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Bumble Bees of North America: An Identification Guide
Abstract
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... Climatic variables also influence the productivity and dispersion of flowering plants (Pyke et al. 2016). Variations in temperature and precipitation can reduce phenological synchrony between bees and plants, resulting in declines in the abundance of some species and in shifts in species' ranges (Williams et al. 2014;Pyke et al. 2016). ...
... Human activities such as the exploitation of natural resources can drastically reshape natural environments in ways that affect bees (Memmott et al. 2004). Landscape disturbances leading to changes in the availability of flower resources, nesting sites, and overwintering habitats particularly can impact bees, eventually resulting in species loss (Zurbuchen et al. 2010a;Williams et al. 2014). Because bee species vary in their nesting requirements, these impacts are expected to be species specific. ...
... Latreille) (Hymenoptera: Apidae). We conducted species-level analyses for this genus because it contains species that are potential indicators of climate change (Williams et al. 2014;Kerr et al. 2015). We hypothesised that wild bee diversity would be inversely related to latitude; according to McCabe et al. (2019), cold environments can act as environmental filters on bee communities. ...
Variation in wild bee assemblages along climatic gradients is still poorly known, particularly in eastern Canada. In this study, we assessed wild bee communities in forest stands that were recently clearcut along a latitudinal bioclimatic gradient. The analyses were conducted at two taxonomic levels: first at the genus level for bees as a whole (Anthophila) and then at the species level for bumble bees ( Bombus spp. Latreille) (Hymenoptera: Apidae). Coloured pan traps were used to catch bees and a point-intercept method was used to survey floristic composition at each site. Abundance and richness of Anthophila genera and abundance of bumble bee species were inversely related to latitude, but richness of bumble bee species was not, being instead associated with sections of the gradient. These results indicate that the relationship between wild bee diversity and latitude varies among taxa and that climate and floristic resources probably each play a role. Bombus terricola , a species of concern in eastern Canada, was found in relatively high numbers throughout the study area. To our knowledge, this study provides the first assessment of wild bees in clearcuts in the province of Quebec, showing a clear differentiation of the communities along a spatial bioclimatic gradient.
... Several of these species have broad geographic ranges across western North America (Koch et al. 2012). Because bumble bees are temperate and alpine adapted species their distributions tend to be distributed across broad elevational gradients in coastal areas but restricted to higher elevations in more mesic inland regions of western North America (Williams et al. 2014). Across this diverse landscape, historic glaciation and geological processes in western North America can explain contemporary patterns of genetic structure for many taxa (Shafer et al. 2010). ...
... Additionally, these 4 species occur across a gradient of elevation throughout western North America. In the the study region, B. sylvicola is restricted to the highest elevation habitat, followed by B. mixtus, B. flavifrons, and B. melanopygus (Williams et al. 2014, Koch et al. 2017. In more inland regions, all 4 species are restricted to montane habitats, separated by mesic basins and valleys with varying levels of suitable habitat connecting populations (Koch et al. 2012, William et al. 2014. ...
... Using this database, we selected bumble bee workers of the 4 species-Bombus flavifrons, B. melanopygus, B. mixtus, and B. sylvicolafrom western mountain ranges from northern New Mexico to southwestern Canada to sample DNA from 15 to 20 bees per site. These bumble bees are common and have overlapping ranges widely distributed across western North America, though they differ in the elevations that they occupy ( Fig. 1A) (Cameron et al. 2007, Koch et al. 2012, Williams et al. 2014. Bombus flavifrons, B. melanopygus, and B. mixtus occupy broad elevation spaces, although B. mixtus is more common at higher elevations and northern latitudes in the Rockies (Williams et al. 2014, Koch et al. 2017. ...
Bumble bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae, Bombus Latreille, 1802) are critical pollinators—providing the necessary ecological services for food and crop production. In western North America, species-rich bumble bee communities inhabit mountain ranges. However, as climate change increases temperatures, montane populations are restricted to higher elevations, and their ability to disperse and maintain genetic diversity decreases as suitable habitat connecting populations decreases. This genetic isolation could lead to the extirpation of local pollinator populations and a loss of genetic diversity for pollinator species. We analyzed the genetic diversity of 4 broadly sympatric species of bumble bees with differing elevational niches—Bombus flavifrons, B. melanopygus, B. mixtus, and B. sylvicola—across the Rocky and Cascade Mountains of western North America to assess range-wide population genetic structure. We used microsatellite markers to assess genetic differentiation among populations (FST) and performed Bayesian clustering analyses to identify genetic groups within each study species. Further, we investigated if observed genetic differentiation within study species was better explained by isolation by distance (IBD) or isolation by resistance (IBR) by incorporating habitat suitability models (HSMs) into population structure analyses. Although we expected range-wide genetic differentiation for species with more narrow niche requirements, we found evidence of this differentiation for all 4 study species, with western populations experiencing significant genetic structure relative to inland populations. Additionally, IBR predicted genetic structure better than IBD for B. flavifrons and B. mixtus. Our results suggest that considering habitat connectivity across the geographic range of montane bumble bee species is important for understanding their population structures.
