic study indicates that the exposure to the sensory properties of palatable foods (including their visual properties) has increased the subjective desire for and consumption of food in spite of being fully satiated to begin with (Cornell et al. 1989). ...
Understanding the influence of social network sites (SNS) on food preoccupation is important to understanding the reasons behind the obesity epidemic and other food-related issues, such as food addiction and eating disorders, especially among university students. We documented the adaptation process and established the validity and reliability of the Social Network Sites Food Preoccupation Scale Malay Version among 100 students at a private university in Malaysia. Principal components analysis suggests the items in the inventory fall into a two-factor solution, consisting of an active (i.e., actively sharing and creating content) and a passive aspect (i.e., passively consuming content) of SNS food preoccupation. The scale demonstrates good convergent validity against the Malay Yale Food Addiction Scale 2.0, with an acceptable internal consistency and reliability overall (α = 0.886), in the Active subscale (α = 0.920), but were low in the Passive subscale (α = 0.653). The adapted Social Network Sites Food Preoccupation Scale (Malay Version) is deemed valid for usage among university students in Malaysia but requires further testing of its internal consistency.
Keywords: Social media network, food preoccupation, reliability, validity, cross-cultural validation, Malaysia, university students
... Regarding either color, form, taste, flavor or their crossmodal correspondences (for a literature overview see Piqueras-Fiszman et al., 2012;Piqueras-Fiszman and Spence 2014;Wadhera and Capaldi-Phillips 2014;Prescott 2015;Spence 2015;Velasco et al., 2016;Spence and Youssef 2019;Cifci et al., 2021;Spence and Levitan 2021) six food samples were assessed during the sessions. The food samples were created out of curiosity by our chef to try new variations outside of his restaurant: (1) different salt notes, (2) teas with different degrees of bitterness, (3) a naturally glutamate-rich shiitake risotto, (4) desserts with different fat contents, (5) cocktails with varying acids, and (6) sweet identical drops in different forms. ...
... As regards limitations, the focus of this evening was our culinary concept: offering our participants a tasting journey based on scientific literature with several food samples created by our cook. Therefore, the following limitations need to be addressed: Having in mind that behavior can be influenced by physical surroundings we kept contextual factors such as plate size, plate color, or lighting constant during all sessions (Oberfeld et al., 2009;Piqueras-Fiszman et al., 2012;Wadhera and Capaldi-Phillips 2014;Spence et al., 2014;Spence 2015). However, the occurrence of sequence effects (Dean 1980) could have been a possibility. ...
... These findings suggest that leaf toughness in basil is influenced by light-induced changes in both physical properties and biochemical composition. The texture of fresh produce is important to consumers [61,62]. Few studies have investigated consumers' preferences for basil texture. ...
Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) is highly sensitive to environmental conditions and is an ideal candidate for cultivation in controlled environment agriculture (CEA). Light-emitting diode technology has become essential in CEA, offering precise control over light intensity, spectrum, and duration. This study investigated how supplemental blue light, far-red light, or their combination influences basil biomass, morphology, texture, and color when added to a white + red light spectrum. Basil ’Prospera’ and ’Amethyst’ were exposed to five light treatments for 14–28 days: white + red at 180 µmol∙m⁻²∙s⁻¹ (W) as the control, and four treatments with an additional 60 µmol∙m⁻²∙s⁻¹ of either white + red (+W60), blue (+B60), far-red (+FR60), or a combination of B and FR (+B30+FR30), for a total photon flux density of 240 µmol∙m⁻²∙s⁻¹. The results demonstrated that +B60 and +W60 light treatments increased leaf thickness by 17–20% compared to the +FR60 treatment. Conversely, texture analysis revealed that +FR60-treated leaves had higher puncture resistance, with ’Amethyst’ and ’Prospera’ requiring 1.57 ± 0.43 N and 1.45 ± 0.35 N of force, respectively, compared to 1.19 ± 0.32 N and 1.1 ± 0.21 N under +B60. These findings suggest that tailored light recipes in CEA can optimize basil quality, allowing growers to modify traits like leaf color, thickness, and toughness.
... The term "platescapes" refers to the physical appearance of the food container from which the food is served, given shape, size, and colour (8). The first sensory contact with food is always through the eyes, even though taste is an essential factor influencing food intake (9). ...
Introduction: The plate and the foods create visual platescapes that can influence food intake in many ways. However, whether the plate colour could indirectly enhance hospitalised patients' appetite and reduce plate waste is unclear. This study aimed to determine plate waste percentage and whether blue plate (BP) has a lower plate waste percentage than white plate (WP) when served to hospitalised patients. This study also determined the interaction effect between plate colours on socio-demographic characteristics, medical background, nutritional status and appetite level with plate waste percentage. Materials and methods: This quasi-experimental study was conducted among patients who received a normal diet during one lunch hour and those in a public hospital in Selangor who received a normal diet. Plate waste was evaluated for the lunch menu for 125 meals. All the patients were randomly chosen to receive hospital meals from a WP or BP on the same day during lunch hour, and patients, with assistance from the researcher, completed the questionnaire. The primary outcome was the total plate waste percentage between the patients receiving BP and those receiving WP. Results: The result shows only a significant interaction effect between the plate colour and education level. After controlling for all the covariates, the plate waste percentage between the WP and BP remains significant. Conclusion: A significant difference in plate waste percentage between the plate colours suggests that BP indirectly improve appetite and reduces plate waste among hospitalised patients.
... The mere existence of a food product does not ensure its acceptance or accessibility to potential consumers. Various factors affect the acceptance and consumption of a food item, including its sensory properties (visual appearance, taste, smell, texture, etc.), cultural values, labeling, price, ease of access, emotional connections, and familiarity with the product [3][4][5][6]. ...
As an answer to the topic, "Does local, national, and international governance have a primary role in shaping the resilience of local ecological knowledge?" we explore the context of governance and wild food plant (WFP) value chains in Brazil. We chose to focus on WFP value chains because they are often deeply embedded with local ecological knowledge. We argue that: (1) the development or abandonment of public policies can significantly boost or hinder these value chains; (2) WFP harvesters face challenges in accessing national public policies that could support and promote these value chains; and (3) Brazilian policies must consider the specific land ownership issues affecting WFP harvesting communities. Additionally, we will discuss the main challenges in promoting and strengthening WFP value chains and how governance can address these issues.
... Providers should introduce specific benefits and cues of food preparation and delivery so that individual customers can make informed decisions. Providers can focus on quality information (Rahman et al., 2021) or benefits (Teichert et al., 2020) or visual cues (Wadhera & Capaldi-Phillips, 2014) that drive effect to target their markets. However, the choice would vary and depend on individuals' preferences. ...
Personal distress, an emotional response to social change, can influence consumer behavior. This study explores how post-COVID-19 distress affects online food purchasing (OFP) through the Health Belief Model (HBM). Analyzing data from 400 online food patrons, findings reveal that distress significantly shapes health beliefs and indirectly predicts OFP. HBM factors, such as perceived benefits and cues to action, further enhance OFP outcomes. The study extends HBM by incorporating distress as a key psychological mechanism, offering insights into its role in
digital consumer engagement. Theoretical and practical implications of post-pandemic distress in shaping online purchasing behavior are discussed.
... Visually exposing someone to an unfamiliar food before consumption can reduce their food neophobia and familiarize them with the food. Past research has indicated that children visually presented with new foods through pictures or in real life showed a greater willingness to try those foods than those who were not exposed [43] . To study the impacts of food neophobia in children, Dovey et al. exposed children to a visually similar and familiar fruit before showing them a new fruit. ...
The global childhood obesity epidemic has been a rising health concern over the past two decades. Obesity is associated with premature death, type 2 diabetes, and many other serious diseases and health conditions. Developing healthy eating habits early at a young age is a way to prevent diet-related diseases. Given the substantial increase in the prevalence of childhood obesity, various research studies have been conducted to treat this public health issue. Health campaigns worldwide have depended on multiple methods to reduce this crisis, including physical activity and diet-control programs, medicine, and surgery. Recent studies have found an additional promising and encouraging way to promote healthy eating among children: cartoons. Cartoons can affect cognitive development and encourage positive behaviors in children. Cartoons promoting a healthy diet can influence the food choices of children. However, cartoons have drawbacks as consuming media creates a sedentary lifestyle and could also be used to promote unhealthy foods to children. This review analyzes the effects of cartoons on children, how exposure to cartoon images can change children's behaviors and the underlying mechanisms of graphic media. Although using cartoon images is a promising way to reduce the prominence of childhood obesity, due to limited data concerning the long-term benefits of exposure to media, the combination of healthy eating cartoons with other traditional healthy eating techniques should also be considered.
... Besides affecting the odor and flavor of the fat inks, the addition of microalgae also impacts the color of the final product. When processing and cooking food, the visual appearance is highly relevant to enhance consumer acceptance of the product 41 . For that, we determined the color of the microalgae-containing fat inks through their respective RGB color code (see Supplementary data Table S2). ...
