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Economic Development and Gender Equality: Is There a Gender Kuznets Curve?
Abstract
This research note examines the relationship between economic development and gender equality. Drawing on the concept of the Kuznets curve, the authors hypothesize that the relationship between economic development and gender inequality is curvilinear (S shaped), with three distinct stages. In the first stage, economic development improves gender equality because it enables greater female labor-force participation. An independent income stream increases women's intrahousehold bargaining power. The opportunity to develop human capital confers greater political and social recognition. In the second stage, labor-force stratification and gender discrimination encourage divergent male/female income trajectories, which decrease the opportunity costs of female labor-force withdrawal and lend traction to social resistance against burgeoning gender norms. Consequently, there is a deceleration in initial equality gains. In the final stage, gender equality again improves, as greater educational participation and technological advancement provide new employment opportunities for women, increase the opportunity costs of staying home, and encourage the evolution of new social institutions and norms that overcome prior discriminatory practices. The authors find support for this argument in statistical tests of the relationship between economic development and gender equality on a panel of 146 developing countries for the period 1980–2005. They employ four indicators that reflect distinct dimensions of women's political, social, and economic status. They find economic development positively influences gender equality when per capita incomes are below 8,000–10,000. These equality gains level off or decline slightly in the second stage, from 25,000–$30,000. Beyond this level, economic development is again associated with improvements in gender equality. The key implication is that the effect of economic development on gender equality is contingent on the level of development. Policymakers and social activists should develop policy correctives to ensure that economic development confers improvements in gender equality across phases of development.
... Several studies on women's financial positions reveal that a majority of poor individuals are women, even among the affluent populations (Eastin & Prakash, 2013). These women often work part-time, hold low-status jobs with unstable pay, or remain unpaid (Butterwick & Jubas, 2015). ...
... These women often work part-time, hold low-status jobs with unstable pay, or remain unpaid (Butterwick & Jubas, 2015). Additionally, unequal cultural customs and judicial structures hinder women's efforts to achieve equality (Eastin & Prakash, 2013). In Pakistan, women are less likely to own land compared to those in other countries (Anjum et al., 2018), with very little legal protection. ...
... In Pakistan, women are less likely to own land compared to those in other countries (Anjum et al., 2018), with very little legal protection. Women are typically assigned to low-level administrative positions in the workplace, reinforcing ingrained gender biases (Eastin & Prakash, 2013). In 2010, Pakistan's National Assembly passed the 18th Amendment, granting provinces authority over various social issues, including women's rights legislation. ...
The study explores the feminist discourse in a Pakistani screenplay, highlighting attitudes towards women's emancipation. Using a qualitative lens, it investigates the language of the screenplay and the linguistic features that reinforce the impression of empowered Pakistani women. The thematic analysis reveals that the prevailing patriarchal cultural narratives are challenged in the screenplay, offering a departure from the predictability of the earlier storylines. The findings also indicate that changes in the way women are viewed is strengthened by the screenplay’s language choices, highlighting the acceptance of women in non-traditional roles. Defying stereotypes, through strong and capable roles, overturning the traditionally limited mindsets, the screenplay determines that women are crucial to a more inclusive society. The study concludes that in a supportive environment, with opportunities for training and development, their achievements acknowledged, and their voices heard, women thrive. There is a need for screenplays with suitable language that scaffolds an understanding for creating stories that foster a deeper comprehension of the feminine competence and abilities.
... Studies in several countries and regions have found that gender equality is a key determinant of economic growth, including in Asia, Brazil, and the United States of America (USA) (Bertay et al., 2021;Eastin & Prakash, 2013;Kim et al., 2016;Klasen, 2002;Klasen & Lamanna, 2009;Mishra et al., 2020;Seguino, 2000;Usman & Lestari, 2018;Vásconez Rodríguez, 2018). However, to the best of the author's knowledge, studies that assess the role of gender equality in promoting economic output in D-8 countries are still limited. ...
... A growing literature documents the nexus between gender equality and economic output (Agénor & Canuto, 2015;Bertay et al., 2021;Eastin & Prakash, 2013;Kim et al., 2016;Klasen, 1999;Klasen & Lamanna, 2009;Mishra et al., 2020;Seguino, 2000;Vásconez Rodríguez, 2018). Klasen (2002) uses cross-country and panel regressions to examine the effect of gender inequality in education on longterm economic growth. ...
... Based on Table 2, the gender development index (GDI) has a mean of 0.88 with a standard deviation of 0.08. In this study, GDI indicates gender equality, and the mean is higher compared to the mean of gender equality in other studies, such as Bertay et al. (2021) and Eastin & Prakash ( 2013). ...
Gender equality promotes economic improvement and reduces income inequality. Considering the goal of all countries to achieve faster and stronger economic growth, improving gender equality may represent a promising solution. This paper examines the link between gender equality and economic growth in the 'Developing Eight' (D-8) countries from 1998 to 2021. This study provides estimation using a system GMM and panel causality test to determine the effect of gender equality on economic growth. The results indicate a positive and significant effect of gender equality on economic output in D-8 countries. Heterogenous panel non-causality findings suggest that gender equality and economic output have a bidirectional relationship in D-8 countries, indicating that economic output also affects gender equality.
... For example, Forsythe et al. (2000), used a sample of developed and developed countries to evaluate how the different development approaches (neoclassical, WID, GAD) affect women's status. In the same vein, Eastin and Prakash (2013) looked at how development advances women status using several indicators of gender inequality. Their analysis did not however consider the combined effect of development on the status of men and women. ...
... Accordingly, studies that empirically examine linkages between a range of measures of sustainable development and gender equality are limited particularly in the African context. Although Efobi et al. (2018) attempted an answer to this question from an African perspective, like Forsythe et al. (2000) and Eastin and Prakash (2013), they focused on women's empowerment. Therefore, this study seeks to close these gaps by answering two research questions; ...
... Thus, we are motivated by prior research that suggests an important mechanism through which development affects social inclusion is its effects on gender equality and this effect is expected to change over time as efforts are being made to meet the SDGs deadline (Johnston, 2016;United Nations, 2021). This thesis thus evaluates this relationship by identifying a set of indicators that affect gender equality and differ from Eastin and Prakash, (2013) and Forsythe et al., (2000) who captured development from a strictly economic perspective (GDP per capita). Also, studies that utilize economic participation as an indicator centered on the proportion of female participation rate ( Spinelli- De-Sá et al., 2017;Zhang & Zhang, 2021a, 2021b; the proportion of male participation rate (King & Elliott, 2021); while another group used both rates separately within their evaluation (Krantz et al., 2005;Milner et al., 2020). ...
Sustainable development is achieved when policies are effectively implemented to foster the well-being of all. Research on equality has generally focused on women’s empowerment as the foundation of empowering a nation. Similarly, there has been increased attention given to working with men in gender equality. However, researchers have not considered these two lines of thought side by side to achieve sustainable development. We examine the relationship between gender equality and development by empirically identifying country-specific factors that are associated with the level of gender equality over time for a sample of 44 African countries. Using trend analysis, we find a linear relationship between male and female inclusion in economic participation and opportunity. In particular, the empirical findings suggest that among the socio-economic, infrastructural, and governance-related factors, income, rural revitalization, mobile subscription, fixed telephone subscription, and rule of law are important factors in explaining the level of gender balance. In contrast, we find that unemployment positively impacts gender equality. We associate this outcome with the role expansion theory. These findings support debate in the literature that when economies grow, they stand better chances of fostering gender equality.
... This phenomenon is propelled by heightened female productivity, leading to an augmented bargaining power for women within the socio-economic framework (Damjanovic & Selvaretnam, 2020;Ruiters & Charteris, 2020). Using data from 146 countries, Eastin and Prakash (2013) argued that the relationship between economic development and gender equality is curvilinear (S shaped) and can be understood within three distinct stages. In the initial stage as economies grow, gender equality improves due to greater labour force participation of women. ...
... Additionally, economic prosperity may encourage policies that support gender equality, as societies become more concerned with issues beyond basic survival (Ruiters & Charteris, 2020). Specially, economic growth promotes greater female labourforce participation, enhancing their bargaining power and greater political and recognition (Eastin & Prakash, 2013). Moreover, with economic growth strengthened legislations in the form of parental leave and affordable childcare, gender budgeting and social protection become easier to adopt (Lagerlöf, 2003;and Damjanovic & Selvaretnam, 2020). ...
The attention surrounding the climate change has gained momentum over the last two decades, with significant stress on its consequential impact on gender inequality. Simultaneously, economies are caught in an environment of heightened uncertainty, potentially exerting influence on gender disparities. Within this framework, this study attempts to empirically investigate the implications of climate change and world uncertainty for gender inequality by using a balanced panel of 100 economies between 1995 and 2021. The novelty of this study lies in its adoption of Gender Inequality Index, a comprehensive measure quantifying gender disparity using three dimensions including reproductive health, economic empowerment, and labour market. Moreover, this study has adopted two different measures: the total ecological footprint to measure environmental pressures and ND-GAIN’s Vulnerability index to capture the climate change vulnerability, thereby ensuring comprehensive proxies for climate change dynamics. The estimated models also control for the effects of globalisation, economic growth, and education expenditure. The panel cointegration tests establish a significant long-run relationship between the variables of the study. Furthermore, the long-run results of PMG-ARDL estimation technique indicate that both climate change and world uncertainty contribute to increasing the gender disparities. Additionally, the results reveal that globalisation, economic growth, and education expenditure play crucial roles in diminishing gender disparities. The reliability of these findings is further confirmed by the PCSEs and DKSE estimation techniques. Moreover, the baseline findings obtained using total ecological footprint as a measure of climate change are consistent when climate change is proxied by Vulnerability Index. Potential policy suggestions for mitigating the detrimental gender ramifications stemming from climate change and rising world uncertainties are also discussed.
... The concept of human development, introduced in the 1990s by the United Nations, emphasizes the importance of improving individuals' capabilities and access to opportunities beyond economic growth (4). This framework highlights gender equality as a cornerstone for sustainable development, advocating for the elimination of disparities in education, employment, and political participation (Mahmoudi & Samimi Far, 2019). ...
... The results highlight stark inequalities in gender empowerment across Iranian provinces, driven by disparities in human development, geographical proximity to Tehran, and settlement types. These findings align with previous studies emphasizing the critical role of development in addressing gender disparities (4). ...
The concept of human development emphasizes qualitative aspects over the mere quantitative aspects of growth. The core of this concept is that development must go beyond increasing income and wealth. In the framework of human development, women’s participation in economic, social, and political life, as well as eliminating gender inequalities, holds significant importance. Accordingly, the objective of this study is to analyze the relationship between the levels of human and geographical development with the degree of deprivation and empowerment in gender-related indices. The research methodology is based on a documentary-statistical approach. The data sources include the results of the 2006 and 2016 censuses. The statistical population of this study encompasses all provinces of the country, analyzed comprehensively based on the census results of 2006 and 2016. Data analysis was conducted using SPSS software (version 19) and EViews software. The findings indicate that the indices constituting the levels of development in Iranian provinces (human development levels, distance from and proximity to Tehran, population density [human capital], and the type of geographical settlements [urban and rural areas]) have a positive and significant relationship with the degree of gender-related deprivation and empowerment. Additionally, the indices representing the levels of development in Iranian provinces can explain the variance in the degree of gender-related deprivation and empowerment.