... We utilized published and unpublished keys to identify bee species (Arduser unpublished data, Portman and Arduser unpublished data, Williams et al. 2014 ...
Tallgrass prairies are important habitat for bee pollinators because they provide diverse floral and nesting resources throughout the growing season. Management strategies such as fire and grazing can maintain plant diversity within prairies; however, it is unclear how pollinators, respond to these management practices, and whether all groups of pollinators are affected similarly. In a two-year study, we examined the direct and indirect effects of fire frequency and bison grazing on above-ground (AG) and below-ground (BG) nesting bees through changes in both their floral and nesting resources. We found that overall bee abundance was greater in bison grazed sites but the effect was stronger in the second year of the study. Furthermore, we found that overall bee richness was greater in the second year of the study and that fire and grazing interacted to affect bee community composition. Using structural equation models, we found the mechanisms by which fire and grazing affected bee communities varied by bee nesting strategies. For example, fire and grazing increased the amount of bare ground, which in turn increased BG nesting bee abundance. However, bison-mediated changes in soil compaction increased AG nesting bee abundance and richness. Both fire and grazing impacted forb communities but these changes in floral resources did not translate to changes in bee communities. Because disturbance mediated changes in soil structure influenced both AG and BG bees, our research highlights the need to consider how disturbances influence nesting resources for bee pollinator conservation and habitat restoration.
... Here, our goal is to analyze the relative hazard, in terms of mortality risk, of several glyphosate-based herbicides and spreading agents to bumblebees using the common Eastern bumblebee, Bombus impatiens Cresson, as a test species. Bombus impatiens is a useful case for interpreting the hazards of these chemicals to native bees; they are the among the most common wild bumblebee species throughout eastern North America, inhabiting many different cover types including forests, grasslands and plains, urban, and agricultural ecosystems (Williams et al. 2014). In addition, they are one of the few bumblebee species that respond well to domestication, and colonies can be managed commercially for greenhouse production systems as well as pollination supplementation to field and row crops (Shipp et al. 1994, Desjardins andDe Oliveira 2005). ...
Surfactants are often included as co-formulants in the application of herbicides to aid in spreading and adherence to plant surfaces, but toxicity to native bees has not been extensively tested. In a set of progressive experiments, we evaluated effects of products containing glyphosate and spreading agents, as well as spreading agents alone, on bumblebees (Bombus impatiens Cresson) using parametric survival analysis. We test spreaders from multiple chemical classes including Silwet L-77© (trisiloxane), Alligare 90© (polyoxyethylene), and Southern Ag SA-50© (C10–16 alcohols). We report low lethality of high-glyphosate herbicide formulations (Rodeo©), but bee mortality increased ~20% with addition of a silicone-based spreading agent (Silwet L-77©). Spreaders alone strongly affected bee survival: effects were concentration-specific and did not differ depending on exposure method (spray application vs. application to surfaces contacted by bees). The widely used trisiloxane-based spreader Silwet L-77© was especially hazardous, and exposure to high concentrations of Silwet L-77© caused rapid and near-total mortality in B. impatiens. Analysis of whole-bee cuticle extracts after exposure revealed clear differences in the cuticular hydrocarbon profiles associated with exposure to spreading agents: the alkane n-hexacosane was present in all extracts but was detected in greater relative abundance from bees exposed to Silwet L-77© and Alligare 90©. To support wild bee conservation efforts, we recommend substituting alcohol-based spreaders for siloxane-based spreaders when possible. In addition, certain cuticular hydrocarbons may be useful as biomarkers of previous exposure to certain surfactants, which can aid investigations evaluating causes of bumblebee decline across landscapes.
... The authors suggest that these discrepancies may be the results of some taxa's being undersampled or may be caused by several morphologically different species' sharing a common BIN. In the latter situation, the subsequent examination of combined COI data, morphological characteristics and ecological features may support the recognition of distinct species (Vickruck et al. 2011) or may result in synonymies (Williams et al. 2014). ...