Cultured seafood offers a sustainable alternative to traditional seafood by eliminating the need for animal sacrifice and reducing environmental impacts. 3D bioprinting enables precise manufacturing of these products by combining animal cells with plant-based materials. This study introduces novel (bio)inks: (i) κ-CAM bioinks (κ-carrageenan, alginate, and methylcellulose) compatible with seabass cells; and (ii) mFAT inks, plant-based fat inks containing microalgae for enhanced organoleptic properties. κ-CAM bioinks revealed Young’s modulus between 14.62 and 25.70 kPa values, suitable for cultured seafood products. Both κ-CAM and mFAT formulations presented adequate printability (Pr~1). Dicentrarchus labrax Embryonic Cells, encapsulated in κ-CAM bioinks, maintained viabilities >76.14% for up to 15 days. A preliminary assessment confirmed that specific microalgae can enhance the sea-like smell and flavor of the mFAT ink, and a 3D-printed calamari was fabricated to showcase its potential in the manufacturing of complex structures. Finally, hybrid structures combining both types of (bio)inks were also developed.
... The sight of foods is one key element of the cephalic phase when the organism organizes a set of bodily responses in advance of ingestion (Smeets et al., 2010). Viewing appetizing foods may even trigger a desire to eat in the absence of hunger (Passamonti et al., 2009), and the visual appearance of foods and drinks is one determinant aspect of their acceptance (Wadhera & Capaldi-Phillips, 2014). It is thus to be expected that the hedonic experience may deteriorate when these cues are less readily accessible. ...
... Visual appearance also plays a crucial role in shaping consumer preferences, particularly in the context of fresh produce. Previous research has demonstrated that the initial sensory interaction with food frequently begins with its visual appearance, making it a key determinant of consumer liking (Hurling & Shepherd, 2003;Wadhera & Capaldi-Phillips, 2014). For many consumers, standard appearance is often seen as an indicator of quality, especially for fresh food (Acebron & Dopico, 2000;Göbel et al., 2015). ...
The valorization of misshapen fruits and vegetables (FV) offers a promising approach to tackling food waste by addressing deeply ingrained aesthetic preferences that influence consumer behavior. Embracing these imperfect yet nutritious products reduces food waste and also challenges the societal standards of beauty in produce, encouraging a broader shift toward sustainability and inclusivity in food consumption. This study aims to support the reduction of FV waste and valorization of misshapen FV by fulfilling two objectives: 1) To map and visualize the key research themes, trends, and relationships within the literature on consumer behavior toward misshapen FV, particularly in the context of food waste; 2) To identify the main drivers of misshapen FV waste and solutions to reduce their waste. Eighty-seven relevant papers (from Web of Science, timespan 1990–2024) were found and analyzed to meet the two objectives, following the Cochrane Rapid Reviews Methods recommendations and minimum standards for rapid reviews. The VOSviewer analysis was conducted for the first objective. It created a keyword network based on abstracts and revealed the central role of consumer awareness and visual biases in shaping purchasing decisions. For the second objective, a rapid review of the full texts was performed and it revealed drivers such as negative perceptions, disgust, and advertising of perfectly shaped products. The study suggests that by integrating sustainability goals with consumer behavior through focused education, marketing, and policies, there is substantial potential to minimize food waste and foster more sustainable consumption habits.
... By understanding color psychology, designers can also create visually compelling digital interfaces that resonate with audiences, evoke emotions, and reinforce brand identity (Wadhera & Capaldi-Phillips, 2014). ...
Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) focuses on user-centered design, which leads towards innovative yet user-friendly technologies. This field overlaps with User Experience (UX) Designer and Research. The main difference is the theoretical foundation of HCI, which heavily weighs on psychology, principles, and theories. Color is an essential aspect of art and design; often designers overlook the connotations associated with color. This paper intends to connect the fields of color psychology and HCI, thus explaining how professionals in the field can utilize the advantages of this framework. To study the effects of color within the realm of digital interface design, an experiment was under-taken with the goal of increasing user session time. A hypothesis was derived by assessing demographics, preferences, and trends despite color being traditionally perceived as innately subjective. The data collected from the experiment demonstrated that yellow shades of blue, in combination with a nonin-vasive color scheme (such as dark mode), can increase the time users spend browsing a webpage.
... The colour of food products is a crucial parameter influencing consumer acceptance. The less processed the product, and thus the closer its colour to the traditionally associated colour, the more willing consumers are to choose it [79][80][81]. Uribe-Wandurraga et al. [68] also observed that the additions of spirulina (0.5−1.5%) significantly increased the greenish tone in the corn extrudates, and total colour difference values of the enriched extrudates were perceptible to the human eye (ΔE in the range of 5−12). ...
Unconventional protein sources are currently extensively studied as food ingredients. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of 1.5% and 3% field cricket powder (GB) and 2–8% of its mixture (1:1) with spirulina powder (S) on the nutritional value, physicochemical properties, and sensory characteristics of corn extrudates. Additionally, 2% baking powder (BP) was added to assess its impact on the properties of the enriched extrudates. The results showed that both GB and GB + S improved nutritional value, with protein content increasing by up to 46% and higher levels of essential amino acids, particularly leucine and valine. However, these ingredients decreased the expansion ratio (by up to 15%), colour lightness (by up to 30%), and yellowness (by up to 47%) and increased the hardness (by up to 25%) of the corn extrudates. The S addition positively influenced product storage stability but decreased its sensory acceptance, especially aroma and taste. The BP addition mitigated the negative effects of higher GB and GB + S concentrations, particularly on sensory characteristics. In conclusion, incorporating up to 6% of the GB + S mixture provides a higher protein content with only minor changes to the product’s characteristics compared to GB. Ratings exceeding 4.2 points indicate the good acceptability of these snacks.
... Yiyeceklerin tercih edilmesini etkileyen faktörlerden biri fiziksel görünüşleridir (Lyman, 1989). Yemeğin fiziksel görünüşünün algılanan kalite ve yemekten hoşlanma üzerindeki etkisi farklı çalışmalarda araştırılmıştır (Fernandez vd., 2015;Imram, 1999;Wadhera & Capaldi-Phillips, 2014). Yemeğin görünüşünün yanında yemeğin sunumu da önemli diğer bir konudur. ...
TR: Aşçıların özenle tasarladığı ve insanların günümüzde sosyal medya paylaşımlarında da karşımıza çıkan yemekler tabağa özenle yerleştirilmeden önce bir tasarım sürecinden geçmektedir. Tabaklanan ve sunulan yemeklerin insanları etkilemesi bu yemeklerin tasarımının başarısına, malzemelerin harmonisine bağlıdır. Yemek tasarımı ilkelerine uyan ve bu konuda
yetenekli aşçılar tüketicileri etkileyerek başarı sağlayabilir. Yapay zekanın giderek hayatımıza
dahil olduğu günümüzde gastronomi alanında da bu yapay zeka ürünlerinden faydalanmak
mümkündür. Aşçıların tasarım süreçlerinde kullanabileceği yapay zeka modellerinden biri Bing görsel oluşturucudur. Bu çalışmada Bing görsel oluşturucu kullanılarak farklı yemek görselleri
oluşturulmuş ve değerlendirilmiştir. Bing görsel oluşturucunun genel performansının oldukça tatmin edici olduğu söylenebilir. Fakat kullanırken dikkat edilmesi gereken, aşçıların istediği
yemek görseline ulaşım açısından yapay zekanın performansını olumsuz yönde etkileyebilen hususlar bulunmaktadır.
ENG: The dishes, carefully designed by chefs and now frequently encountered in people's social media posts, go through a design process before being artfully arranged on the plate. The ability
of plated and presented dishes to captivate individuals depends on the success of their design and the harmony of their
ingredients. Chefs who adhere to the principles of food design and are skilled in this area can achieve success by impressing consumers. In today's world, where artificial intelligence is increasingly integrated into our lives, it's also possible to benefit from these AI tools in the field of gastronomy. One of the artificial intelligence models that chefs can utilize in their design processes is Bing Image Creator. In this study, different food images were
created using Bing visual generator and these images were evaluated. It can be said that the overall performance of Bing Image Creator is quite satisfactory. However, it should be noted
that there are aspects to consider while using it, as the performance of artificial intelligence can negatively impact the desired food images for chefs.
... Similarly, practises like "adjuvant intake", "pill spacing" and "routinisation of medication intake" helped them turn pill consumption into a routine process and created an opportunity for cognitively 30 normalising the aversion associated with consumption. 31,32 Increased adaption to drugs with progressive treatment stages could be due to the cumulative biological improvements and continuous drug exposure leading to sustained perceptual adaptions and habituation. Distinguishing such adaptive difference during the timeline of treatment could help develop phased psycho-social interventions with varying intensity as compared to pre-determined modules. ...
Background
One-fifth of people with drug-resistance tuberculosis (DR-TB) who were initiated on newer shorter treatment regimen (with injection) had unfavourable treatment outcomes in India as on 2020. Evidence on self-driven solutions and resilience adapted by people with DR-TB (PwDR-TB) towards their multi-dimensional disease and treatment challenges are scarce globally, which we aimed to understand.
Methods
In this qualitative study using positive deviance framework, we conducted semi-structured in-depth interviews among consenting adult PwDR-TB (7 women, 13 men) who completed shorter treatment regimen (including injections) with maximum treatment adherence. The study was conducted in the southern districts of Bengaluru and Hyderabad, India between June 2020 and December 2022. Caregivers (14 women, 6 men) and health providers (8 men, 2 women) of PwDR-TB were also interviewed. Interviews were conducted in local language (Kannada, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu and Hindi) and inquired about practices, behaviours, experiences, perceptions and attributes which enabled maximum adherence and resilience of PwDR-TB. Interviews were audio recorded, transcribed, and translated to English and coded for thematic analysis using inductive approach.