... Although gender has often been overlooked in economic analysis due to its classification as a social variable (Padgett and Warnecke 2011), some scholars acknowledge the existence of a link between gender and economic development (Eastin and Prakash 2013) and endeavor to identify the factors that contribute to gender disparities (Arora 2012;Falk and Hermle 2018). In this perspective, Susie Miles and Nidhi Singal (2010) find that governance factors influence on the gender inequality gap. ...
... Other studies (e.g., Agenor and Canuto 2015) have examined the impact of gender equality on countries' economic growth, finding a positive relationship between gender parity (ratio of female to male labor force work participation) Gender Equality and Countries' Financial and Economic Well-Being and economic development. In this literature stream, Joshua Eastin and Aseem Prakash (2013) found that the effect of economic development on gender equality depends on the level of development (i.e., there is an "S-shaped" relationship between the two variables investigated). Differently, according to Fatima Farooq et al. (2020), the same relationship is affected by foreign remittances, government expenditures, capital formation, and human capital. ...
... In terms of economic issues, some studies contend that economic prosperity, measured by GDP, influences gender equity (Baughn et al., 2007;Jensen and Berg, 2012;Reilly, 2012) and that levels of economic freedom are related to the gender pay gap (Apergis and Lynch, 2022). There is also an understanding that this relationship is not linear, and that other forces might act to prevent such progress (Eastin and Prakash, 2013). Therefore, the country's characteristics can mean that the macro level has the greatest impact on gender equity adoption and its disclosure. ...
... Furthermore, to legitimize their actions, corporations are seen to engage in pacts with 8 institutions that encourage the adoption of CSR practices (Nasiritousi et al., 2016). The work of the UN and the World Bank is the most notable performance in terms of engaging in efforts to promote gender equity (Eastin and Prakash, 2013). ...
Objective: The objective of this study is to investigate gender equity, with the aim of analyse the impact of country, sector, and company characteristics on corporate gender equity disclosure. Theoretical Framework: The main concepts and theories that underpin the research are institutional theory with National Business System (NBS) approach. Method: We collected information on gender equity disclosure from 3,726 companies in 58 countries over a 10-year interval from the Thomson Reuters database. Than, we use hierarchical analysis to link the degree of disclosure obtained by companies with variables at the macro, medium, and micro levels. Results and Discussion: We found that the equity disclosure is particularly sensitive to company characteristics such as trade union representation, company size or board gender diversity. Country characteristics, such as enforcement capacity, pressure from unions, popular participation, and economic development positively affect gender equity disclosure. The sector does not present statistical significance to explain variations in gender disclosure. Research Implications: These findings show that theoretical aspects of National Business System and multilevel characteristics approaches do provide empirical support to explain gender equity and its disclosure and help to resolve gender issues Originality/Value: This research fills the gap resulting from the lack of multilevel analysis on gender equity disclosure and helps identify which level and characteristics prevail and have the greatest impact. Therefore, the results guide the intervention of different social spheres to promote gender equity.
... To conclude, feminist or socio-sexual theories maintain that the secondary role society gives women positions them in a situation of disadvantage in the labour market (Bakar 2014;Greene, Ackers, and Black 2002;Longarela 2017;Seron et al. 2016;Tobío 2012). In all countries, women are exclusively or mainly responsible for household chores and the care of their children and economic support mainly corresponds to men (Cohen 2004;Eastin and Prakash 2013;Rodrigo 2015;Russell, McGinnity, and O'Connell 2017). This trend also affects the importance of cultural and social factors that place women at a disadvantage in the workplace (Bettio and Verashchagina 2009;Powell, Bagihole, and Dainty 2009;Seron et al. 2016;Simpson 2005;Stanworth 2000), understanding that dominant societal gender stereotypes are reflected in female occupations (Anker 1997;Blackwell 2001;Greene, Ackers, and Black 2002;Grönlund 2007;Seron et al. 2016). ...
... Even though it is thought that economic progress favours the correction of inequalities, some authors have shown that the relationship between development and equality between men and women is complex and constantly evolves in different directions. For example, Eastin and Prakash (2013) note the influence that different sources of growth (exploitation of natural resources, promotion of human capital) have on labour discrimination by gender since there can be different implications of segregation depending on whether progress is based on one or another factor, given that various sectors and agents may be more or less inclined or indifferent about gender equality. ...
Gender inequality affects the labour market of any territory. Despite government measures to eradicate it, it continues to cause discrimination. In this article, the gender inequality in the European labour market between 2002 and 2021 is analysed to advance the knowledge of this complex phenomenon. After reviewing the main theoretical contributions, the most suitable indicators are defined. The results reveal that the gender pay gap has increased in the European labour market, despite indicators such as the Gender Equality Index, employment rates, or levels of occupational segregation showing favourable progress. Therefore, governments must design efficient policies, mainly on pay equity, to achieve equal conditions in the European labour market.
... Utilizing both primary and secondary data collected from interviews with females and children, the findings revealed that, among other ways that women have been disadvantaged, poor governance, lack of access to credit, loss of rights, and disinheritance are some of the ways hampering both individual and economic development. Eastin and Prakash (2013) examined the link between gender disparity and economic progress and discovered that it was coiled (or 'S-shaped'). Because of a rise in workforce engagement, economic progress initially resulted in F I G U R E 1 Occupational distribution by sector of employment in SSA. ...
... The direct effect of gender inequality (β = 0.068, p > 0.05) on economic growth was found to be insignificant in SSA countries. These findings are inconsistent with results from Eastin and Prakash (2013) and the findings of Altuzarra et al. (2021), which concluded that gender disparities (education, labor market, and institutional representation), particularly in developing nations, enhance economic prospects. Moreover, the results contrast the findings by Karoui and Feki (2018), which indicated a negative and significant effect on the gender inequality index on economic growth. ...
The biggest barrier to an egalitarian Sub‐Saharan Africa (SSA) appears to be deeply ingrained structural obstacles and gender imbalances. The significant prevalence of gender inequities, which have both structural and economic ramifications, must be addressed if SSA is committed to achieving the Africa 2063 Agenda (the Africa we want) and Sustainable Development Agenda 2030: gender equity and equality, and economic development. Using partial least squares simultaneous equation modeling (PLS‐SEM), this study examines the effects of gender inequality and occupational segregation on economic growth in Sub‐Saharan Africa. The explanatory power of the structural path model indicated that 17.3% of the variations in latent endogenous variable economic growth in SSA are explained by gender inequality and occupational segregation. This is evidence that gender inequality and occupational segregation account for a significant portion of economic growth in the SSA region. The results of a bootstrapping simulation indicate that, in SSA nations, the direct impact of gender inequality on economic growth is insignificant (β = 0.068, p > 0.05) while occupational segregation, macroeconomic policies, and globalization have a significant impact. However, the indirect effects of both gender inequality (β = −0.048, p < 0.05) and occupational segregation (β = −0.011, p < 0.05) on economic growth via the coordinating power of macroeconomic policy and globalization are significant. This demonstrated that macroeconomic policies are not gender‐neutral. It is therefore recommended that the most significant progress toward achieving an egalitarian SSA be made through an adequate fiscal policy interplay that considers the socioeconomic level of SSA people. Advocate for trade liberalization policies and globalization to benefit from the spillover effects of greater demand for female labor, which promotes gender equality and economic expansion. Even though the gender gap in education and health is closing, SSA countries should fully implement the International Labour Organization (ILO) treaties on gender equality. This will help to lessen social consumption spending and encourage investment spending, which generates returns to develop the economy in the realization of the Sustainable Development Agenda 2030 and the Africa 2063 Agenda (the Africa we want).
... According to Inglehart and Norris (2003), the transition from agricultural societies to industrial societies often leads to a change in gender attitudes, which can be used to infer the positive effect of economic development on gender equality. In addition, by drawing on Simon Kuznets's thesis, Eastin and Prakash (2013) proved that there is a non-monotonic relationship between economic growth and gender inequality. ...
... The coefficient reveals that when GDP per capita rises by $1000, GII in reverse is increased by 0.009 units. This empirical result resonates with previous studies showing that economic growth indeed improves gender performance and mitigates the gender gap (Eastin & Prakash, 2013;Inglehart & Norris, 2003). ...
Aid in support of gender equality and women's empowerment has gathered significant momentum over the past decade and has also sparked a renewed debate over the effectiveness of foreign aid. Is gender aid a panacea that will help the recipient countries confront the challenges of the gender inequality deeply ingrained in their societies, or is it just a placebo pretending to be effective? Is there any difference between gender‐focused aid and gender mainstreaming aid in terms of aid effectiveness? To answer these key questions, this article examines the impact of gender aid on gender inequality using a sample of 116 recipient countries that covers the period from 2010 to 2019. By adopting a hybrid method that incorporates fixed‐ and random‐effects models, we obtain results indicating that increasing amounts of gender mainstreaming aid over time successfully reduce gender inequality and close the gender gap. In stark contrast, gender‐focused aid lacks the statistical significance needed to prove its potency. In addition to confirming gender aid's effectiveness, this article provides further policy implications regarding the gender mainstreaming strategy in the field of international development, particularly when considered in the context of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.
... Countries with equal rights and economic opportunities for males and females are the world's wealthiest countries (Eastin and Prakash, 2009). It shows the positive relationship between the level of development and female rights. ...
... These advancements have shifted the role of women from household to industry. Additionally, Eastin and Prakash (2009) conducted a panel analysis on 146 countries from 1982 to 2005. They indicated a cubic functional relationship between gender equality and income, known as the gender Kuznets curve based on Kuznets (1955). ...
Gender inequality is a more pronounced phenomenon in developing countries, which may be rooted in poor governance, and inadequate social and religious institutions. Therefore, this research tests the effects of religious tensions, governance, economic growth, and education on gender equality in a panel of 59 developing countries from 1995–2015. Moreover, religious tensions may have spillovers in neighboring countries in this modern age of media and globalization. Therefore, we apply Spatial Durbin and Autoregressive models to consider spatial autocorrelation in the religious tensions model. We find that both gender equality and religious tensions have spillovers in neighboring countries. Moreover, reducing religious tensions and increasing economic growth promote gender equality and have positive spillovers in neighboring countries as well. Bureaucratic quality has a positive effect on gender equality in home countries and has insignificant spillovers on gender equality in the neighboring countries. However, education could not affect gender equality in developing countries.
... However, the actual effect will depend on a variety of elements, including local contexts, power dynamics, and policy interventions, which can either reinforce or challenge existing gender hierarchies (Potrafke & Ursprung, 2012;Ben-Nun Bloom, 2016;Ben-Nun Bloom et al., 2017). In many parts of the world, women have made considerable strides in joining the formal labour force, achieving higher levels of education, and gaining greater economic independence (Eastin & Prakash, 2013;Ben-Nun Bloom et al., 2017;Kumar, 2022). ...