For over 20 years, DNA barcoding has participated in characterizing the molecular diversity of wild bees worldwide and rapidly advancing our taxonomic knowledge of this group of pollinators. This chapter first presents the background of the emergence of DNA barcoding for the study of wild bees and its large contributions to bee taxonomy through revision, the clarification of historically problematic groups and species discovery. The second part outlines the long-step methodological process required for obtaining high-quality and informative reference barcodes. This section also provides some recommendations for the construction of DNA barcode libraries. Eventually, this chapter presents how DNA-based approaches (barcoding, metabarcoding and environmental DNA) would be of great interest for large-scale and long-term routines of bee monitoring.
... We expected that detection probabilities would vary within the season, primarily due to changes in Bombus colony sizes (Otto et al., 2023;Williams et al., 2014). Our estimates of detection probability should be interpreted as the probability of detecting RPBBs during searches of potential bumble bee habitats conducted during a week, given RPBBs occurred in the 10 × 10-km cell during the season. ...
There is growing interest in integrating community science data with structured monitoring data to estimate changes in distribution patterns of imperiled species, including pollinators. However, significant challenges remain in determining how unstructured community science data should be incorporated into formal analyses of species distributions. We developed a dynamic framework for combining community science and structured monitoring data of bumble bees to estimate changes in occupancy of rusty‐patched bumble bees (Bombus affinis), a federally endangered species in the United States. We applied traditional metapopulation theory and accounted for imperfect detection to estimate site‐specific extirpation risk and colonization rates across the known distribution of B. affinis in the Upper Midwest (USA). Despite a 144% increase in presence‐only detections from 2017 to 2022, occupancy probabilities and the estimated number of occupied sites remained static or declined slightly across a 4‐state region during this period. Our results provide preliminary evidence that the probability of local extirpation risk of B. affinis increased in response to drought, but that effect was tempered with a high number of neighboring patches occupied by B. affinis (i.e., rescue effect). Our framework can be used by managers to track population recovery goals for B. affinis and other bumble bees of conservation concern. In addition, our study highlights the importance of accounting for imperfect detection and addressing spatial sampling biases in bumble bee monitoring efforts, particularly those for which a portion of the monitoring data are generated from community science projects.
Understanding the impacts of urbanization and climate change on organisms has become increasingly critical in ecology and conservation as these anthropogenic stressors negatively impact wildlife biodiversity, especially pollinators such as bees.
We analysed the demographic (abundance and sex ratio) and morphological (body size and wing wear) responses to urbanization and inter‐annual variation of four common wild bee species across an urban gradient in Toronto, Canada.
We observed more significant shifts in bee demography with inter‐annual precipitation variation than with urbanization, with diverse patterns depending on species. The drier active season saw a decrease in abundance for Agapostemon virescens and Ceratina calcarata , whereas Bombus impatiens and Xenoglossa pruinosa increased when compared with the previous year. Wetter active seasons resulted in smaller body sizes and greater wing wear for all bee species examined.
For larger bees ( A. virescens , B. impatiens and X. pruinosa ), increasing urbanization resulted in significantly larger females only for A. virescens , whereas foraging effort reduced as urban intensity increased. The small, cavity‐nesting bee, C. calcarata exhibited reduced body sizes and increased foraging effort with increasing urbanization.
Moderate urbanization better supported most wild bee assemblages and morphology, suggesting that moderate land use intensity provides green spaces and adequate resources for these bee species.
As cities around the world expand, we urgently need to better understand the drivers of urban biodiversity, especially for functionally important groups such as insect pollinators. In this study, we gathered hoverfly and bumble bee pollinator observations from natural history collections and community science initiatives from 462 urban landscapes across 85 US metropolitan areas. We tested whether urban greenspace functions as pollinator habitat by examining whether the total area of greenspace in an urban landscape predicted pollinator occurrence, that is, the presence or absence of species in a landscape. Our study was designed to determine whether there were differences between natural greenspace area (i.e., urban greenbelts, nature reserves and forest/grassland fragments) and developed greenspace area (i.e., managed parks, cemeteries and golf courses) in their ability to support a diversity of pollinator species. After accounting for sampling biases using an integrated occupancy modeling approach, we found a positive association between native hoverfly occurrence and natural greenspace area. This implies that urban landscapes with more natural greenspace support higher native hoverfly diversity. On average, bumble bee occurrence was not associated with natural greenspace area; however, the response varied among species, with several at‐risk bumble bees showing a positive association. In contrast to natural greenspace area, we found no association between pollinator occurrence and the area of developed greenspace. In addition, we found that the proportion of racial minority households in an urban landscape was negatively associated with pollinator occurrence. This is consistent with the hypothesis that a history of systematic, unjust policies in neighborhoods with more racial minority households has lasting negative impacts on urban biodiversity. In conclusion, our results support the hypothesis that natural greenspace functions as vital habitat for urban pollinators. We recommend that cities preservation of remnant natural greenspace and improve developed greenspaces in order to promote urban pollinator conservation. These efforts should be prioritized in urban landscapes with a higher proportion of racial minority households to improve equal access to nature and pollinator ecosystem services.