Findings
Distinctive themes explanatory of the self-driven solutions and resilience exhibited by PwDR-TB and their caregivers were identified: (i) Self-adaptation towards the biological consequences of drugs, by personalised nutritional and adjuvant practices, which helped to improve drug ingestion and therapeutic effects. Also home remedies and self-plans for ameliorating injection pain. (ii) Perceptual adaptation towards drugs aversion and fatigue, by their mind diversion practices, routinisation and normalisation of drug intake process. and constant reinforcement and re-interpretation of bodily signs of disease recovery (iii) Family caregivers intense and participatory care for PwDR-TB, by aiding their essential life activities and ensuring survival, learning and fulfilling special nutritional needs and goal oriented actions to aid drug intake (iv) Health care providers care, marked by swift and timely risk mitigation of side-effects and crisis response (v) Acquired self-efficacy of PwDR-TB, by their decisive family concerns resulting in attitudinal change. Also being sensitised on the detrimental consequences of disease and being motivated through positive examples.
Interpretation
Synthesised findings on self-driven solutions and resilience towards the multi–dimensional DR-TB challenges provides opportunity for developing and testing new interventions for its effectiveness in DR-TB care settings globally. Designing and testing personalised cognitive interventions for PwDR-TB: to inculcate attitudinal change and self-efficacy towards medication, developing cognitive reinforcements to address the perception burden of treatment, skill building and mainstreaming the role of family caregivers as therapeutic partners of PwDR-TB, curating self-adaptive behaviours and practices of PwDR-TB to normalise their drug consumptions experiences could be the way forward in building resilience towards DR-TB.
Funding
10.13039/100000200United States Agency for International Development (USAID) through Karnataka Health Promotion Trust (KHPT), Bengaluru, India.
... The research conducted by Wadhera and Capaldi-Phillips [17] primarily centers around the identification of visual cues obtained from the appealing patterns formed on metal surfaces due to corrosion, fractures, and abrasions. These cues are utilized to classify different types of defects and to quantify their dimensions, including the length and depth of the deformations. ...
This article aims to provide a concise overview of diverse methodologies employed at different stages of a pattern recognition system, highlighting contemporary research challenges and applications in this dynamic field. The integration of machine learning techniques has played a pivotal role in converging pattern recognition frameworks in academic literature. The process relies heavily on supervised or unsupervised categorization methods to achieve its objectives, with a notable focus on statistical approaches. More recently, there is a growing emphasis on incorporating neural network methodologies and insights from statistical learning theory. Designing an effective recognition system necessitates careful consideration of various factors, including pattern representation, pattern class definition, feature extraction, sensing environment, feature selection, classifier learning and design, cluster analysis, test and training sample selection, and performance assessment.
... Although appearances play a pivotal role in decision-making, studies highlight a societal bias toward visually appealing produce, which can, potentially hindering sustainable consumption practices (Helmert et al., 2017;de Hooge et al., 2018). Beneath this surface-level obsession lies a complex reality: the relentless pursuit of cosmetic perfection in agriculture has led to industrial practices that often overlook nature's inherent diversity and the subtleties of ecological balance (Wadhera and Capaldi-Phillips, 2014). Employing advanced breeding technologies and heavily relying on toxic chemicals, the industrial agricultural complex has sculpted our food to meet superficial standards, often at the expense of sustainability, health, and the environment. ...
... Christmas dinner is all about reuniting the family, food celebration, and the way the house, room, and table look, smells, and attracts everyone around it. Considering that appearance, taste, odor, texture, temperature, and flavor, along with taste, all impact the amount of food intake, Wadhera Devina and Calapdi-Phillips Elizabeth propose a review that identifies various visual factors associated with food, such as proximity, visibility, color, variety, portion, size height, shape number, volume and the surface area that affect foot acceptance and consumption [89]. The authors used the combination of dietary intake and visual cue keywords to generate scientific, peer-reviewed articles from prestigious databases, such as Medline, Nutrition, PsychINFO, and marketing databases and included both children and adults. ...
(1) Background: There has been a growing interest in understanding the causes of obesity and developing effective prevention strategies. Lifestyle change programs are often considered the gold standard for weight reduction, and they can help individuals with obesity achieve an annual weight loss of around 8–10%. The aim of this review was to evaluate the effect of food during the winter holidays. This knowledge will serve as a valuable foundation for the development of targeted interventions and prevention programs. (2) Methods: We conducted a systematic search of the literature via one database (PubMed). The search was limited to studies published in English in the last 10 years, with adult participants, but without specifying limits regarding the study design. We excluded articles that addressed intermittent fasting diets or weight loss intervention methods during the holidays through various diets. (3) In separate sections, we analyzed the psychological causes of gaining weight during the winter holidays, behavioral patterns, prevention strategies and the nutritional composition of the different types of food served during the festive period. Results: Using the combination of the terms “holiday and obesity”, “holiday and weight gain”, “festive season and obesity”, and “festive season and weight gain” we obtained 216 results involving the addressed topic. Thus, only ten articles remained after screening, with a total of 4627 participants. Most participants experienced weight fluctuations during the study period, particularly during holidays. One concerning observation was that most of the weight gained during these periods was maintained even after the end of the studies, especially in those with obesity. A supervised exercise program and a controlled diet at work over the Christmas period are effective strategies for avoiding weight gain and its deleterious effects in people with metabolic syndrome or weight problems. (4) In addition, attention must be focused on the psycho-social factors during the holidays because for some people it is a stressful period and can cause a much higher caloric consumption. The simplest method to approach during the holidays is to implement small tips and tricks during this period that will prevent individuals from gaining extra pounds. Conclusions: It is essential to acknowledge that obesity is a multifaceted condition that requires a comprehensive and multidisciplinary approach to address its underlying factors and provide ongoing assistance to individuals in their weight-management endeavors. Even the most effective short-term interventions are likely to produce continued positive outcomes with persistent intervention and support.
... Food shaping has the potential to improve the appeal of food for older adults with swallowing difficulties [1], and such enhancement can increase its consumption [2]. Encouraging the consumption of food is particularly important in residential aged care settings, where it has been estimated that up to 50% of residents are malnourished [3,4]. ...
Objective: Food-shaping methods, particularly for texture-modified foods, present numerous opportunities to improve the visual appeal of food and potentially the nutrition of older people with dysphagia (swallowing difficulty). This review appraises and synthesizes the evidence on the use of food-shaping methods to enhance nutrition in older adults with swallowing difficulties.
Methods: In August 2022, five electronic databases (PubMed, CINAHL, Scopus, Cochrane Library, and Web of Science) were searched for original research related to the intersection of nutrition, food shaping, and older adults with swallowing difficulties. Characteristics of included studies were described and data from results and findings extracted for analysis across studies.
Results: Eighteen studies met the inclusion criteria and encompassed a variety of settings, including aged care settings (n = 15) and food science laboratories (n = 3). Qualitative and quantitative findings demonstrated a variety of impacts of food shaping for the older adult with swallowing difficulty, including enhanced nutrition and wellbeing. The content themes identified across studies were: links between food shaping and nutrition, shaping food for individual choice, food shaping for enjoyment, a combination of supporting factors, collaborative inter-disciplinary teams and roles, and implementation aligns with local contexts.
Conclusion: With recent growth in research on food shaping, the body of studies reviewed identified an influence of food-shaping methods on the nutritional status of older adults with swallowing difficulties. Given the identified potential benefit of food shaping and attention to the visual appeal of food for older people, further research examining links between food shaping and nutrition are warranted.
... Thereby, the popular adage "you eat with your eyes" (Hurling and Shepherd, 2003;Delwiche, 2012;Spence et al., 2016). Several studies have been conducted to show that visual cues prompt flavor or satiation expectations for our food (Wadhera and Capaldi-Phillips, 2014;Spence, 2015) The presentation of a dish on a plate, the cutlery used (Wansink et al., 2005), or even the packaging (Spence, 2018) influence the appeal of a given food, our behavior towards the food and even how satiated the food can make us feel. Visual food cues constitute a primary sensory input that allows predictions about the edibility and palatability of a food object (Blechert et al., 2014). ...
In this paper, we explore the current technical possibilities of eating in virtual reality (VR) and show how this could be used to influence eating behaviors. Cue-based exposure therapy is a well-known method used to treat eating disorders. There are several benefits to using VR in combination with cue-based therapy. However, before VR-based cue-exposure can be used for therapeutic purposes, the ability of the VR environment to elicit craving responses in participants must be assessed. This was the objective of the first part of the study, where we assessed whether our VR environment elicited food craving responses in participants. Results showed that our VR environment elicited food craving responses: Salivation Magnitude, Food Craving State and Urge to Eat was significantly different from the neutral baseline. In addition, results showed that food cravings measured through the salivation magnitude in response to the virtual condition were not significantly different from the real condition, thus showing that VR had a comparable effect on producing food cravings. The second part of the study was conducted to determine whether the addition of olfactory and interaction cues in VR increased the development of food cravings. The results of this part showed that adding synthetic olfactory cues, paired with visual cues, to our system, provided a significant further increase in food cravings. Our results demonstrate that the use of food cues in VR can increase the development of food cravings and that it is possible to provide a simple yet convincing eating experience in VR. Inevitably, food interaction in VR is still underexplored territory and further research is needed to improve utility and application in disciplines related to food and eating.