... Whilst first developed to analyse American anti-feminism of the 1980s, we grapple with Faludi's (1991) concept of 'patriarchal backlash' but in the context of conflict-affected societies such as Uganda today. Much of the recent literature on this subject has focused on the global north, Latin America and Eastern Europe (Corrêa et al., 2018;Flood et al., 2018), but other literatures about 'male backlash' and resistance to women's empowerment in the fields of gender and development in the South (Silberschmidt, 2005;Eastin & Prakash, 2013;Izugbara & Egesa, 2019) or in conflict and peacebuilding (Abirafeh, 2007;Myrttinen et al., 2014;Watson, 2015;MacKenzie & Foster, 2017) also need to be revisited to bridge these debates. ...
... A very large number of societal problems nowadays are being explained by such a trade-off between development level and a societal process to be explained (Acemoglu et al., 2002;Dinda, 2004), and it is no wonder that also the rejection of homosexual neighbours in the world can be neatly predicted by the UNDP Human Development Index and its square. In the comparative social science literature, there even has been already a suggestion to talk about a "Gender Kuznets Curve" (Eastin et al., 2013). All these attempts start from the common denominator that social crises culminate at the middle-income level. ...
... Para terminar, las teorías feministas o socio-sexuales sostienen que es precisamente el papel segundario que la sociedad otorga a la mujer el que la posiciona en esa situación de desventaja en el mercado laboral (Greene et al., 2002;Tobío, 2012;Bakar, 2014). En todos los países se responsabiliza a la mujer de las labores domésticas y el cuidado de los hijos, de forma exclusiva o principal, mientras que el sustento económico le corresponde, principalmente, al hombre (Cohen, 2004;Eastin y Prakash, 2013;Rodrigo, 2015;Russell et al., 2017). Estas premisas hacen que el colectivo femenino acabe acumulando menos formación y experiencia que el varón antes de incorporarse a la población activa, lo que conecta, nuevamente, con la teoría del capital humano. ...
El estudio de la segregación ocupacional por razón de género tiene una larga tradición en distintas disciplinas sociales, como la sociología. De forma estructural, se aprecia una creciente similitud entre hombres y mujeres en algunos indicadores laborales, como la tasa de actividad, la permanencia en el mercado de trabajo, la tasa de paro, etc. Sin embargo, la segregación ocupacional continúa siendo muy elevada en España y apenas se aprecian descensos importantes en los últimos años, a pesar de las actuaciones que se han llevado a cabo para corregirla. Esta situación resulta preocupante, en la medida en que puede generar desigualdades y discriminación.
El objetivo del presente trabajo consiste en analizar la evolución de la segregación ocupacional española en función del género durante el período 2011-2021, apoyándonos en estadísticas tanto anuales como trimestrales. El uso de este último tipo de datos posibilita examinar en qué medida la situación excepcional que ha marcado la pandemia de COVID-19 ha podido incidir en la segregación. Para ello, se parte de un breve repaso de la literatura y se definen los indicadores utilizados para clasificar las ocupaciones y para cuantificar la segregación ocupacional, como los índices de disimilitud (ID) y de Karmel y MacLachlan (IKM). A continuación, se lleva a cabo su análisis empírico utilizando datos de la Encuesta de Población Activa (EPA) del Instituto Nacional de Estadística (INE).
Los resultados obtenidos muestran una cierta reducción de la segregación ocupacional entre 2011 y 2021 y, además, reflejan que hombres y mujeres han ganado peso en ocupaciones integradas o equilibradas.
... A very large number of societal problems nowadays are being explained by such a trade-off between development level and a societal process to be explained (Acemoglu et al., 2002;Dinda, 2004), and it is no wonder that also the rejection of homosexual neighbours in the world can be neatly predicted by the UNDP Human Development Index and its square. In the comparative social science literature, there even has been already a suggestion to talk about a "Gender Kuznets Curve" (Eastin et al., 2013). All these attempts start from the common denominator that social crises culminate at the middle-income level. ...
Our estimates of global homonegativity based on rates of disapproval of homosexual neighbours cover more than 90% of the world's population and are based on research results from 88 countries covert in the World Values Survey and the European Values Study. These data give the population-weighted result of a global percentage of homonegative people of around 55%. We present our research findings on the drivers of homonegativity using correlations, partial correlations and factor analysis, examining the effects of individual global attitudes on secularism, democracy, tolerance and religious particularism, as well as on gender equality, religion, political violence and national resilience on homonegativity, as evidenced in the global attitude data from the World Values Survey. We also analyse the relationship between homophobia and cross-social science data in the countries of the world.
... Understanding fathers' experience of involvement in their partners' pregnancy and childbirth is essential for creating maternal and child healthcare services that are fully inclusive [1]. With economic development and modernization, gender norms tend toward greater equity, especially where social policy supports this [2]. In lower-income countries, where traditional gender norms are more common, male involvement in their partners' pregnancy and childbirth is more limited [3]. ...
Background
As notions of masculinity evolve globally, it is important to understand their dimensions within geographic regions and life contexts. African men’s involvement in their partners’pregnancy and childbirth has been explored to a limited extent in the peer-reviewed literature. This analysis provides a comprehensive examination of the existing literature on the diverse experiences of fathers across the African continent.
Aim
This study aims to provide an overview of fathers' experience of involvement in their partners’ pregnancies andchildbirth in Africa.
Methods
A systematic integrative literature review guided the process. The review comprised problem identification, literature search, data evaluation, data analysis and presentation of results. Systematic searches were conducted in the Cinahl, PubMed and Scopus databases.
Results
The search identified 70 articles of which 31, relating to 11 African countries, were used. Of these, 20 were qualitative, 9 were quantitative and 2 were mixed-methods studies. Men’s alienation from health services, and traditional gender norms that discourage fathers’ supportive role during pregnancy were prevalent themes. Financial pressures also dominated fathers’experiences. At the same time, in 18 studies fathers expressed motivation to be involved partners and supportive fathers, despite stigma and exclusion from maternity services.
Conclusion
This integrative review shows that fathers’ experiences of their involvement in their partners’ pregnancy and childbirth across African countries are influenced by multiple factors. While unwelcoming health services, traditional gender norms, and low income are barriers to male involvement, education, younger age, and modern gender norms are associated with greater male involvement.
... Теорія фемінізації U набула подальшого розвитку в гіпотезі фемінізації S (англ. the feminization S hypothesis), запропонованій Д. Істин та А. Пракаш (Eastin, 2013). У своєму емпіричному дослідженні Істин і Пракаш проаналізували дані стосовно 146 найменш розвинених країн світу за період 1980-2005 років і дійшли висновку, що ґендерна сеґреґація знижується на початкових етапах розвитку, потім зростає і врешті-решт знову уповільнюється після певного економічного порога. ...
The article aims to outline the trends of gender professional segregation occurring in Ukraine during the military conflict.
Materials and Methods. The research was carried out with the use of qualitative methods. A content analysis was chosen for this study. The material consists of online textual publications, which include interviews with managers, specialists, and employees of the State Employment Center. It also includes interviews in which women residing on the territory of Ukraine share their experiences of employment and work during the war.
Results and Discussion. In Ukraine today, two factors operate in parallel. On the one hand, there is an urgent need to fill vacancies in professions that have traditionally been dominated by men. On the other hand, the financial situation of women is on the decline. Women are forced to rethink their gender identity in the family and in society because of financial difficulties and their inability to guarantee a minimum of financial stability for themselves and their families. This leads them to be willing to accept jobs with working conditions that are particularly harmful and difficult. Employment opportunities for women are increasing due to differentiated demand, which contributes to the reduction of horizontal gender segregation. One factor that impedes this process is the demand for professions traditionally considered women’s domains, which do not require basic skills, and for which demand increased during the war. These professions are mainly related to manufacturing and working specialties. Given that educated and skilled women occupy blue-collar jobs, we can expect vertical segregation to intensify during wartime, when gender differences are manifested in positions and roles with differing status or potential for advancement. In the area of state gender policy, Ukraine has business development initiatives that reduce the gender gap in women’s access to assets and capital to invest in profitable entrepreneurial industries. However, these initiatives only involve a limited number of women and cannot be associated with radical gender changes in society. At the same time, the positive aspects of reducing horizontal gender segregation observed in Ukraine during wartime may be negated by the lack of or insufficient incentives for the development of preschool education. Thus, there are few effective levers to overcome gender segregation in Ukraine in the short and medium term. Achieving gender equality in the labor market is practically declaratory.
Conclusions. In the context of the wartime crisis, gender segregation is a significant issue with negative consequences. A market specifically for women’s labor is emerging, and the social status of women’s work is declining compared to pre-war times. This situation may reinforce societal stereotypes that view men as more suitable for leadership positions, potentially decreasing women’s motivation and career aspirations.
... Теорія фемінізації U набула подальшого розвитку в гіпотезі фемінізації S (англ. the feminization S hypothesis), запропонованій Д. Істин та А. Пракаш (Eastin, 2013). У своєму емпіричному дослідженні Істин і Пракаш проаналізували дані стосовно 146 найменш розвинених країн світу за період 1980-2005 років і дійшли висновку, що ґендерна сеґреґація знижується на початкових етапах розвитку, потім зростає і врешті-решт знову уповільнюється після певного економічного порога. ...
The article aims to outline the trends of gender professional segregation occurring in Ukraine during the military conflict. Materials and Methods. The research was carried out with the use of qualitative methods. A content analysis was chosen for this study. The material consists of online textual publications, which include interviews with managers, specialists, and employees of the State Employment Center. It also includes interviews in which women residing on the territory of Ukraine share their experiences of employment and work during the war. Results and Discussion. In Ukraine today, two factors operate in parallel. On the one hand, there is an urgent need to fill vacancies in professions that have traditionally been dominated by men. On the other hand, the financial situation of women is on the decline. Women are forced to rethink their gender identity in the family and in society because of financial difficulties and their inability to guarantee a minimum of financial stability for themselves and their families. This leads them to be willing to accept jobs with working conditions that are particularly harmful and difficult. Employment opportunities for women are increasing due to differentiated demand, which contributes to the reduction of horizontal gender segregation. One factor that impedes this process is the demand for professions traditionally considered women’s domains, which do not require basic skills, and for which demand increased during the war. These professions are mainly related to manufacturing and working specialties. Given that educated and skilled women occupy blue-collar jobs, we can expect vertical segregation to intensify during wartime, when gender differences are manifested in positions and roles with differing status or potential for advancement. In the area of state gender policy, Ukraine has business development initiatives that reduce the gender gap in women’s access to assets and capital to invest in profitable entrepreneurial industries. However, these initiatives only involve a limited number of women and cannot be associated with radical gender changes in society. At the same time, the positive aspects of reducing horizontal gender segregation observed in Ukraine during wartime may be negated by the lack of or insufficient incentives for the development of preschool education. Thus, there are few effective levers to overcome gender segregation in Ukraine in the short and medium term. Achieving gender equality in the labor market is practically declaratory. Conclusions. In the context of the wartime crisis, gender segregation is a significant issue with negative consequences. A market specifically for women’s labor is emerging, and the social status of women’s work is declining compared to pre-war times. This situation may reinforce societal stereotypes that view men as more suitable for leadership positions, potentially decreasing women’s motivation and career aspirations.