Predicting how habitat composition alters communities of mobile ecosystem service providers remains a major challenge in community ecology. This is partially because separate taxonomic groups that provide the same service may respond uniquely to changes in habitat and associated resource availability. Further, the spatial scale at which habitat features impact each group can vary. Failure to account for these differences significantly limits the ability to quantify shared versus contrasting responses to habitat for important ecosystem service‐providing groups.
We investigated the impacts of local (habitat patch level) and landscape features in the US Southern Great Plains on groups of pollinating insects with different basic biologies: Coleoptera, Diptera, Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera. Habitat features included local flower and shelter resources as well as landscape‐scale semi‐natural habitat.
We found that bare ground supported more Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera but fewer Diptera, while more diverse flower communities supported more Hymenoptera but fewer Coleoptera. Interestingly, given that this study occurred in a grassland system, forest cover in the surrounding landscape more strongly affected pollinator diversity than grassland cover did. Landscapes with more woodland had higher Coleoptera and Diptera richness.
Our results highlight that pollinator conservation and sustainable land management depend on understanding the habitat needs, including shelter, of diverse pollinators. Because taxa can have opposite responses to specific habitat features or scales, providing a range of grassland management practices (e.g., variety in the timing and type of biomass removal) may be the most effective approach to support the broader pollinator community.
In response to calls for national and regional updated inventories of bee species, we present a county-level checklist for 385 confirmed bee (Apoidea: Anthophila) species for Connecticut, USA, highlighting rare and regionally declining species, species that have specific habitat and/or host requirements, and species whose taxonomy and distribution we wish to clarify. We have compiled a comprehensive, digitized database of historic and current bee records from Connecticut to inform this checklist, which includes specimen records from museums, recent collections, and community science observations from iNaturalist.com. All images of bees from Connecticut on iNaturalist (18,471 observations) have been fully vetted by one or more of the authors, which is unprecedented for a state project. We summarize historical bee research in Connecticut and provide current information regarding the distribution of bee species, changes in status, phenology, habitat usage, and floral associations within the state. At least 43 of 385 species represented in collections or literature have not been detected in Connecticut since the year 2000. These and other species of conservation concern are discussed with reference to a quantitative assessment of changes in range within the state. In addition, we have calculated and report state-level ranks for 124 bee species in Connecticut. We corroborate regional loss of species including Coelioxys funerarius Smith and Holcopasites illinoiensis (Robertson) and clarify and extend the distribution of numerous bee species in the Northeastern United States. Furthermore, we discuss morphospecies, excluded species, and species expected for Connecticut. We also validate synonymies reported previously online based on an unpublished manuscript by Roy Snelling for the following species: Nomada depressa Cresson (= N. hoodiana Cockerell; = N. carinicauda Cockerell; = N. media Mitchell); Nomada obliterata Cresson (= N. decepta Mitchell); Nomada vicina Cresson (= N. beulahensis Cockerell; = N. vicina stevensi Swenk). In addition, we recognize three new synonyms of Nomada xanthura Cockerell (= N. ochlerata Mitchell; = N. detrita Mitchell; = N. mendica Mitchell) and report the first Nomada townesi Mitchell from outside of Maryland. In addition to N. townesi, the following eleven native species are newly reported or recently confirmed for Connecticut: Andrena (Cnemidandrena) parnassiae Cockerell; Andrena (Melandrena) sayi Robertson; Andrena (Trachandrena) rehni Viereck; Anthophora bomboides Kirby; Nomada armatella Cockerell; Nomada electella Cockerell; Nomada placida Cresson; Lasioglossum (Dialictus) cattellae (Ellis); Lasioglossum (Dialictus) ellisiae (Sandhouse); Lasioglossum (Dialictus) fattigi (Mitchell); Lasioglossum (Dialictus) trigeminum Gibbs. The following recent arrivals among non-native species are confirmed: Pseudoanthidium (Pseudoanthidium) nanum (Mocsáry); Coelioxys (Allocoelioxys) coturnix Pérez; Osmia (Osmia) taurus Smith. This work is a stepping stone towards a larger, ongoing effort to clarify bee distribution and status in New England. As such, we also report updates for the bee fauna of the following states: Massachusetts—Melissodes communis communis Cresson; Megachile (Eutricharaea) apicalis Spinola), Maine—Chelostoma philadelphi (Robertson), and New Hampshire—Lasioglossum nelumbonis (Robertson).
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