The food industry uses visual sensory attributes of the products to communicate with consumers, both in physical locations and online platforms. Recent technological advancements, particularly interactive digital interfaces, have made visual cues even more influential in food marketing. This study evaluates the synergistic effects of different menu formats and visual sensory cues in shifting consumer preferences toward sustainable food options, addressing the need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. A traditional Turkish rice pudding was used as a case study. Four sample variants with varying visual textural complexities were prepared by halving the standard portion size and layering it gradually with soft, crispy, crunchy, and airy foods. Using Blender software, two sets of 3D visuals—non‐informative (photographs only) and informative (photographs with product information)—were created for control and four variants and placed side by side. These visuals were then transferred to three different menu formats: paper, 2D touch screen, and 3D touch screen. A total of 180 participants evaluated the visuals via the assigned menu formats. Multivariate ANOVA was used to analyze the results. Participants consistently preferred the variant with three textural layers (soft, crispy, and crunchy) over the traditional dessert, regardless of menu formats and experimental conditions ( p > 0.05), leading to a reduction in carbon emissions by over 30%. The 2D touch screen slightly increased preference rates and reduced variability compared to other formats. This supports the Variety‐Seeking Behavior Theory, Elaboration Likelihood Model, and Cognitive Load Theory, suggesting that this format imposes optimal cognitive load and is the most engaging.
La presente investigación tiene como objetivo analizar la influencia del emplatado en la experiencia del comensal en la gastronómica, destacando su papel en la percepción visual que los comensales tienen del emplatado. Investigaciones previas han evidenciado que un emplatado estético puede aumentar la disposición a pagar por un platillo. En un contexto de alta competencia en la industria gastronómica, el estudio busca profundizar en la relación entre la percepción visual y la experiencia culinaria, a través de una encuesta que busca identificar cómo los comensales perciben un emplatado de tilapia frita, donde se demostró que los atributos de la estética del emplatado impactan en la decisión de compra, generando sensaciones de anticipación o desagrado según su presentación, siendo el grupo de las mujeres quienes fueron más selectivas al momento de evaluar el emplatado.
Much research in food psychology has examined the influence of perceptual features – color, texture, packaging – on preference for that food. Here, we addressed the reverse question of the influence of food preference on the perception of its quantity. Does a portion of a loved food appear different than the same portion of a hated food? We probed this question by employing state-of-the-art tools of psychophysics, which allowed us the parallel examination of several long-standing issues of psychophysics. The latter included the difference between symbolic and non-symbolic number, the difference between the methods of Magnitude Estimation and Magnitude Production, the difference between under- or over-estimation and rate of growth measured by the (slope of) psychophysical function as well as the derivation of the Difference Threshold by the method of Constant Stimuli. We addressed the question of an effect on perception of food valence with four distinct experiments. Presenting real food items, we found that perceived quantity is a compressive function of objective quantity regardless of valence; both loved- and hated-food dynamics are governed by Stevens’ power function with an exponent of 0.8. In absolute terms, applying Magnitude Estimation, we witnessed a gross underestimation for loved and hated food alike. In contrast, applying Magnitude Production, participants underproduced loved food, but overproduced hated food. For discrimination of food quantity, we found better resolving power for hated food. Collectively, our results show that, across diverse psychophysical evaluations, food valence affects its perception, especially when people actively regulate the to-be-consumed portion.
Food waste indicates ineffective and irresponsible consumption of resources, particularly during the food consumption stage. The aim of our research study is to optimize the catering management process at Latvian schools by reducing the amount of plate waste. The experts developed a set of recommendations aimed at improving the catering management process at schools. The recommendations developed were supported by measurable parameters, which must be monitored by school staff. The capability-driven development approach was applied to model the recommendation system. A plate waste predictive module and a large language model classifier were integrated into the system to support sustainable decision-making. The large language model classifier was trained to filter questions and recommendations. Three training methods were compared: training from scratch and finetuning by using datasets DBPedia and News Category Dataset. As a result, we present the list of recommendations based on the literature review, and the prototype of the knowledge-based recommendation system was developed to audit the school catering management process and promote sustainable school management and decision-making. The recommendation system aims to reduce plate waste due to deficiencies in the implementation of the catering process and to promote responsible food consumption at schools.
The presented review concerns the cross-disciplinary approaches to the subject of blue food and blue colourants, the socio-cultural aspects of blue food and beverage consumption, human health effects, environmental impact, and economic aspects. Blue colour in relation to food is not only about improving visual appeal, to which the addition of food colouring is usually limited when the food is coloured in some way that does not encourage eating. It is also the rich and complex sociological side related to food, that is, not only the food itself but also the background, dishware, and light, depending on whether we want to encourage—to increase consumption—or discourage—to, for example, reduce the amount of food eaten for dietary purposes. The negative side of consuming and disposing of synthetic dyes and the health-promoting aspects of natural dyes are also mentioned, with the economic and environmental aspects of sourcing natural dyes being discussed. The food industry uses blue dyes not only for consumption, but also for food quality control, taking advantage of the pH-dependent colour change properties of the compound.
s study was conducted for 84 days to evaluate performance of noiler chicken fed maize cob A and groundnut shell marsh (1:1) at different inclusion levels. A total of one hundred and fifty unsexed noiler chicks were randomly allotted into five dietary treatments in a completely randomized design. Each treatment was replicated thrice with ten birds per replicate. Birds on treatments1, 2, 3,4 and 5 were fed the basal diet at inclusion level of 0%, 5%, 10%, 15% and 20%, with maize cob and groundnut shell marsh in partial replacement of maize grain, respectively. Feed and water were provided ad libitum. Data were collected on feed intake, weight gain and feed conversion ratio. 5ml of blood sample were collected for haematology and serum biochemistry analysis from 3 birds per replicate via the wing vein. All data generated were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA). Result of the growth performance showed no significant (p>0.05) difference in all the parameters measured except for the feed intake (FI) feed conversion ratio (FCR) and mortality (%). The result of the hematological parameter shows significant differences (P<0.05), in the values of white blood cell (WBC) and lymphocytes (LYM) only. The serum biochemistry shows significant differences in the value of Creatinine. (Mg/dl), Triglycerides (Try Mg/dL), Total bilirubin (Mmol/L) and Alanine aminotransferase (ALTiu/L) (P<0.05).The carcass characteristics showed no significant difference. Hence result obtained from this research can be recommended for inclusion of maize cob and groundnut shell marsh up to 20% as partial replacement of maize grain in the diet of Noiler birds. 62
The key packaging element in healthy snacks is the ingredient. This research highlights the use of eye tracking by companies to achieve greater effectiveness on the consumer's attention. Three healthy snacks were presented to analyze whether there are differences in their attention, choice, and purchase intention according to the type of ingredient. An eye‐tracking device and a questionnaire were applied and the results showed that the central area of the packaging of healthy snacks in which the ingredients are shown attracts more attention. Positive relationships between the choice of a snack and the intention to purchase it, and between the total fixation duration and the choice of a product were found. Food products with more hedonic components (flavor, e.g., chocolate) were much more visually attractive and captured more attention. At the same time, those products with less desirable or palatable ingredients were chosen less.
Practical Applications
This research provides insights into how packaging design influences consumer perceptions of healthy snacks. Food packaging plays a crucial role in capturing consumer attention and communicating information that affects their purchasing decisions. In this context, understanding how consumers direct their attention and what information they consider when evaluating products is essential for professionals in fields such as food science, marketing and graphic design, where the use of eye‐tracking devices is key. Furthermore, resistance to less desirable or unfamiliar products hinders purchase intent, suggesting the need to improve their appeal and communicate their health benefits. This study confirms that, when designing the packaging of healthy snacks, it is necessary to focus more on the central part of the packaging, which should show the composition and its appearance with a real image of it.
Food design has long served as a means for restaurants to cater to the dietary preferences of their clientele. These designs, rooted in practicality, initially bear specific intentions from their creators, effectively acting as conduits through which chefs communicate messages to discerning palates. This comprehensive review aims to provide a meticulous exploration of the current landscape of food design, encompassing its connections to food culture and the multifaceted manifestations of processed food in terms of shapes, colors, and textures. The data draws from a substantial pool of 175 previous research articles, predominantly prioritizing high-quality sources to bolster the overall rigor of the review. Systematic organization of the literature was facilitated through Mendeley, with content analysis conducted via NVivo, and the integration of Sankey Diagrams to visualize data representation. This review unveils a compelling trend in the proliferation of food designs featuring 3D printing technology, marking a promising step forward in culinary innovation, with an increasing emphasis on the integration of artificial intelligence. This synthesis bridges the realms of food design and culinary aesthetics, forging new connections between established concepts and the latest frontiers in scientific inquiry. As the culinary world continues to evolve, this review positions itself as a significant literature contribution, offering valuable insights into the future of food design.
With the rising prevalence of overweight and obesity, helping people control/ manage their energy intake is important. Foods/ recipes that can confer satiety would help in this regard. Each of the macronutrients has different effects on satiety, with protein conferring greater satiety. In the present study, nine common Indian equicaloric recipes that varied in their macronutrient composition were tested for their satiety. Standard recipes for these were prepared providing approximately 15% energy from protein, 20% from fat and about 40% from carbohydrates. In the test recipes, either energy contribution from protein was raised to 30%, or fat contributed about 40% with carbohydrates, giving about 48% energy. In the high carbohydrate versions, carbohydrate recipes provided about 80% energy while fat provided only 6% energy. Satiety was assessed with 35-47 participants and satiety scores were calculated by area under the curve. Satiety scores were positively correlated with protein and bre content but were negatively correlated with fat. There was no correlation between carbohydrate content and satiety scores. High protein variations had higher cooked weights, tended to have lower energy density and delayed hunger for a longer period. The mixture of dairy and plant protein sources gave greater satiety than did plant sources and dairy sources alone gave the lowest satiety. Also, sweet recipes were rated lower than savoury ones. It would be worthwhile to examine the effect of different sources of plant proteins with and without dairy proteins as the latter appeared to be less satiating than plant proteins.