... After increasing, in the second step equality reduces or decelerates, and finally in the third step equality again increases. The U-shaped model's strategy recommendation urges growth to encourage improvements in gender issues whenever an economic edge is crossed (Eastin & Prakash, 2013). UNDP also set the Sustainable Development Goals from 2015-2030 related to gender equality. ...
This study aims to determine the relationship between gender equality and economic growth in major South Asian countries. This study suggests checking the gender Kuznets curve or whether the data support a linear, quadratic, or cubic gender Kuznets curve for major South Asian countries. We used time series data and covered the period from 1980 to 2019. We applied the Ng-Perron unit root test to check for non-stationary time series data. After the integration order is established, the autoregressive distributive lag (ARDL) model is used in three steps. The ARDL bound testing approach of covariance shows that Sri Lanka has an S-shaped Gender Cognition Curve (GKC), India has a Z-shaped GKC, Pakistan has an S-shape, and Bangladesh has an S-shape. is the -shaped GKC association. Periods of countries were considered. We also conclude that gender equality is not a direct result of development. Consequently, politicians with gender equality policies should subsidize women's employment in times of financial hardship.
... Some pushback against changing gender relations within the context of development is not unexpected. For example, Eastin and Prakash (2013) find evidence of a 'Gender Kuznets Curve' as gender equality rises along with economic growth and development, to then stall or fall, but also that such pushback tends to later dissipate and equality increase again with further growth. They test a range of systemic (socioeconomic, political, and other) explanations, but this phenomenon can still not explain the recent concurrence of backlash across the globe -South, North, East, and West. ...
Backlash is not always pushing back against progress for women, but how is it still patriarchal? Sliced into three sections – on confluence, contestations, and cartographies – this article draws on a thesis about backlash as the exploitation of insecurity wrought by apparent crises to re/shape social orders, through re-fixing symbolic sites, namely the body, family, and nation. It begins by describing a confluence of types of actors and projects silencing feminist voice. Contesting gendered backlash narratives about the three sites are then explored, followed by a more theoretical section reflecting on cartographies of resonant concurrence and contradictions in backlash. Reflecting on masculinities, identification, and levels of hegemonic power, the argument is that the fixing of sites re/naturalises three deep-level patriarchal logics – phallogocentric binary (body), hierarchical (family), and categorical closed-systems (nation) principles – which helps us theorise the evolution of patriarchal hegemonies. This may inform more strategic countering of backlash.
... Living in a country with a gender-balanced workforce multiplies the chances of recurrent interactions with working women who display self-confident and assertive behaviours (Majlesi, 2016). These situations and interactions likely transform the stereotypes about women's capabilities and duties (Seguino, 2007) by dispelling traditional myths about women's weakness and limited capabilities (Eastin & Prakash, 2013). This new understanding that women are purposeful, autonomous actors in the economic field plausibly reverberates into other fields and gradually produces a general shift in gender. ...
This article explores the relationship between gender balance in the workforce and attitudes towards abortion worldwide. Studies on macro-level conditions related to abortion attitudes overlook the role of gender balance in the workforce-specifically the degree of female representation in a country's workforce. There are strong reasons why this factor could shape abortion attitudes. We argue that such a gender balance creates necessary conditions to break with traditional, anti-abortion ideology and facilitates dissemination and public acceptance of pro-choice views. We test this argument with two different datasets - the Integrated Values Survey and three waves of the International Social Survey Programme-along with two outcomes: general tolerance towards abortion and tolerance towards abortion for pregnant women of low income. Using three-level random intercept models and multiple controls for individual and country-level conditions, the results support our hypothesis: In countries with higher gender balance in the workforce, individuals display higher tolerance towards abortion.
... The vital role of women in protecting the environment is evident [36], and a more gender-equal platform in environmental policymaking will harbor improved outcomes against climate change and better environmental quality [37,38]. Koengkan and Fuinhas [39] found gender inequality to be a driving force of carbon-dioxide emissions in 14 EU countries. ...
This study investigates the interaction between two opposite indicators of gender equality-women's political empowerment index and neopatrimonial rule index-and environmental quality to elucidate further the mechanism behind the divergence between the theoretical and empirical literature on democratic rights and environmental quality nexus. By analyzing OECD country data between 1980 and 2018 and utilizing the augmented mean group (AMG) estimator, it is shown that higher levels of women's participation in decision-making processes alleviate the environmental deterioration via the direct effects. With further exploration of data, the study also exposes that one of the critical reasons creating the divergence between the theoretical and empirical literature is the indirect effects via welfare channel becoming more dominant as society becomes less gender-equal. In other words, the deterioration in environmental quality remains relatively low due to destitution in less gender-equal countries.
... N. Bandiera, Ashwini;O. N. A. Bandiera, 2013;Bhalotra & Rawlings, 2011;Branisa, Klasen, & Ziegler, 2013;Cabeza-García, Brio, & Oscanoa-Victorio, 2018;Chant & Sweetman, 2012;Da Rocha & Fuster, 2006;Duflo, 2012;Eastin & Prakash, 2013;A. Fatima & Sultana, 2009;Ferguson, 2011;Hiller, 2014;Kabeer, 2015;Kassie, Ndiritu, & Stage, 2014;Klasen, 2018a;Lincove, 2008;Seguino, 2011;Syed & Ali, 2019;Verick, 2014;Wang & Zhang, 2018). ...
... Our estimated relations postulate a linear relation between aspects of gender equality and income equality. It is, however, possible that the underlying relations might be nonlinear (see, for examples, Eastin & Prakash, 2013;Goldscheider et al., 2015). For instance, the relation of fertility to gender equality or economic development can be sensitive to the prevailing level of gender equality. ...
This paper studies the influence of different aspects of gender equality or female empowerment on income inequality. A key question addressed is: Are there positive spillovers from gender equality to income equality? Using data drawn from 162 nations over the years 1985–2019, results show that nations with a long history of women's suffrage, greater representation of women in the government, lower fertility rates and better overall gender equality experienced lower income inequality, ceteris paribus. These results are largely supported in several robustness checks, including different model estimation strategies to address potential reverse‐causality issues, considering alternative measures of income inequality, and considerations of persistence and nonlinearities in the gender inequality measures. The spillovers from some dimensions of gender equality are found to be sensitive to existing income inequality. Policymakers ignoring the payoffs from gender empowerment on income distribution might be underinvesting in initiatives to empower women.
... Another factor that could warrant for this outcome could be the ghost worker 15 syndrome which has plagued the Nigerian public sector for decades [54], [55], [56] and [57]. This is an act of stealing from the State and Federal Government at large under the disguise of paying wages to employees that do not exist in person without due contribution to the productivity of the Nigeria civil service and public sector as a whole. ...
Gender inequality is generally perceived as a deterrent to economic growth and as a result much of effort by the United Nations, World Bank, NGOs, Nigerian government and governments around the world have been enunciated to cauterise it. While several policies have been put in place to promote gender equality in Nigeria, progress in this area is rather slow. The need to achieve gender equality is crucial. Therefore, the paper empirically examines the influence of gender inequality and female labour force participation in the civil service on the economic growth of Nigeria. The data cut across 35 states in Nigeria from 2008 to 2016. The model is estimated using a panel data Fixed Effect estimation. The findings suggested that the economic cost of an increase in men’s employment at the expense of women’s employment may have a negative impact on economic growth. Thus, the pursuit of equi-gender representation is an important measure towards, women empowerment, reducing their dependency, elevating their socio-economic status, and achieving economic growth.
... When these few studies are compared with the results of this study, the results are not compatible with Özer and Biçerli (2003) and Demirtaş and Yayla (2017), Niemi and Llyod (1981), Bibi and Afzal (2012), Mujahid (2013), Anyanwu et al. However, the results are consistent with the studies of Augustine (2013), Eastin and Prakash (2013), Awan and Sadia (2018), Özkök and Polat (2020) and Sertçelik (2021). ...
Enflasyon nominal milli gelirin reel milli gelire göre artması anlamına gelmektedir. Bu durumda fiyatlar genel düzeyi, sürekli ve hissedilir şekilde yükselmektedir. Enflasyon, hane halkının satın alma gücü üzerinde olumsuz bir etkiye sahiptir. Bu nedenle, aslında çalışma isteğinde olmayan kadınlar, enflasyonun yüksek olması nedeniyle aile gelirleri azaldığından, aile bütçelerine destek olmak amacıyla işgücüne daha fazla katılma eğilimi sergileyebilmektedir. Bu çalışmada Türkiye’de kadın istihdam oranları ile enflasyon oranları arasındaki ilişki 1990-2020 dönemi için araştırılmak istenmektedir. Araştırma kapsamında Fourier temelli testler kullanılmıştır. Değişkenlerin durağanlık düzeyleri hem geleneksel birim kök testleriyle hem de Fourier ADF birim kök testi ile sınanmıştır. Yapılan testlerin sonucunda, değişkenlerin düzeyde durağan olmadıkları, birinci mertebeden durağan oldukları tespit edilmiştir. Değişkenler arasındaki uzun dönemli ilişkinin tespiti için ise Fourier ADL eşbütünleşme testi yapılmıştır. Sonuç olarak, kadın istihdam oranı ile enflasyon oranları değişkenleri arasında eşbütünleşik bir ilişki olduğu tespit edilmiş olup, uzun dönemde enflasyon oranındaki artış yönündeki değişimlerin kadın istihdam oranlarını artırdığı tespit edilmiştir.
... Dozens of empirical studies following Kuznets's work confirm the inverted U-shaped effect of economic growth on income inequality, which is now known as the Kuznets curve 5 . Inspired by the Kuznets curve hypothesis, some scholars hypothesize and confirm similar relationships between economic growth and other phenomena, including environmental degradation [11][12][13] , gender inequality 14 , and crime 15 . However, no studies explore whether there is a subjective wellbeing Kuznets curve. ...
Happiness studies generally investigate average levels of happiness rather than happiness inequality between regions, and studies of social inequality usually measure it based on the distribution of life opportunities (e.g., income) rather than life results (e.g., happiness). Inspired by the Kuznets curve, which illustrates the inverted U-shaped correlation between income inequality and economic growth, this study investigates whether there is a subjective wellbeing Kuznets curve. It uses data from ten waves of the Chinese General Social Survey to construct a panel data set and runs panel data models to investigate the hypothesized curvilinear relationship between happiness inequality and economic growth. The results show that happiness inequality, measured as the standard deviations of respondents’ self-reported happiness, first increases and then decreases as per-capita GDP increases in Chinese provinces. These findings strongly support the subjective wellbeing Kuznets curve hypothesis and suggest that strategies for reducing happiness inequality must consider stages of economic development.
... Globally, the FLFP rate (defined by the World Bank as the percentage of females aged fifteen years and over who are employed in paid work) looks stubbornly stable over the last 30 years (figure 1 ), but this masks significant variation at the country level. Figure 2 displays country-level FLFP data from the year 2018, and we see wide variation in female employment across the world, with notably low rates in the Middle East and North Africa, parts 6 Eastin and Prakash (2013) posit that the relationship between FLFP and economic development looks more like an S-curve, as FLFP (and gender equality more broadly) increases during the initial stages of development, decreases during a second stage, and increases again with the rise of the service sector. 7 Mary Brinton's pioneering work seeks to understand why levels of female labor force participation vary so widely across East Asian economies. ...