Understanding how social practices, like cooking, evolve and network in our daily lives is crucial for addressing sustainability and well-being challenges. While existing research prioritizes swift and holistic transformation of the network of practices, a critical gap exists in comprehending how these networks form and how they can be analyzed in practice. This study addresses this gap by introducing a novel analytical framework. This framework, which moves beyond analyzing the ‘performative’ aspects of practices (e.g., food sharing), sheds light on how interactions with objects shape and contribute to the emergence and interconnectedness of practices. By applying this framework to the case study of note-by-note cooking, we showcase its utility in three key scenarios: Unveiling the “Why”: Analyzing how objects become “ideologically coded” within practice networks allows us to understand the underlying factors shaping them. This empowers researchers and practitioners to identify and potentially “recode” unsustainable or undesirable practices towards desired outcomes. Strategic Intervention: By strategically introducing new objects into the network, the framework provides insights into “neutralizing” the influence of undesirable practices. This targeted approach allows for more nuanced interventions within existing practice networks. Cultivating New Practices: The framework empowers researchers and practitioners to develop or “encode” alternative practices by leveraging object–practitioner interactions. This enables the creation of entirely new practices or the expansion of existing ones, fostering positive societal transformations.
The use of technological tools, in the food industry, has allowed a quick and reliable identification and measurement of the sensory characteristics of food matrices is of great importance, since they emulate the functioning of the five senses (smell, taste, sight, touch, and hearing). Therefore, industry and academia have been conducting research focused on developing and using these instruments which is evidenced in various studies that have been reported in the scientific literature. In this review, several of these technological tools are documented, such as the e-nose, e-tongue, colorimeter, artificial vision systems, and instruments that allow texture measurement (texture analyzer, electromyography, others). These allow us to carry out processes of analysis, review, and evaluation of food to determine essential characteristics such as quality, composition, maturity, authenticity, and origin. The determination of these characteristics allows the standardization of food matrices, achieving the improvement of existing foods and encouraging the development of new products that satisfy the sensory experiences of the consumer, driving growth in the food sector. However, the tools discussed have some limitations such as acquisition cost, calibration and maintenance cost, and in some cases, they are designed to work with a specific food matrix.
Smell is highly significant in how humans perceive food. Accordingly, olfactory disorders typically cause changes in patients’ feeding behaviour. Olfactory and gustatory dysfunction may significantly impair patients’ quality of life and alter the diet they choose to eat [1, 2]. The process of eating food consists of two principal stages, namely an anticipatory stage, wherein the food is seen and its aroma arouses orthonasal perception, and a consumption stage, where the food enters the mouth and any aroma is perceived in a retronasal fashion [3]. Everybody is familiar with the way a coryzal illness alters gustatory perception, and this experience illustrates how significant olfaction is for perceiving food or drink to be tasty [4]. Research has so far focused mainly on how individuals change their diet in response to olfactory dysfunction [5–7], rather than how food actually tastes to people in this situation [8]. Response inhibition is sensitive to unexpected changes in the environment triggered by emotional stimuli [9].KeywordsOlfactoryFeeding behaviourSatietyDietFood
There is a growing demand for practical and healthy food products. Obtaining naturally colored breakfast cereals with the incorporation of functional ingredients is a promising alternative for consumers that are looking for healthiness. This study aimed to evaluate the feasibility of using vegetable flours, rich in pigments, to obtain naturally colored breakfast cereals through thermoplastic extrusion. Vegetables considered "unsuitable for the retail market", classified as "type B", were used to prepare different flours from carrot (CF), spinach (SF) and beetroot (BF). Extrudates were produced from a mixture of 90% broken rice (BR) and 10% vegetable flour (CF, SF or BF). Besides giving the extrudates a natural color, the use of vegetable flours also provided nutritional and functional enrichment due to increased mineral, protein, lipid, fiber and phenolic compound contents, and greater antioxidant capacity. However, some of these components, such as fibers, affect extrudate physical structure and technological characteristics, evidenced by reduced expansion, hardness, paste viscosity and greater interaction with water present in milk under consumption conditions. In general, the evaluated flours proved to be an alternative for imparting a natural color to extruded breakfast cereals, in addition to positively contributing to their nutritional and functional value.
Recently, researchers have developed an interest in the analysis of emotional responses to food. For this reason, the use of implicit (non-verbal) measures to assess consumer response is increasing. In this research, the objective is to find out if there were differences in consumer response (conscious and unconscious) to melon of various origins: Spain, Morocco and Brazil. To do this, we used the biometric measures (Electroencephalography (EEG) and Skin Conductance Response (SCR)) and questionnaires to assess various melon attributes. The results reveal that consumers do not respond differently to fruit from different origins, either consciously or unconsciously.
It is hypothesized that food, which is certainly a necessary commodity with powerful positive reinforcing qualities, also provides a potential threat to organisms, including humans. The act of eating, although necessary for the provision of energy, is a particularly disruptive event in a homeostatic sense. Just as humans learn responses to help them tolerate the administration of dangerous drugs, so do they learn to make anticipatory responses that help minimize the impact of meals on the body, to limit the amount of food consumed within any individual meal, to recruit several parts of the protective stress–response system while meals are being processed, and to limit postprandial behaviors so as to minimize the possibility of disrupting homeostatic systems even more. It is further hypothesized that defenses against eating too much may become activated inappropriately and contribute to clinical problems such as reactive hypoglycemia.
The authors previously reported that chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) showed a striking bias to select the larger of 2 candy arrays, despite a reversed reward contingency in which the animals received the smaller, nonselected array as a reward, except when Arabic numerals were used as stimuli. A perceptual or incentive-based interference occurred that was overcome by symbolic stimuli. The authors of the present study examined the impact of element size in choice arrays, using 1 to 5 large and small candies. Five test-sophisticated chimpanzees selected an array from the 2 presented during each trial. Their responses were not optimal, as animals generally selected arrays with larger total mass; thus, they received the smaller remaining array as a reward. When choice stimuli differed in size and quantity, element size was more heavily weighted, although choices reflected total candy mass. These results replicate previous findings showing chimpanzees' difficulties with quantity judgments under reverse reward contingencies and also show that individual item size exerts a more powerful interference effect.
To examine the association between the frequency of consuming restaurant food and body fatness in adults.
Usual free-living dietary intake and the frequency of consuming food from seven different restaurant types (fried chicken, burger, pizza, Chinese, Mexican, fried fish, and "other") were assessed by food frequency questionnaire in 73 healthy men and women [ages 19 to 80, body mass index (BMI) 18 to 33]. In addition, body fatness (percent weight) was determined by hydrostatic weighing, and physical activity and other lifestyle parameters were assessed by questionnaire. The relationship between the frequency of consuming restaurant food and body fatness was determined after controlling for age, sex, and other confounders by using multiple regression techniques.
Restaurant food consumption averaged 7.5+/-8.5 (Standard Deviation) times/month. After controlling for age and sex, the frequency of consuming restaurant food was positively associated with body fatness (partial r = 0.36, p = 0.003). The strength of this association did not change after controlling for education level, smoking status, and alcohol intake, but after additionally controlling for physical activity, the partial r increased to 0.42 (p = 0.004). Total daily intakes of energy, fat, and fiber were significantly associated with restaurant food consumption frequency (r = 0.59, 0.28, and -0.45, respectively, p = 0.02 to 0.0001).
The frequency of consuming restaurant food was positively associated with increased body fatness in adults. The increasing proportion of household food income spent on food prepared away from home in the United States may therefore help explain the rising national prevalence of obesity.
Sweetness of cherry-flavored and colored beverages, containing 3.2 to 4.8% sucrose, was quantified by a panel of 10 men and women, ages 22–50, using magnitude estimation. Five intensities of cherry colors were formulated using increasing volumes of Red 40 and a constant volume of both Blue 1 and imitation cherry flavoring. Color measurements from the Gardner XL-23 Colorimeter and the G. E. Recording Spectrophotometer were converted to L*, a* and b*. Sweetness was evaluated against sucrose concentration and arctan (a*/b*). Magnitude tests to evaluate color acceptability and pleasantness were also conducted. All magnitude estimates were normalized and subjected to a two-way ANOVA. Sweetness perception was highly correlated with increasing sucrose concentration (r2> .90), producing a power function exponent of 1.98. Sweetness increased approximately 3 to 13% with increasing color intensity in solutions containing 3.96 to 4.4% sucrose. The exponent describing the sweetness-color relationship was less than 1.0...
Given the number of volume judgments made by consumers, for example, deciding which package is larger and by how much, it is surprising that little research pertaining to volume perceptions has been done in marketing. In this article, the authors examine the interplay of expectations based on perceptual inputs versus experiences based on sensory input in the context of volume perceptions. Specifically, they examine biases in the perception of volume due to container shape. The height of the container emerges as a vital dimension that consumers appear to use as a simplifying visual heuristic to make a volume judgment. However, perceived consumption, contrary to perceived volume, is related inversely to height. This lowered perceived consumption is hypothesized and shown to increase actual consumption. A series of seven laboratory experiments programmatically test model predictions. Results show that perceived volume, perceived consumption, and actual consumption are related sequentially. Furthermore, the authors show that container shape affects preference, choice, and postconsumption satisfaction. The authors discuss theoretical implications for contrast effects when expectancies are disconfirmed, specifically as they relate to biases in visual information processing, and provide managerial implications of the results for package design, communication, and pricing.