As countries integrate ever further into globalized production processes, scholars have found significant country-level variation in the extent to which women are able to increase their participation in the formal economy. In this paper, I improve on existing work by disaggregating globalization into its different processes, each of which has different expected effects on female labor force participation (FLFP). I examine how trade, foreign direct investment (FDI), and natural resource exports affect FLFP in a cross-national time-series analysis of 129 low- to middle-income economy countries over a twenty-eight-year period. A major contribution of this paper is to show an interaction effect between trade and FDI: I find that generally trade and inward FDI have a negative effect on FLFP that diminishes as they increase together, suggesting that export-oriented FDI creates more opportunities for women than domestic-oriented FDI and trade openness unaccompanied by significant foreign investment. I also find that the more positive effect of export-oriented FDI depends on the extent to which a country has experienced industrial upgrading, suggesting that gender segregation by industry also affects the extent to which global economic integration creates employment opportunities for women in developing countries.
This paper investigates the effects of women political empowerment on the gender gap in tertiary education in a panel of 23 sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) countries over the period 1997–2018. Ordinary least squares, two-stage least squares and quantiles via moments estimates are used for empirical analysis. The result shows that women political empowerment bridges the gender gap in tertiary education. This narrowing effect is more important in democratic countries than in autocratic ones. In addition, in fragile and conflict-affected countries, women political empowerment has a positive effect of gender parity in tertiary education but does not affect gender parity in non-fragile and conflict-affected countries. Likewise, a better representation of women in parliament is almost twice as beneficial in terms of gender gap reduction in tertiary education in middle-income countries than in low-income countries. Moreover, women political empowerment fosters gender equality both in countries that are far from parity and those that are close to it. However, this equalizing effect is more important in countries close to gender parity. Furthermore, women political empowerment has the potential to reduce gender inequality in tertiary education while promoting the convergence of parity between countries in an environment where corruption is kept under control. The results imply that a better women political representation appears to be a crucial ingredient in closing the gender gap in tertiary education and enabling SSA to benefit from the potential of all its citizens for its development.
The Feminization U theory defines the preference of female labor force involvement FLFP (FLFP) to move in U pattern as the economic development of any country starts rising. At first stages of development when the country experiences structural shift from agriculture to industry, FLFP declines. When the country gets higher level of development with sound industrial base, FLFP rises again. However, the research literature provides mixed results about it. Previous studies had made it an established fact while the recent studies are proving it wrong on various empirical basis. So, this study is conducted to review briefly the existing literature from (1990-2024) to have a clear idea about the methodologies, datasets and peculiar conditions on which the U hypothesis got established and what are the general and peculiar reasons for countries whose datasets are not confirming it in their stages of development. In 2014, a study had opened various new aspects to analyze this hypothesis and from then there have been introduced various techniques to address the question of U hypothesis. So, from total 21 papers which are reviewed here, 15 fall from post 2014 while 6 are from pre 2014 era. The results reveal the sensitivity of existence of U hypothesis to GDP measures and how FLFP is calculated. Moreover, the pattern of FLFP is more of the result of structural change than economic growth. However, for developing countries its existence is more prominent so they can make policies accordingly to solve the issue of low FLFP.
Purpose
Developing countries are characterized by gender wage inequality that can be largely attributed to gender-based disparities in education. Education subsidy can be an effective tool for reducing the inequality in human capital formation. However, the parents’ decision in response to the subsidy is a crucial determinant of gendered inequality in schooling and earnings. The paper aims to examine the effects of gender-neutral and gender-specific education subsidy policies on the gendered differences in schooling and earnings.
Design/methodology/approach
A three-sector full employment general equilibrium model is developed, where the amount of schooling of children is determined by the intertemporal utility maximizing behaviour of the parents over two periods.
Findings
The results indicate that higher gender-neutral education subsidy may raise the amount of schooling of boys more than girls and aggravate the schooling inequality in a society with traditional gender norms; the effect on earning inequality depends on the relative gendered returns to education and the marginal effects of the subsidy on relative schooling levels. However, gender-specific subsidy policies raise female schooling, thereby narrowing gender-based schooling and are likely to favourably affect the earning inequality.
Originality/value
The paper tries to analyse the linkage between education and labour market within a gender dimension. On the one hand, it tries to explain parental schooling decision due to gender-neutral and gender-specific education subsidies, and on the other, it examines the effects of these two subsidy policies on gendered schooling inequality and gender earnings inequality in a dynamic model.
Researchers have explored the relationship between religiosity and people’s gendered perspectives within the private sphere. However, there is limited research on how religiosity relates to people’s gendered perspectives in the public sphere. The authors examine the association between religiosity and the view that men make better leaders than women in two public spheres, politics and business, and explore variations by national context. Drawing on data collected in 44 national contexts, the analysis reveals that individuals with higher religious attendance are more inclined to support men’s leadership over women’s leadership in both political and business domains. Notably, this relationship is nuanced by a country’s level of economic development. Greater religiosity is associated with greater support for men’s leadership in more economically developed countries, whereas the reverse occurs in countries with lower economic development. The findings urge a more critical examination of religion’s role in shaping global perspectives on gender equity.
Busca-se analisar as relações intersecionais de gênero e raça junto à questão do desenvolvimento e território. O desenvolvimento é influenciado por orientações filosóficas e ideológicas, e sua ligação com a equidade de gênero também perpassa diferentes perspectivas. Conceitos de interseccionalidade e consubstancialidade possibilitam analisar o desenvolvimento de segmentos da população feminina e a interdependência das relações sociais. Propõe-se análise estatística e do índice de equidade de gênero para as mesorregiões do estado paulista. A espacialização do índice possibilita aferir a importância de um olhar mais profundo sobre as relações de gênero e as múltiplas identidades aí envolvidas
Purpose
The study investigates the effect of uncertainty on gender equality and examines the policies and institutional qualities that matter for mitigating the effect.
Design/methodology/approach
The research employs a Generalized Method of Moment model and data from 45 developing countries covering the period between 2005 and 2021. The estimation covers a wide range of specifications.
Findings
The study finds that uncertainty undermines gender equality. However, economic management policies, public sector management and institutions and policies for social inclusion and equity directly promote gender equality, and indirectly moderate the effect of uncertainty on gender equality. The result also establishes the existence of a Gender Kuznets Hypothesis.
Originality/value
The study offers pioneering evidence on the nexus between uncertainty, gender equality, public policies and institutional qualities. It explores the direct and indirect relationship between these variables using 18 different measures. The study offers interesting insights and implications for the gender economics literature.
Peer review
The peer review history for this article is available at: https://publons.com/publon/10.1108/IJSE-11-2023-0892
Motherhood in academia remains vastly underrepresented in both developed and developing countries. Key career opportunities for women often coincide with childbearing and child‐rearing years, limiting their consideration for these positions. This underrepresentation diminishes academic mothers' ability to contribute meaningfully to public administration (PA) and development issues that deeply impact them. Using comparative administrative law, we develop a typology of environments academic mothers navigate, reflecting national and cultural differences. We investigate the historical, cultural, and structural factors perpetuating this inequity, highlighting biases and discrimination faced by academic mothers. Entrenched institutional structures and complacent cultural norms exacerbate their systemic oppression. Normalizing motherhood in academia, from graduate students to university presidents, requires new laws, policies, programs, and expectations that create strong legal protections and favorable institutional policies. We conclude with universal recommendations to transform academia into a more inclusive space for mothers, focusing on PA to address this pervasive issue.
Rapid innovations in technology have influenced this decade, and the convergence of cultural and digital living has become a revolutionary force that is changing many aspects of our society. The book "Digital Living: Redefining Culture with Technology for Industries, Education, Society & Entrepreneurship" explores the immense impact of this convergence on entrepreneurship, education, industries, and society. It goes into exhaustive detail about the many facets of these effects. This book seeks to throw light on the complex relationship between technology and culture by thoroughly examining a variety of viewpoints and demonstrating both the advantages and disadvantages of digital life in the globalized world of today. The entire book provides knowledge about how technology is changing, how we as a society perceive culture, from the emergence of digital industries to the rethinking of educational paradigms, from the transformation of social dynamics to the encouragement of entrepreneurial efforts. With contributions from 53 experts spanning various fields, each chapter provides valuable insights into the impact of technology on our shared cultural experience. Topics covered include Digital Living, exploring concepts such as Digital DNA, Digital Consumption, Conversational AI, Digital Metamorphosis, Digital Education, and Digitized Workplace Counselling. The Finance section delves into Green Banking, Sustainable Finance, Investment Decision-Making, the Indian Financial Sector, the Indian Stock Market, Financial Performance, Financial Products, and Risk-Taking Behavior. Marketing discussions focus on Social Media Marketing, Influencer Marketing, Online Shopping, Consumer Behavior, and Sustainable Fashion. Human Resources topics encompass Labor Welfare, Women Empowerment, Turnover Contagion, Spiritual and Emotional Intelligence. Finally, the Entrepreneurship & General Management section delves into Online Learning, Gender Inequality, Technology's Impact, the Indian Economy, Student Social Responsibility, Impact of Well-being, Blockchain Technology, and Intellectual Populism
In recent decades, our society has witnessed significant advancements in information and communication technologies (ICT), leading to the creation of cyberspace, also known as virtual space. Within this digital landscape, social media has emerged as a crucial component of cyberspace, with the ability to both reflect and profoundly influence our physical world. But while positive content thrives, some negative contents are also taken into cyberspace from our physical world. Previous studies have discovered the existence of comments with strong gender biases in social media and proposed various efficient detectors to filter out biased information. However, the gender biases hidden behind the words, called recessive gender biases, receive less attention while being more widespread in social media. In this research, we propose 3-View Evaluation Framework (3VEF) to evaluate recessive gender biases embedded in social media using word embeddings. Taking twitter data in Hong Kong as a case study, we apply the 3VEF framework to demonstrate the temporal trend and spatial distribution of recessive gender biases in social media in Hong Kong, and then discuss its relationship with sexism in physical space. The results reveal recessive gender biases in cyberspace mirror those in physical space with high consistency. Moreover, by integrating the spatial heterogeneity of recessive gender biases in social media with public statistical data in Hong Kong, we find that the factors affecting gender equality in physical space also play important roles in cyberspace. We believe our study contributes to understanding the recessive gender biases in cyberspace and exploring to avoid their further influence in physical space.
Purpose
The participation of females in economic activity remains a challenge, and received a lot of attention for a better labor policy discourse. The empirical research focused widely on the relationship between female labor force participation (FLFP) and economic development, called the feminization U-shape hypothesis. However, the linear/nonlinear relationship has been questioned due to empirical and methodological anomalies. Hence, this study aims to extend the previous work by reexamining this relationship in Pakistan.