Transparent packages are pervasive in food consumption environments. Yet prior research has not systematically examined whether and how transparent packaging affects food consumption. The authors propose that transparent packaging has two opposing effects on food consumption: it enhances food salience, which increases consumption (salience effect), and it facilitates consumption monitoring, which decreases consumption (monitoring effect). They argue that the net effect of transparent packaging on food consumption is moderated by food characteristics (e.g., unit size, appearance). For small, visually attractive foods, the monitoring affect is low, so the salience effect dominates, and people eat more from a transparent package than from an opaque package. For large foods, the monitoring effect dominates the salience effect, decreasing consumption. For vegetables, which are primarily consumed for their health benefits, consumption monitoring is not activated, so the salience effect dominates, which ironically decreases consumption. The authors' findings suggest that marketers should offer small foods in transparent packages and large foods and vegetables in opaque packages to increase postpurchase consumption (and sales).
Built environments at many scales influence the type and amount of food consumed. Macroscale food systems and food landscapes influence food choices, and microscale rooms, furniture, containers, and objects influence food intake. The authors review literature about how four ubiquitous microscale built environments are persistent but often unrecognized influences on food intake. Kitchenscapes influence food intake through availability, diversity, and visibility of foods; tablescapes through variety, abundance, and accessibility; platescapes through portion and/or package size, arrangement, and utensil type; and food-scapes through food-item forms and landmarks. Microgeographies of built environments provide a subtle, pervasive, and often unconscious influence on food choices, food intake, obesity, and health. Reengineering built environments may offer opportunities to shape food intake.
Currently little is known about how the non-edible items associated with eating and drinking (tableware items such as the plates, bowls, cutlery, glasses, bottles, condiment containers, etc.), or even environmental factors (such as the lighting and/or background music), affect people’s perception of foodstuffs. Here, we review the latest evidence demonstrating the importance of these contextual variables on the consumer’s behavioural and hedonic response to, and sensory perception of, a variety of food and drink items. These effects are explained by a combination of psychological factors (high level attributes, such as perceived quality, that may be mediating the effects under consideration), perceptual factors (such as the Ebbinghaus-Titchener size-contrast illusion and colour contrast in the case of the colour of the plateware affecting taste/flavour perception), and physiological-chemical factors (such as differences in the release of volatile organic compounds from differently-shaped wine glasses). Together, these factors help to explain the growing body of evidence demonstrating that both the tableware and the environment can have a profound effect on our perception of food and drink.
Background
To evaluate the effect of food aroma on bite size, a semisolid vanilla custard dessert was delivered repeatedly into the mouth of test subjects using a pump while various concentrations of cream aroma were presented retronasally to the nose. Termination of the pump, which determined bite size, was controlled by the subject via a push button. Over 30 trials with 10 subjects, the custard was presented randomly either without an aroma, or with aromas presented below or near the detection threshold.
Results
Results for ten subjects (four females and six males), aged between 26 and 50 years, indicated that aroma intensity affected the size of the corresponding bite as well as that of subsequent bites. Higher aroma intensities resulted in significantly smaller sizes.
Conclusions
These results suggest that bite size control during eating is a highly dynamic process affected by the sensations experienced during the current and previous bites.
Prior research has found that under certain conditions, small packages can paradoxically increase consumption. The authors build on this work by suggesting that people low in appearance self-esteem (ASE) are particularly sensitive to external control properties (i.e., packaging-related factors that signal the ability of packaging to regulate food intake) and, as a result, increase consumption levels when packages are small (vs. large or absent). Factors that highlight the external control properties of small packages, such as the visibility of product quantity, location of the caloric content, and communicated caloric content, further increase consumption, particularly among people with low ASE. The underlying process appears to be, at least in part, cognitively driven. The effects are mitigated when participants are under cognitive load, and the findings are mediated by cognitions regarding the ability of small packages to regulate food intake. The results have important practical implications suggesting that to quell the effects of small packages on overconsumption, emphasis on the external control properties of small packages should be minimized.
Objective To examine the self-reported importance of taste, nutrition, cost, convenience, and weight control on personal dietary choices and whether these factors vary across demographic groups, are associated with lifestyle choices related to health (termed health lifestyle), and actually predict eating behavior.Design Data are based on responses to 2 self-administered cross-sectional surveys. The main outcomes measured were consumption of fruits and vegetables, fast foods, cheese, and breakfast cereals, which were determined on the basis of responses to questions about usual and recent consumption and a food diary.Subjects/setting Respondents were a national sample of 2,967 adults. Response rates were 71% to the first survey and 77% to the second survey (which was sent to people who completed the first survey).Statistical analyses Univariate analyses were used to describe importance ratings, bivariate analyses (correlations and t tests) were used to examine demographic and lifestyle differences on importance measures, and multivariate analyses (general linear models) were used to predict lifestyle cluster membership and food consumption.Results Respondents reported that taste is the most important influence on their food choices, followed by cost. Demographic and health lifestyle differences were evident across all 5 importance measures. The importance of nutrition and the importance of weight control were predicted best by subject's membership in a particular health lifestyle cluster. When eating behaviors were examined, demographic measures and membership in a health lifestyle cluster predicted consumption of fruits and vegetables, fast foods, cheese, and breakfast cereal. The importance placed on taste, nutrition, cost, convenience, and weight control also predicted types of foods consumed.Applications Our results suggest that nutritional concerns, per se, are of less relevance to most people than taste and cost. One implication is that nutrition education programs should attempt to design and promote nutritious diets as being tasty and inexpensive. J Am Diet Assoc. 1998;98:1118-1126.
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) was used to determine whether visual responses to food in the human amygdala and related corticolimbic structures would be selectively altered by changes in states of hunger. Participants viewed images of motivationall y relevant (food) and motivationally irrelevant (tool) objects while undergoing fMRI in alternately hungry and satiated conditions. Food- related visual stimuli elicited greater responses in the amygdala, parahippocampal gyrus, and anterior fusiform gyrus when participants were in a hungry state relative to a satiated state. The state-dependent activation of these brain structures did not generalize to the motivationally irrelevant objects. These results support the hypothesis that the amygdala and associated inferotemporal regions are involved in the integration of subjective interoceptive states with relevant sensory cues processed along the ventral visual stream. The brain's limited capacity for handling information necessi- tates the selective allocation of processing resources to stimuli that are relevant to current drives and motivational needs. How the brain assigns salience to environmental cues related to relevant events has yet to be fully understood. The amygdala may play an important role in this process because of its neural connections, which link interoceptive information with information regarding sensory events in the external world (Amaral, Price, Pitkanen, & Carmichael, 1992; Herzog & Van Hoesen, 1976). Although there is support for this function of the amygdala in nonhuman animals, the evidence is more tentative in the human brain. Animal studies have documented that the amygdala and asso- ciated limbic forebrain regions play a crucial role in the coordi-
How visual qualities of a food impact perceptions of the amount of food present and consumed have been studied. Previous research has investigated many factors affecting these perceptions, including the height of a glass, the size of a serving bowl, and other food intake cues. We investigated how the number of pieces a serving is divided into impacts perceptions of the amount of food present and consumed. Results indicate that dividing a fixed portion into a greater number of pieces leads people to perceive a greater amount of food in the serving.
Saliva has multiple essential functions in relation to the digestive process taking place in the upper parts of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. This paper reviews the role of human saliva and its compositional elements in relation to the GI functions of taste, mastication, bolus formation, enzymatic digestion, and swallowing. The indirect function of saliva in the digestive process that includes maintenance of an intact dentition and mucosa is also reviewed. Finally, pathophysiological considerations of salivary dysfunction in relation to some GI functions are considered.
Examined rules for stimulus integration in 8 experiments with 121 5-yr-olds and 20 8- and 11-yr-olds. Judgments of area of rectangles by 5-yr-olds obeyed an adding rule: height + width. This was surprising, because simple perception of area ought to follow the height × width rule that was obtained with older Ss. For younger Ss, the height + width rule was reliable across all experimental manipulations. This rule is interpreted in terms of a general-purpose integration rule and a general metric sense. Young children lack a clear, adult conception of specific quantities, use whatever quantitative cues seem relevant, and integrate them by a general-purpose adding rule to arrive at their judgment. A single general metric sense, which is present at least by age 3, mediates the expression of quantitative judgments of many physical and social concepts. Experiments showed that judgments of amount of wax in translucent cylinders obeyed the height-only rule when the cylinders were inside of glasses, but obeyed the height + width rule when they stood alone. These results, together with related studies of information integration in children, show that centration is not a pervasive characteristic of the young child's thinking. A new interpretation of conservation suggests that conservation is derivative from object invariance and specific experiential factors. (3 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Chimpanzees were presented with choices between 2 pieces of food, differing in size. Trials differed with respect to the way in which the pieces were presented before choice (both visible, or only one) and during choice (both or one or neither visible). Choice of the larger piece was most frequent when both prices were visible, although presentation of the larger piece alone led to almost as good performance. However, when the size difference of the pieces was relatively great, differences in performance under the various conditions were not very apparent. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
When given an array of pieces of food, adult chimpanzees selected the largest piece first, even when the ratio of sizes was only 1.11 to 1.00. When food stimuli were differently oriented, the animals showed a tendency to overestimate the horizontal as compared to the longitudinal or the vertical dimension. "The usefulness of food-size preference as a basis for further examination of primate visual capacity was noted." From Psyc Abstracts 36:05:5EF88M. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A common assumption is that the incentive value of food is determined by weight independently of number of food units. In Experiments 1 and 2, rats trained in a
T-maze with four 75-mg pellets in one alternative and a single 300-mg pellet in the other alternative developed a preference for the 75-mg pellet alternative, which did not diminish with extensive training. When the locations of the 75-mg and 300-mg pellets were reversed, rats reversed their choice of arm. Rats preferred a 300-mg pellet to four 45-mg pellets (Experiment 2) and four 75-mg pellets to four 45-mg pellets (Experiment 3). Thus, rats prefer multiple- to single-food units; this effect is permanent rather than temporary, and the incentive value of food is not determined by weight of food alone or number of food units alone. Rats may count food units, judging a given weight of food as greater the greater the number of units—a failure of conservation common, possibly, to a number of species from birds to humans. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Trained 56 male Charles River hooded rats in a runway with either small- or large-reward magnitude. Both small and large rewards were presented in single- or multiple-pellet form. 1 training trial was given each day for 120 days. Early in training, the large-reward Ss ran faster than those receiving small reward, and the effect was more pronounced in the multiple-pellet condition. Later in training, the small-reward Ss equaled the performance of Ss receiving large reward and even ran somewhat faster in the run section of the alley. The typical extinction effect of greater persistence for small-reward Ss was observed, but only in the goal section. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In the past decade, the proportion snacking has increased. Snack foods consumed are predominantly not nutritious foods. One potential venue to increase children's diet quality is to offer healthy snack foods and we explored if shaped snack foods would lead to increased consumption.
We investigated the consumption of high-fiber snacks (banana bread, pancakes, and sandwiches) served either in normal (round, square) or shaped (heart, hands, animals) form to preschoolers 2-5 years old attending a local child care center (n = 21). The 9 weeks long, prospective, cross-over intervention study was designed to expose each child repeatedly to each snack in each shape (4 times per snack). Snacks were served as morning or afternoon snack and caretakers' reports were used to account for the child's consumption of a meal preceding the study snack (breakfast or lunch).
There was no significant difference in snack consumption between the shaped and normal snacks. However, the mean energy intake from snacks was significantly greater for Caucasian children compared with Asian children. Further, Asian children consumed much less banana bread than the other two snacks. Overall, children who had not eaten breakfast or lunch prior to the morning or afternoon snack ate significantly more calories from the snacks (84.1 kcal, p-value < 0.0001).
Findings of this study confirm previous research that the shape of the foods does not affect snack consumption in children. However, we also report two unexpected findings: a) the strong interaction between ethnicity and snack consumption and b) that Asian children consumed much less banana bread than Caucasian children. The role of children's ethnic background profoundly affects snack preference and must be considered in the study of children's eating behaviors and in interventions to promote healthy eating habits.
The aim of the study was to investigate consumers' preferences for variations of a visually presented meal. The study was conducted in three middle‐sized Danish towns, including 768 respondents who were presented with a computerized questionnaire that initially displayed four consecutive series of photos. The series each consisted of eight unique photos of randomized food dishes arranged around the center square in a 3 × 3 array. Five meal components, each with two levels, were investigated. One level of each component was used for each photo, in total 2 ⁵ = 32 combinations.
The respondents were asked to select the meal they preferred the most, the second most and the least, respectively. Significant interactions were found between meal components and background variables such as, gender, age, geographic variables, purchase store and level of education. The current procedure can be applied to help solve a number of problems involving consumer choices.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
This study outlines an approach to use visual images for investigations of food. Our results suggest that rather complex food stimuli of great similarity can be used to subdivide consumers based on sociodemographic background variables. We present an efficient and cheap quick method that provides and captures more information than an ordinary survey that focuses merely on the most preferred option. As a prerequisite for success, stimuli should be well known and appropriately selected. Hence, the present quick method can easily be applied for several practical purposes, such as pretesting, labeling, product flop prevention, and for specific optimization and selection tasks, e.g., convenience meals and institutional meal services in various contexts.
The conjoint layout used allows for late‐based segmentation. It further allows for estimation on aggregate as well as individual level. The current approach is useful for database and/or online implementation.
Four experiments were conducted to assess the effect of food color on flavor identification of noncarbonated beverages and to assess the interactive effect of food color and flavor levels on the perceived flavor intensity and hedonic quality of beverages and cake. Results showed that color masking dramatically decreased flavor identification of fruit-flavored beverages, while atypical colors induced incorrect flavor responses that were characteristically associated with the atypical color. In addition, the color level of beverages had significant effects on their overall acceptability, acceptability of color and of flavor, as well as on flavor intensity. The same results were shown with cake samples, with the exception that a significant interaction of color and flavor level was observed on overall acceptability. Correlational analysis on the subjective dimensions showed that the overall acceptability of both the beverage and cake products was more closely associated with ratings of flavor acceptability than with ratings of color acceptability. In addition, a test of the effect of colorant safety information showed that such information did not decrease any aspect of a product's acceptability.
Nineteen different slides of food items and their effects on appetite and hunger as rated on visual analogue scales were investigated in 20 bulimics and 9 anorexics (DSM-III-R) at the onset and after 8 weeks of behavioral hospital treatment; 9 controls were examined at the maximum of weight loss during a diet and at normal weight. At the onset of treatment appetite ratings were significantly lower in patients than in dieting controls. In anorexics and bulimics appetite ratings increased significantly during treatment. The sight of food did not increase reported hunger in bulimics but did so in controls. Appetite ratings, however, were significantly increased by the sight of food in bulimics as well as in controls. Despite the small sample size, it may be concluded that dieting and weight loss have different psychological implications in healthy controls and in patients with eating disorders, that dieting rather than weight per se influences appetite and that differences in hunger responsiveness to the sight of food in anorexics and bulimics seem likely.
This chapter discusses the selection of food by rats, humans, and other animals, and focuses on the complex problems, especially in food recognition and choice, in the omnivores or generalists. Food selection implies food ingestion. Food ingestion implies the presence of food. Therefore, background for the study of food selection includes the food search process: search images and search mechanisms for finding appropriate food stimuli in the environment. Honey bees provide fine examples of a highly developed food search system. Food selection also implies the ability to obtain or capture food, and to assimilate it, for which many often exotic mechanisms have been evolved. Given the presence of potential food, ingestion then usually depends on an internal state or detector indicating a “need” for the particular food or class of foods, and recognition of the potential food as food. Omnivores, such as rats and humans, faced with an enormous number of potential foods, must choose wisely. They are always in danger of eating something harmful or eating too much of a good thing. Although there are some helpful internal mechanisms, such as poison detoxification, nutrient biosynthesis, and nutrient storage, the major share of the burden for maintaining nutritional balance must out of necessity come from incorporation of appropriate nutrients in the environment and, hence, behavior. The most striking parallel between human and rat feeding is in the neophobia seen in both. The chapter discusses the multiple determinants of food selection in man that are divided into biological factors and effects of individual experience, on one hand, and cultural influences, on the other.
Achievement of a PREE following a small number of trials has posed a problem for several explanations of the PREE. The use of single or multiple pellets is also important to some of the explanations. In the present study the usual PREE was achieved using a single pellet and spaced trials.
Behavioral psychologists have developed effective methods of treatment for overeating and weight control, including mealtime regulation, avoidance of taboo foods, and removal of identified precursors to the bingeing behavior. The current study sought to examine the relationship between speed of eating and levels of satiation in weight conscious individuals. Ten participants were instructed to eat at a fast and a slow rate in a within-subjects reversal design. Consuming food at a slow rate helped participants achieve satiation quicker with comparable amounts of food intake. Slow eaters were also less likely to overeat. These results suggest that slow eating may prevent excessive food consumption in weight conscious individuals, constituting an effective means of weight management.
The Delboeuf illusion consists in a change in the perceived (judged) size of one circle in the presence of another concentric circle. This illusion was presented and analyzed for the first time in 1865 and not, as stated by numerous investigators, in 1892 or 1893. This misconception reflects profound misreadings of Delboeuf's works. The present study examines the three Delboeuf articles on visual illusions (1865a, 1865b, 1892) and analyzes the author's data in the light of results obtained to date on concentric circle illusions.
Rats were given 5, 15, or 60 training trials for 500 mg of food, which was delivered in either single- or multiple-pellet form. The pellet groups did not differ after 5 or 60 trials either at terminal acquisition or in extinction. After 15 trials, however, multiple pellets produced superior performance in acquisition as well as more rapid extinction than single pellets.
Research has demonstrated that the physical attributes of the containers from which we eat and drink can influence our perception of various foods and beverages and the overall consumption experience. In the present study, we extended this line of research in order to investigate whether the consumer's perception of a hot beverage (namely hot chocolate) would be influenced by the color of the plastic vending cup from which it was served. To this end, 57 participants tasted four samples of hot chocolate from four cups of the same size but different color (red, orange, white and dark cream). The participants had to rate each sample of hot chocolate (two of which had been sweetened) on a number of sensory scales. The results revealed that orange (with a white interior) and dark-cream colored cups enhanced the chocolate flavor of the drink and consequently improved people's acceptance of the beverage. By contrast, sweetness and chocolate aroma were less influenced by the color of the cup, but the results still showed that the hot chocolate, when consumed from the dark-cream cup, was rated as sweeter and its aroma more intense.