Design/methodology/approach
The annual data from 1980 to 2021, the unit root tests augmented Dickey–Fuller and Phillips and Perron, the conventional autoregressive distributed lag bound test approach by including the quadratic-term of GDP per capita and the novel Sasabuchi–Lind–Mehlum (SLM) U test (2010) used for empirical estimation.
Findings
The findings revealed the prospects of a long-run nonlinear association between FLFP and economic development in Pakistan. However, an inverse U-shape exists between the female labor force participation rate (FLFPR) and GDP per capita, predicting that FLFP may decline in the future.
Research limitations/implications
The traditional feminization U-shape hypothesis has little empirical support in the case of Pakistan. Therefore, the Government of Pakistan should enhance the enabling environment for females through the provision of better job opportunities, technical skills, on-the-job training and social security benefits during all phases of economic development.
Originality/value
The conventional approach of testing U-shape is insufficient. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, therefore, this study incorporated a wider data set in a time series that is less evident, an advanced methodology SLM U test (2010), to validate the feminization U-shape hypothesis in Pakistan for the first time.
The aim of the study was to explore the existence of stereotypical gender bias in relation to gender preference and the perceived leadership behaviors and competencies that female leaders would need in order to be successful in a male dominated industry using the oil and gas industry as a case study. To achieve this objective, a research questions was asked, “Does a negative perception of female leaders’ competences and stereo typical bias still persist in the male dominated environment like the oil and gas industry”.To appropriately answer this question and meet the objectives of the study, a quantitative positivism research design was adopted as the methodology. Survey questionnaire with 88 scaled questions and 1 open-ended questions was used as data collection method. 134 respondents comprising of 54 females and 80 males participated in the study. The data was analyzed using the IBM SPSS software. The role congruity theory of prejudice towards female leaders, the ‘Think manager – Think Male’ notion, the double bind concept and the competency framework were used as a theoretical concept to drive the study.Key findings from the study includes the role of factors like organizational, culture, and gender bias as an unspoken barrier for female leaders to succeed in the oil and gas industry. Other findings include a unified bias in which both male and female favorably rated a female leader they have worked with satisfactorily; the female leaders in the oil and gas industry are not disliked for being professional or assertive rather they earn the same respect as with the males from their subordinates. Evidence suggests that the leadership styles that was found to be mostly associated with female leaders in the oil and gas industry is the participative and relation-oriented style of leadership and this in human resources management is the recommended best practice and more effective approach.
Pre-publication abstract (before final edits and copy-editing): Amid a rising tide of misogyny and gender violence across the world, terms like "patriarchal backlash" have increased in use to describe similar trends in different settings. Yet, backlash remains contested as a concept, variably perceived as an expression of male resistance, a patriarchal restoration, or a mode in which a broader reactionary politics play out and coalesce. Recognising that the predominance of recent academic literature on backlash centres on Europe and the Americas, we explore a broader set of debates, questioning how we can better understand backlash in a global context. We argue that backlash can be framed as a form of crisis management, as a confluence of crises-political, economic, climate, and pandemic-create volatility in hierarchical social relations, threatening the reproduction of elite rule and capitalist growth. Patriarchal backlash serves to reimpose order through a series of spatial fixes in the individual space of the sexed body, the privatized space of the traditional family, and the bordered, ordered space of the ethnically imagined nation. Amid a felt sense of crisis and ensuing ontological insecurity, hierarchies are fixed in place through appeals to a naturalised gender order, itself structured by racialised, neocolonial relations of power operating within and across national borders. As sites of struggle over discursive meaning and material resources, the body, family, and nation are critical spaces in which to counter backlash and its fixing of hierarchies.
The underlying literature hypothesises and provides randomised evidence for the positive impact of promoting the broad-based inclusion, empowerment, and representation of women on regional ecosystems. This study seeks to isolate a female agency-driven development factor in external sovereign emerging market debt and finds evidence for superior risk-adjusted returns from tilting towards female agency leaders. We propose the female agency factor as an additional scope in the modern investor’s toolbox of holistic credit assessment, allowing investors to isolate the issuers which are the most effective sovereign transmission mechanisms of sustainable development capital. This contribution to the corpus supports the notion of integrating sustainability factors into portfolio construction and reinforces the argument for supporting female-led development from a financial markets’ perspective.
İşgücü piyasasında cinsiyet temelli ayrımcılık hem sosyal adaleti hem de ekonomik
kalkınmayı olumsuz yönde etkilemektedir. Cavalcanti ve Tavares (2007), işgücü piyasasında cinsiyet temelli ayrımcılığın, sosyal adaleti ve toplumsal cinsiyet eşitliği idealini zedelemesinin yanı sıra, ek ekonomik maliyetlere de neden olduğunu belirtmektedir. Araştırmacılar tarafından yapılan teorik ve ampirik çalışmalar, ayrımcılığın refah üzerindeki etkilerini kavramada önemli bir rol oynamaktadır. Bu tür eşitsiz uygulamaların sosyal refahı düşürmesi sorunlu görülmüş ve içsel gerekçelerle bu eşitsizliğin giderilmesini savunanları yadsımayan ancak ekonomik performansa odaklanarak ayrımcı uygulamaların neden olduğu düşük kadın işgücü katılım oranlarının, kalkınmanın sonuçları üzerindeki araçsal etkilerini araştıran bir literatür gelişmiştir.
The environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) hypothesis assumes the nonlinear relationship between production and its environmental effects, suggesting that the negative effect of production on the natural environment is reversed at higher levels of development. In contrast to the majority of the studies, this paper considers the possibility of non‐linear effects of per capita output on agricultural land use (cropland), as one of the natural resource stocks, and additionally examines the influence of demographic and productivity variables on the agricultural land use. The study draws on panel data from 143 economies over the 1990–2019 period and employs a series of panel econometrics techniques (including panel unit root and cointegration tests, panel ordinary least squares, generalized method of moments, and panel quantile models). The results unequivocally indicate the inverted U‐shaped relationship between the GDP per capita and cropland use, as per EKC hypothesis. The results are robust with respect to employing different techniques, the identified turning points correspond to low and low‐middle‐income levels, and the effects of agricultural productivity and population density on land use are respectively negative and positive.
Climate change and global warming are major modern challenges, while gender inequality has been a social issue throughout the history of humankind. This study attempts to investigate how natural threats influence gender inequality. The study estimates the influence of the likelihood of suffering harms due to natural hazards on gender inequality in education, health, employment, and rights for a sample of 130 countries from 2011 to 2019. Natural threats appear to reduce the proportions of waged and salaried female workers in comparison with males, while inducing higher levels of self-employment among women. Natural threats increase gender inequality in education at both primary and tertiary levels. Natural threats seem to decrease the health status of men more than that of women, which is reflected in increased ratios of female/male life expectancy or survival to age 65. Natural threats are, surprisingly, found to improve women's rights. Abstract 3 Climate change and global warming are major modern challenges, while gender inequality 4 has been a social issue throughout the history of humankind. This study attempts to 5 investigate how natural threats influence gender inequality. The study estimates the 6 influence of the likelihood of suffering harms due to natural hazards on gender inequality in 7 education, health, employment, and rights for a sample of 130 countries from 2011 to 2019. 8 Natural threats appear to reduce the proportions of waged and salaried female workers in 9 comparison with males, while inducing higher levels of self-employment among women. 10 Natural threats increase gender inequality in education at both primary and tertiary levels. 11 Natural threats seem to decrease the health status of men more than that of women, which 12 is reflected in increased ratios of female/male life expectancy or survival to age 65. Natural 13 threats are, surprisingly, found to improve women's rights. 14
South Korea has been faced with a widening economic gender gap during the recent Covid-19 pandemic. To inform discussion of Korean women’s future following the pandemic, this article explores the country’s history of women’s empowerment. It identifies cultural, educational, economic, and political changes, and their long-term effects on women’s role and status. The analysis is based on data collected from Korea’s national statistical database and a review of relevant literature. Findings inform policy directions for advancing women’s economic empowerment in Korea and other countries following a similar development path and contribute to expanding our understanding of the factors and relations influencing women’s empowerment.
JEL codes: J160
This article analyzes the status of women in Pakistan as well as the effectiveness of new legislation on women's empowerment in Pakistan. I examine the impact of governmental efforts to empower women on social practices in Pakistan. The concept of women's empowerment is becoming popular horizontally, but vertically, actual empowerment is hindered because of the glass-ceiling and social taboos; hence, a lot of sincere and strenuous efforts are required to change the prevailing mindset. To support gender equality, Pakistan, like other states, encourages women's participation in social, political and economic spheres. However, the success of a few female role models tends to obscure the obstacles faced by the majority of women workers. This article underscores that Pakistan has introduced positive amendments to its constitution in order to reinforce women's positions in different sectors during the last two decades, but that several anomalies are attached to women's involvement in social, political and security sectors. The legal policies of Pakistan are built on universalistic assumptions aiming to uplift women's status. However, the domestic situation is different in its presuppositions and hampers the implementation of the law. This paper raises the question of why longstanding governmental efforts have not achieved the goal of women's empowerment? In researching this paper, a close societal level observation was made. Afterwards, books, official documents, websites, articles and opinions were examined to support an objective and real analysis. The intended purpose of this paper is to analyze the barriers to the implementation of laws favouring women's empowerment. Additionally, this paper presents policy recommendations for ensuring vertical empowerment and development of leadership skills for women in Pakistan.
China has earned a reputation for lax environmental standards that allegedly attract corporations more interested in profit than in moral responsibility and, consequently, further negate incentives to raise environmental standards. Surprisingly, Ka Zeng and Joshua Eastin find that international economic integration with nation-states that have stringent environmental regulations facilitates the diffusion of corporate environmental norms and standards to Chinese provinces. At the same time, concerns about "green" tariffs imposed by importing countries encourage Chinese export-oriented firms to ratchet up their own environmental standards. The authors present systematic quantitative and qualitative analyses and data that not only demonstrate the ways in which external market pressure influences domestic environmental policy but also lend credence to arguments for the ameliorative effect of trade and foreign direct investment on the global environment.
"The authors make some very critical interventions in this debate and scholars engaged in the environmental 'pollution haven' and 'race to the bottom' debates will need to take the arguments made here seriously, re-evaluating their own preferred theories to respond to the insightful theorizing and empirically rigorous testing that Zeng and Eastin present in the book."
—Ronald Mitchell, University of Oregon
"This book conducts a solid, multilevel empirical examination of the effects of international market and economic globalization on domestic environmental policy and corporate environmental governance in China. The findings challenge both the 'pollution haven' and the 'race-to-the-bottom' assumptions about China's environmental practice. The book is an excellent addition to the existing literature on environmental studies, and should receive a warm welcome among scholars, policymakers, and environmental movement activists."
—Sujian Guo, San Francisco State University
Examinant les differentes versions de l'argument de la societe civile en faveur de la democratie liberale, l'A. interroge les raisons socio-economiques qui poussent les gens a rejoindre de mauvaises organisations qui portent prejudice aux associations et a l'efficacite democratique.