These results are relevant to sensory scientists interested in how the brain integrates visual input (such as color), not only from the food itself, but also from the container, packaging or plateware from which it is being consumed. In addition, these results should hopefully help stimulate chefs, restaurateurs and those working in the food and beverage packaging sectors to think more carefully about the color of their plateware/packaging and its potential effects on their customers' perception of the taste/flavor of the products that they happen to be serving/delivering to market.
Despite the challenged contention that consumers serve more onto larger dinnerware, it remains unclear what would cause this and who might be most at risk. The results of five studies suggest that the neglected Delboeuf illusion may explain how the size of dinnerware creates two opposing biases that lead people to overserve on larger plates and bowls and underserve on smaller ones. A countercyclical sinus-shaped relationship is shown to exist between these serving biases and the relative gap between the edge of the food and the edge of the dinnerware. Although these serving biases are difficult to eliminate with attention and education, changing the color of one’s dinnerware or tablecloth may help attenuate them. By showing that the Delboeuf illusion offers a mechanistic explanation for how dinnerware size can bias serving and intake, we open new theoretical opportunities for linking illusions to eating behavior and suggest how simple changes in design can improve consumer welfare.
The hypothesis that participants will eat more fruits (apple slices) and vegetables (carrot cuts) if they are made more proximate and visible was tested using a 2 × 2 between-participants design. Proximity was manipulated by placing fruits and vegetables in a bowl at a table where participants sat (near) or 2 m from the table (far). Visibility was manipulated by placing fruits and vegetables in an opaque bowl that was covered (not visible) or in a clear bowl that was open (visible). The results showed that placing apple slices and carrot cuts in closer proximity to participants increased intake of these healthy foods. Making these foods more visible increased intake of apple slices but not carrot cuts, possibly because fruits taste sweet and so may be more motivationally salient than bitter-tasting carrots. Regardless, these data are the first to demonstrate experimentally that the proximity and visibility of fruits and vegetables can influence intake of these foods.
Our perception of food is affected by the sensory properties of the food itself, together with our expectations about the food and other contextual factors. The latter are especially relevant in the restaurant setting, where appearance factors, such as the presentation of the food on the plates can dramatically affect food liking and consumption. However, to date, not much emphasis has been placed on the effect of the appearance of the accessories on our perception of food.The aims of the present study were therefore to test the extent to which the appearance properties of the plate influence the taste/flavor experiences of the food served on it. Specifically, we investigated the influence of the color (black or white) and shape of the plate on the perception of flavor intensity, sweetness, quality, and liking for identical strawberry mousse desserts.The results demonstrated that while the color of the plate exerted a significant influence on people’s perception of the food, the shape of the plate did not. In particular, when the mousse was served from a white plate, it was perceived as significantly more intense and sweeter, and was also liked more.These results therefore demonstrate the importance of the color (if not the shape) of the plate on people’s perception of food.
Comparative (or zoological) psychology is concerned with the genesis (evolution and development), control, and consequences of a broad range of behavioral patterns. It emerged during the late 19th century with the concerns of Darwin, Romanes, Spalding, and others who studied the evolution of human minds and instincts. However, it has developed a functional autonomy. Comparative psychology deserves a place in the undergraduate curriculum for historical reasons and because modern comparative psychology provides a breadth of perspective on behavior unmatched elsewhere in psychology.
Previous research suggests that evening constitutes a high-risk environment that increases the probability of binge eating and purging. One possible explanation for this finding is that exposure to dimmer light promotes behavioral disinhibition, thus undermining self-regulatory control and adherence to one's dietary standards, resulting in the disinhibited eating that is the hallmark of bulimia. Two studies (n=245 and 156) tested the hypothesis that individual differences in preference for dimmer lighting while eating are directly associated with bulimic behavior in restrained eaters but unrelated to bulimic behavior in nonrestrained eaters. Undergraduates completed questionnaire measures of indoor lighting preferences, dietary restraint, bulimic behavior, and several other variables. Results of both studies showed that, as hypothesized, preference for dimmer light while eating correlated positively with bulimic behavior in restrained eaters (rs between 0.31 and 0.58) but was unrelated to bulimic behavior in nonrestrained eaters. Study 3 found that participants who reported clinically significant levels of bulimic symptomatology preferred dimmer lighting while eating than did participants who were identical in dietary restraint but whose bulimic symptomatology was not clinically significant. The discussion applies Carver and Scheier's [Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F., 1998. On the self regulation of behaviour. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press] self-regulation theory to explain individual differences in lighting preference as they pertain to bulimia.
Background:
Changes in total energy intake have been reported among children and adolescents, but the extent to which the components of total energy-energy density; portion size; and the number of eating/drinking occasions (EO)-drive these changes is unknown.
Purpose:
The objective of the current study was to examine the relative contribution to changes in daily total energy.
Methods:
Using cross-sectional nationally representative data from the Nationwide Food Consumption Survey (1977-1978); the Continuing Survey of Food Intake of Individuals (1989-1991); and the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys (1994-1998 and 2005-2010) for children and adolescents (aged 2-18 years), changes in total energy (kcal/day) were mathematically decomposed to determine the relative contributions of its three component parts: portion size (g/EO); energy density (kcal/g/EO); and eating/drinking occasions (n). Analyses were completed in 2012.
Results:
Over the full period, there was an increase in total energy intake (+108 kcal/day) and the number of daily eating/drinking occasions (+1.2). The average portion size per eating/drinking occasion increased between 1977-1978 and 1989-1991, and then dropped by about 85 g/EO between 1989-1991 and 2005-2010. The average energy density per eating/drinking occasion has fluctuated over time, reaching its highest level in 2005-2010 (1.24 kcal/g/EO). The decomposition results show that between 1977-1978 and 2005-2010, changes in the number of eating/drinking occasions per day and portion size per eating occasion were the largest contributors to annualized changes in daily total energy (+19 and -13 kcal/day/year, respectively). Variations in trends were observed for race/ethnicity and parental education subgroups.
Conclusions:
These findings highlight potentially important intervention targets for reducing energy imbalances in U.S. youth.
Investigated the effects of color on the food choices of 120 children (aged 5–9 yrs). Ss were equally distributed among each of the combinations of age; sex; food type (3 types of candies); and color (red, green, yellow, and orange). A significant main effect for color indicated that Ss preferred foods that were red, green, orange, and yellow, in that order. Data document the effect of color on food choice while indicating that preference for color in food items coincides with color preferences in nonfood items. Color was verified to have potential separate and interactive effects with flavor associations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Reports 3 experiments to test the hypothesis that food intake of overweight individuals is more affected by external cues of a cognitive or social nature than the intake of normal-weight persons. Data indicate that food intake of people in general was affected by cognitive and social cues, but overweight persons were not more responsive to these cues than other persons. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The aim of this investigation was to determine whether increased efficiency of learning with an increase in food reward is correlated with the amount of food as such or with the consummatory response. The learning situations comprised a straightaway track, a detour problem, and a T-maze. 3 reward conditions were used, one with each of 3 groups of 24 chicks. The first 24 received one large piece of popcorn per trial; the second group, ¼ grain; and members of the third group, one grain in 4 equal pieces. Comparison of groups 1 and 2 gives an indication of the effect of amount of reward while comparison of groups 1 and 3 shows the effect of consummative activity (1 vs. 4 pecks) on similar performances. Comparison of groups 1 and 2 shows inconsistent results. Consistent but statistically unreliable differences are observed in the learning of groups 1 and 3. There are lower time scores for learning with the 4 small pieces than with the whole grain. Thus consummatory activity appears to have an effect apart from the actual amount of food consumed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Food intake regulation involves a complex integration of hormonal, neuronal, physiologic, and metabolic controls. In humans, such regulation is especially complex because many nonphysiologic factors may also influence it, and the environment may promote overeating.
Perceived sweetness and redness in five red colored solutions containing 0.25–5.0% FD&C Red 40 were quantified using magnitude estimation. Three panels of 14 subjects each evaluated solutions containing five sucrose concentrations ranging from 2.7–5.3%. Color had a statistically significant effect (p≤0.05) on sweetness perception in 80% of the treatments. Sweetness in darker colored solutions was 2–10% greater than the lighter reference when the actual sucrose concentration was 1% less. Sweetness increased linearly over all sucrose concentrations and over a narrow range of color intensities. Color was measured using the Gardner XL-23 Colorimeter and the G.E. Recording Spectrophotometer. All color measurements were converted to L*, a*, b* and the value arctan (a*/b*) - used to represent color intensity. The perception of increasing color intensity was a linear power law function of arctan (a*/b*).
The influence of color on flavor was investigated using 310 untrained volunteers who each judged the flavor of 1 of 8 beverages. Artificially flavored raspberry and orange beverages were either left uncolored, or colored red, orange, or green. Color had a significant influence on the identification of both flavors, although every combination of color and flavor was identified correctly beyond the level expected by chance. Performance was degraded equally when beverages were uncolored, and facilitated equally when beverages were appropriately colored. Unusual color-flavor combinations reduced the identification of raspberry flavor more than that of orange flavor. The influence of color was particularly salient because tasters were aware that the color of the beverage might be inappropriate to its flavor.
Across a series of three studies, we demonstrate that the number of product units displayed on a package biases consumers' perceptions of product quantity (i.e., the number of snack items the package contains) and actual consumption. Specifically, we demonstrate that consumers use an anchoring heuristic to infer that packages that display a greater number of product units (e.g., 15 pretzels vs. 3 pretzels) have a higher product quantity inside. Importantly, we demonstrate that actual consumption of the food product follows this anchor judgment. The studies demonstrate that these effects are moderated by level of visual processing and that they are robust even in the presence of verbal information.