In the world of feminist activism, the time is ripe for reflection and review. We need to ask why change is not happening, what works, and what is next. This article points to the fact that while women have made many gains in the last decade, policies that successfully promote women's empowerment and gender equality are not institutionalised in the day-to-day routines of State, nor in international development agencies. We argue for changes which re-delineate who does what, what counts, who gets what, and who decides. We also argue for changes in the institutions that mediate resources, and women's access, voice, and influence. We outline key challenges, as well as ways to envision change and strengthen the capacity of State and development organisations to deliver better on women's rights.
Sex differentials in child mortality in rural Punjab persist unexpectedly despite relative wealth, socioeconomic development including rapid universalization of female education, fertility decline, and mortality decline. The most striking finding is that discrimination against girls is not generalized but highly selective: sex differentials in mortality are affected far more by birth order than by socioeconomic factors. While mother's education improves quality of childcare, it does not reduce discrimination against higher birth order daughters. Fertility reduction appears to heighten such selective discrimination. Sex discrimination has often been attributed to a lack of female participation in productive activities and also to economic hardship. This analysis emphasizes the role of women's structural marginalization in this patrilineally organized society in explaining the existence as well as the persistence of sex discrimination.
In the period 1946-2001, there were 225 armed conflicts and 34 of them were active in all of or part of 2001. Armed conflict remains a serious problem in the post-Cold War period. For three decades, the Correlates of War project has served as the main supplier of reliable data used in longitudinal studies of external and internal armed conflict. The COW datasets on war use the relatively high threshold of 1,000 battle-deaths. The Uppsala dataset on armed conflict has a lower threshold, 25 annual battle-deaths, but has so far been available for only the post-Cold War period. This dataset has now been backdated to the end of World War II. This article presents a report on armed conflict based on this backdate as well as another annual update. It presents the procedures for the backdating, as well as trends over time and breakdowns for the type of conflict. It assesses the criteria for measuring armed conflict and discusses some directions for future data collection in this area.
Abstract The relative status of women is poor in the developing world,
Women have made less progress toward gender equality in the Middle East than in any other region. Many observers claim this is due to the region's Islamic traditions. I suggest that oil, not Islam, is at fault; and that oil production also explains why women lag behind in many other countries. Oil production reduces the number of women in the labor force, which in turn reduces their political influence. As a result, oil-producing states are left with atypically strong patriarchal norms, laws, and political institutions. I support this argument with global data on oil production, female work patterns, and female political representation, and by comparing oil-rich Algeria to oil-poor Morocco and Tunisia. This argument has implications for the study of the Middle East, Islamic culture, and the resource curse.
Does the implementation of a World Bank structural adjustment agreement (SAA) increase or decrease government respect for human rights? Neoliberal theory suggests that SAAs improve economic performance, generating better human rights practices. Critics contend that the implementation of structural adjustment conditions causes hardships and higher levels of domestic conflict, increasing the likelihood that regimes will use repression. Bivariate probit models are used to account for World Bank loan selection criteria when estimating the human rights consequences of structural adjustment. Using a global, comparative analysis for the 1981–2000 period, we examine the effects of structural adjustment on government respect for citizens' rights to freedom from torture, political imprisonment, extra-judicial killing, and disappearances. The findings show that World Bank SAAs worsen government respect for physical integrity rights.
Large-n studies of conflict have produced a large number of statistically significant results but little accurate guidance in terms of anticipating the onset of conflict. The authors argue that too much attention has been paid to finding statistically significant relationships, while too little attention has been paid to finding variables that improve our ability to predict civil wars. The result can be a distorted view of what matters most to the onset of conflict. Although these models may not be intended to be predictive models, prescriptions based on these models are generally based on statistical significance, and the predictive attributes of the underlying models are generally ignored. These predictions should not be ignored, but rather need to be heuristically evaluated because they may shed light on the veracity of the models. In this study, the authors conduct a side-by-side comparison of the statistical significance and predictive power of the different variables used in two of the most influential models of civil war. The results provide a clear demonstration of how potentially misleading the traditional focus on statistical significance can be. Until out-of-sample heuristics - especially including predictions - are part of the normal evaluative tools in conflict research, we are unlikely to make sufficient theoretical progress beyond broad statements that point to GDP per capita and population as the major causal factors accounting for civil war onset.
The Development Centre of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development's Gender, Institutions and Development Data Base (GID-DB) is a new cross-country research tool with comprehensive measures of gender equality. It improves upon existing sources because it is the only data base on gender that systematically incorporates indicators of social norms, traditions and family law. The GID-DB thereby permits analysis of hypotheses that link cultural practices to gender equality, human development and economic growth. A cross-country comparison of the data indicates that inequalities in social institutions are particularly pronounced in countries with low female literacy rates, but correlate less strongly with Gross Domestic Product per capita. Similarly, our econometric analysis suggests a clearly negative correlation between gender inequality of the OECD Development Center and women's labor-force participation.*The views expressed in this article are the personal opinions of the authors
Although the Muslim world is sometimes depicted as a homogeneous civilization lacking democracy and gender equality, Muslim
countries show tremendous economic, political and cultural variation. In this paper, this variation is used to gain insight
into the determinants of women’s labor market participation (LMP) in the Muslim world. We use data on 45 Muslim countries
and apply SEM models to determine effects of modernization, democracy, cultural background, and state Islamization on women’s
participation in the formal economy (absolute LMP) and on the share of women in the labor force (relative LMP). Women’s absolute
LMP is higher in Muslim countries with higher levels of economic development and in the oil-exporting countries. For women’s
relative LMP, practical democracy (the degree to which people actively participate in the system) takes in a key position.
It has a strong positive effect on women’s relative LMP and mediates the effects of economic development (positive), formal
democratic structures (positive) and state Islamization (negative) on women’s relative LMP. Results indicate that in these
countries modernization may lead to empowerment of women by increasing their absolute LMP, but that for attaining gender equality
the political opportunity structures is most important.
The relative importance of marital and fertility characteristics upon female employment rates is tested in an attempt to explain the significant differential in women’s nonagricultural participation rates between Latin American and Middle Eastern countries. Despite the striking differences in characteristics between the two populations with respect to variables centrally related to woman’s employability, there is not enough evidence of the influence of these differences upon female employment rates. When the female population in Chile is subjected through standardization analysis to the same marital and fertility characteristics of Egypt, they continued to manifest high overall participation rates. Estimation of the womanpower potential in three Middle Eastern countries given their present marital characteristics shows that if women in these societies had the same propensity to be employed as women in Latin America, the overall nonagricultural female activity rate would increase threefold in Morocco, fivefold in Egypt and sevenfold in Pakistan. It is suggested that the explanation for the regional differential has to be sought in a comparative study of family and kinship organization between Latin American and Middle Eastern societies with special reference to the role of the kinship unit in the system of social control.
With the end of the Cold War economic issues moved to the fore of the international agenda. The integration of markets, dominated by multi-national corporations and orchestrated by international financial institutions, has many concerned for the political and economic rights of the common citizen. This is a comprehensive cross-national study examining the effect of globalization on the attainment of the subgroup of human rights known as personal integrity rights. The impact of global economic patterns on the attainment of these rights is mixed.
We examine the reduced-form relationship between per capita income and various environmental indicators. Our study covers
four types of indicators: urban air pollution, the state of the oxygen regime in river basins, fecal contamination of river
basins, and contamination of river basins by heavy metals. We find no evidence that environmental quality deteriorates steadily
with economic growth. Rather, for most indicators, economic growth brings an initial phase of deterioration followed by a
subsequent phase of improvement. The turning points for the different pollutants vary, but in most cases they come before
a country reaches a per capita income of $8000.
The relative importance of marital and fertility characteristics upon female employment rates is tested in an attempt to explain
the significant differential in women's nonagricultural participation rates between Latin American and Middle Eastern countries.
Despite the striking differences in characteristics between the two populations with respect to variables centrally related
to woman's employability, there is not enough evidence of the influence of these differences upon female employment rates.
When the female population in Chile is subjected through standardization analysis to the same marital and fertility characteristics
of Egypt, they continued to manifest high overall participation rates. Estimation of the womanpower potential in three Middle
Eastern countries given their present marital characteristics shows that if women in these societies had the same propensity to be employed as women in Latin America, the overall nonagricultural
female activity rate would increase threefold in Morocco, fivefold in Egypt and sevenfold in Pakistan. It is suggested that
the explanation for the regional differential has to be sought in a comparative study of family and kinship organization between
Latin American and Middle Eastern societies with special reference to the role of the kinship unit in the system of social
control.
While the existence of occupational gender segregation is well known, it has been usual to see it as a reflection of women’s disadvantage. However, cross-national data show that the greater the segregation, the less tends to be women’s disadvantage. The solution to this puzzle entails the introduction of the two orthogonal dimensions of segregation, where only the vertical dimension measures inequality while the horizontal dimension measures difference without inequality. Furthermore, the two dimensions tend to be inversely related, with a tendency for the horizontal component to be larger and so have more effect on the resultant overall segregation; hence the inverse relation between overall segregation and inequality. The usual explanations of segregation, being focused on inequality, are inadequate. To understand the situation it is necessary to take account of the many related factors in social change, and to recognize that horizontal segregation reduces opportunities for gender discrimination within occupations. An exploratory test of the argument is conducted for the US, Canada and Britain. With pay as the vertical dimension the results are essentially as predicted. With CAMSIS, a measure of occupational advantage, a slight advantage lies with women. The test is less clear but consistent with the argument.
Gender inequality is magnified in situations ofwar, andwomen are disproportionately disadvantaged in terms of personal safety, access to resources, and human rights. This article summarizes the effects of armed conflict on women and women's greater vulnerability to health and mental health concerns because in war, women's bodies become a battleground. UN Security Council Resolution 1325 is introduced as an international framework to address women's participation in solutions to war, reconstruction, and nation building. The article also indicates ways in which socialworkers can be part of implementing this resolution to defend the human rights of women.
It is argued that P-values and the tests based upon them give unsatisfactory results, especially in large samples. It is shown that, in regression, when there are many candidate independent variables, standard variable selection procedures can give very misleading results. Also, by selecting a single model, they ignore model uncertainty and so underestimate the uncertainty about quantities of interest. The Bayesian approach to hypothesis testing, model selection, and accounting for model uncertainty is presented. Implementing this is straightforward through the use of the simple and accurate BIC approximation, and it can be done using the output from standard software. Specific results are presented for most of the types of model commonly used in sociology. It is shown that this approach overcomes the difficulties with P-values and standard model selection procedures based on them. It also allows easy comparison of nonnested models, and permits the quantification of the evidence for a null hypothesis of interest, such as a convergence theory or a hypothesis about societal norms.
This paper identifies three theoretical perspectives on women's relative access to relatively prestigious, influential occupations: a modernization perspective, an economic discrimination perspective, and a dependency/world system perspective. It draws a set of contrasting hypotheses from these perspectives and tests them, through panel regression, with data from 57 nations. The empirical evidence offers support for the dependency/world system and the modernization views, but contradicts the economic discrimination perspective.
This report assesses the impact of culture on women's share of the labor force. Measuring both economic factors and cultural milieu, we found that culture was related not only to levels of women's share of the labor force but, in some instances, to changes in those levels. A secondary finding of the study was that the economic development of a nation had a strong positive association with increases in women's share of the labor force and that one measure of dependency (commodity concentration) had a strong negative association with such change.
Mit seinem Werk über die „stille Revolution“ avancierte der am 5. September 1934 in der amerikanischen Hafenstadt Milwaukee/Wisconsin
geborene Ronald Inglehart rasch zum Papst der Wertewandelforschung. Wie alle Päpste ist auch dieser keineswegs unumstritten.
1956 erlangte der Autor mit dem Bachelor seinen ersten Universitätsabschluss an der Northwestern University, sechs Jahre später
folgte der Master der Universität von Chicago. An der niederländischen Univsität Leiden hielt er sich in den Jahren 1963 und
1964 als Fulbright-Stipendiat auf, bevor er 1967 in Chicago mit einer Studie über die politische und wirtschaftliche Einigung
Europas promoviert wurde. Bereits ein Jahr zuvor war er Mitglied der Fakultät für Sozialwissenschaften der Universität von
Michigan geworden, an dessen Institute for Social Research Inglehart seit 1978 als Professor für Politikwissenschaft wirkt.
Daneben nahm Inglehart verschiedene Gastprofessuren wahr, so etwa in Mannheim, Genf, Kyoto, Leiden, Rom und Berlin. Von 1994
bis 2000 gehörte er dem wissenschaftlichen Beirat des Berliner Wissenschaftszentrums an. Darüber hinaus ist er im Herausgebergremium
mehrerer wichtiger Fachzeitschriften.
This paper uses cross-national data to examine how economic, political, and educational structures affect both the participation of women in the labor force and their employment in more powerful and wellrewarded positions. We find that both the level of industrialization and the degree of state corporateness positively influence the participation of women, but that these fail to affect the proportion of women in the administrative and managerial occupations. However, the relative number of women in higher education shows positive effects on both dependent variables. We interpret this finding as a process of ‘institutional demystification’ and discuss the overall pattern of effects as ‘incorporation at the rear of the bus.’
Postmaterialists argue that citizens' values change when economic development expands educational opportunities. In modernized societies, people embrace postmaterialist values such as self-expression and the quality of life, including support for gender equality. We argue that the political processes that accompany modernization influence value formation. Since all societies do not modernize in the same way, citizens in different regions do not share an identical set of values at a particular stage in modernization. We compare East Asia with other regions, arguing that in East Asia, state-driven modernization processes incorporated gender inequality, and citizens' values reflect the norms disseminated by their governments. We use the underutilized Gallup International Millennium Survey, conducted in more than 60 countries in 2000.
Thematic connections between gender, conflict and violence are significant areas of enquiry in recent times. Engendering conflict has been of some concern to academics, given the context of national and international conflict in areas as diverse as Bosnia, Iraq, India, the UK and the USA. The conflicts have taken forms as varied as internal conflicts between religious and ethnic communities in different parts of the world, acts of aggression against sovereign states, terrorist attacks and the global 'war against terror', the stigmatisation and demonisation of the Muslim community. All these factors impact on, and are impacted by gender.
Political scientists are often called upon to estimate models in which the standard assumption that the data are conditionally independent can be called into question. I review the method of generalized estimating equations (GEE) for dealing with such correlated data. The GEE approach offers a number of advantages to researchers interested in modeling correlated data, including applicability to data in which the outcome variable takes on a wide range of forms. In addition, GEE models allow for substantial flexibility in specifying the correlation structure within cases and offer the potential for valuable substantive insights into the nature of that correlation. Moreover, GEE models are estimable with many currently available software packages, and the interpretation of model estimates is identical to that for commonly used models for uncorrelated data (e.g., logit and probit). I discuss practical issues relating to the use of GEE models and illustrate their usefulness for analyzing correlated data through three applications in political science.
Gendering the discourse of globalization will help to develop a better understanding of globalization processes and their consequences for women and men. I argue that gender processes and ideologies are embedded in globalizing capitalism in the separation of capitalist production and human reproduction and the corporate claims to non-responsibility for reproduction; in the important role of hegemonic masculinities in globalizing processes, and in the ways that gender serves as a resource for capital. I also discuss some of the consequences for women and men of these processes of globalization.
Why do some women in Muslim countries adopt fundamentalist Islamic value systems that promote gender-based inequalities while others do not? This article considers the economic determinants of fundamentalist beliefs in the Muslim world, as women look either to marriage or employment to achieve financial security. Using cross-national public opinion data from eighteen countries with significant Muslim populations, we apply a latent class model to characterize respondents according to their views on gen-der norms, political Islam, and personal religiosity. Among women, lack of economic opportunity is a stronger predictor of fundamentalist belief systems than socioeconomic class. Cross-nationally, fundamentalism among women is most prevalent in poor coun-tries and those with a large male-female wage gap. These findings have important implications for the promotion of women's rights, the rise of political Islam, and the development of democracy in the Muslim world.
With the end of the Cold War economic issues moved to the fore of the international agenda. The integration of markets, dominated by multinational corporations and orchestrated by international financial institutions, has many concerned for the political and economic rights of the common citizen. This is a comprehensive cross-national study examining the effect of globalization on the attainment of the subgroup of human rights known as personal integrity rights. The impact of global economic patterns on the attainment of these rights is mixed.
This study examines the relationship between foreign economic capital and the level of government respect for two types of human rights in developing countries. Two opposing schools of thought offer explanations as to what this relationship might be like. According to the liberal neoclassical school, the acceptance of liberal economic doctrine will provide positive political benefits to developing countries. The “dependency” school, on the other hand, argues that because ties between core and periphery elites give governments in developing nations an incentive to repress, human rights conditions will worsen as foreign economic penetration increases. The results of previous empirical queries into this matter have been mixed. In contrast to most studies, we focus on a broader measure of foreign economic capital, including foreign direct investment, portfolio investment, debt, and official development assistance. Using ordered logit analysis on a cross-national sample of forty-three developing countries from 1981 to 1995, we discover systematic evidence of an association between foreign economic penetration and government respect for two types of human rights, physical integrity rights and political rights and civil liberties. Of particular interest is the finding that both foreign direct investment and portfolio investment are reliably associated with increased government respect for human rights.
This paper describes work underway to enrich the present tools to measure women's empowerment -- particularly the Gender-related Development Index (GDI) and the Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM). The authors are developing an African Gender and Development Index (AGDI) on behalf of the Economic Commission for Africa, which is to be launched in 2004. The paper begins with a discussion of gender and power concepts, and then introduces a Women' s Empowerment Matrix as a tool to help link socio-cultural, religious, political, legal, and economic spheres. It then raises some of the difficulties related to the calculation of the GDI and GEM, which the authors are taking into account in the AGDI.
Whose ideas matter? And how do actors make them matter? Focusing on the strategic deployment of competing normative frameworks, that is, framing issues and grafting private agendas on policy debates, we examine the contentious politics of the contemporary international intellectual property rights regime. We compare the business victory in the establishment of the 1994 Agreement on Trade-Related Intellectual Property (TRIPS) in the World Trade Organization with the subsequent NGO campaign against enforcing TRIPS to ensure access to essential HIV/AIDS medicines. Our analysis challenges constructivist scholarship that emphasizes the distinction between various types of transnational networks based on instrumental versus normative orientations. We question the portrayal of business firms as strictly instrumental actors preoccupied with material concerns, and NGOs as motivated solely by principled, or non-material beliefs. Yet we also offer a friendly amendment to constructivism by demonstrating its applicability to the analysis of business. Treating the business and NGO networks as competing interest groups driven by their normative ideals and material concerns, we demonstrate that these networks' strategies and activities are remarkably similar.
Mainstream political economy has tended to treat the family as a unit when examining the distributional consequences of labor market institutions and of public policy. In a world with high divorce rates, we argue that this simplification is more likely to obscure than to instruct. We find that labor market opportunities for women, which vary systematically with the position of countries in the international division of labor and with the structure of the welfare state, affect women's bargaining power within the family and as a result, can explain much of the cross country variation in the gender division of labor as well as the gender gap in political preferences.
This article examines the relationship between women’s status and economic globalization. The expectations of both proponents and skeptics of globalization are discussed with regard to women’s status, and a series of statistical examinations of this relationship are performed using data on 130 countries from 1982 to 2003. To control for the potential sensitivity of findings to the use of particular indicators of women’s status, we use five indicators of women’s status from two different data sources to represent the economic, political, and social spheres of women’s status. As well, four indicators of economic globalization are used. We find that the relationship between economic globalization and women’s status varies by type and era and, in the majority of instances, economic globalization is associated with improved women’s status.
Using a unique set of data drawn from the US census, statistics, city directories, and other sources, the author looks at the differences between men and women in the US labour force. She shows that the `gender gap' in income and job level that has existed throughout history cannot be explained simply as a matter of sex discrimination, nor as a result of inherent structural phenomena in the employment market.
Despite a growing body of development studies over the past 20 years, the impact of broad economic and social change on women's lives and on their status relative to men has been analyzed inadequately. Differences by sex are poorly understood within modernization theory, which remains one of the major perspectives underlying these studies and development policy. Modernization theorists assume that women's status rises with urbanization and capitalist development, which are said to bring a wide range of employment opportunities and to facilitate the equalization of the sexes? But these assumptions are not supported by an examination of development in Latin America, where industrial jobs are few and underemployment is pervasive) New occupations provide opportunities for some urban women~within the professions, clerical work, and social services, but many women lose a measure of independence as the subsistence economy is undermined. Employment opportunities are limited, for most women, to an extension of their household labor for pay. How is women's work shaped by the process of capitalist development in Latin America? While modernization theorists assume it provides a bridge to the modern sector and that women's status rises with urbanization and industrialization, many factors have acted to restrict women's paid work to unskilled, low-paying subordinate jobs. Expansion of capital in underdeveloped regions 3 has preserved pockets of backwardness in the urban areas and intensified women's participation in informal jobs and marginal service work. The problem of women's employment patterns under capitalist development will be explored here, first by analyzing the way in which women's work has been conceptualized within modernization theory. Second, the two types of work in which most Latin American women are engaged--domestic service and informal work such as selling produce and taking in laundry--are examined to provide evidence for challenging modernization theory and for developing a more useful approach. Third, women's domestic and informal work is considered
In the last three decades young, predominantly unmarried, Sri Lankan women have formed the backbone of an enormous economic shift toward export-oriented industrialization. As a result, much attention has focused upon the impacts and outcomes of this shift upon Sri Lankan women, particularly those employed in the nation's numerous Export Processing Zones (EPZs). The rapid absorption of young women into formal employment in EPZs has caused hardships for women in the workplace, at societal level and in terms of related gender subordination. However, employment has also brought about benefits, particularly to families and households where stable incomes are usually non-existent. Both hardships and benefits are reported in the article. However, while acknowledging that factory women in Sri Lanka's EPZs face serious hardships and new forms of gender inequality and discrimination, the research also discovered evidence of some of the benefits which new and stable employment provides. While most research has tended to focus on only the negative impacts industrialization brings upon women as labour in developing nations, the article presents data on and perceptions of two groups of factory women which indicate both positive and negative outcomes of their employment.