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Roman Gold-Mining in North-West Spain
... The hydraulic infrastructure established in north-west Spain during the Roman Imperial period comprises a series of channels and water tanks designed to supply water to the main mining sites (this work follows the terminology by Lewis and Jones, 1970, Jones and Bird, 1972, and Burnham, 1997. This sophisticated engineering work outlines > 600 km of channels widely spread over the mountainous territory of the Galaico-Leonese Mountains. ...
... Dry stonewalls and wooden aqueducts were built over irregular substrate to get across the uneven terrain Domergue, 2012). Channel width varies between 1.2 and 1.5 m and discharge can be estimated in 0.2-0.7 m 3 /s, considering a water depth of 0.4-0.6 m (Lewis and Jones, 1970;López, 1980;Sánchez-Palencia, 1980;Matías-Rodríguez, 2006). In addition, several authors observed the distinctive slope differences along the trace of the canals, where average slope would not exceed 0.5-1.2% ...
... Three different mechanism depending on the thickness of the sedimentary deposit (Domergue and Hèrail, 1978) and the mining method (Pérez-García, 1977) have been proposed in the literature for exploitation of placer deposits in Roman times: i) hydraulicking is the system that induced mass movements employed the Ruina Montium (arrugia) method when sedimentary thickness exceeded 30-100 m (Sánchez-Palencia, 1983;Bird, 2004). Recent studies suggest that water and snow-melt water tanks were used to crumble the mountains by the gravitational action of water, a method more common than it was previously thought (Fernández-Lozano and Andrés-Bercianos, 2018); ii) Ground-sluicing is the method that uses a continuous source of water to dismantle sedimentary debris (< 30 m) and iii) hushing is based on the use of large amounts of water collected from water tanks and leats, in a similar way as in other gold mines such as Dolaucothi in Britain (Lewis and Jones, 1970;Domergue and Hèrail, 1978;Burnham, 1997). The spoil heaps produced during the hydraulic mining, called murias, are still recognizable as areas covered with quartzite boulders over the landscape. ...
This article focuses on the characterization of auriferous deposits, identification of hitherto unknown Roman mining infrastructure remains, and the early attempts of exploitation carried out in north-west Iberia. The research has combined airborne laser scanning (LiDAR) and field prospection to explore the geomorphological signature and landscape transformation resulting from Roman mining works in two unknown sectors of the western Duero Meseta. The integration of geological and remote sensing information contributed to extend the Roman's mining domains, traditionally focused on the river headwaters of the north-west. The article explores the complex hydraulic system developed in the Jamuz and lower sector of the Eria river valleys, as well as the evidence of open-cast mining and their relationship with the Roman army. The results suggest that the highly dispersed and reduced dimensions of the mining sites correspond to a selected method of gold prospection, employed for the identification of viable exploitation sectors. Thus, the initiation of the mining works could have started in the Jamuz valley and developed systematically in this area, to subsequently spread towards the upstream sectors and nearby valleys. This research contributes to gain new insights into the extension and complexity of the mining infrastructure, indicating the importance of the gold-bearing raña deposits within the framework of Roman gold mining in north-west Spain.
... These mining activities left behind sediments contaminated in heavy metals ( Leblanc et al., 2000) and the lead signature in the Greenland ice cores has been attributed, in part, to Carthaginian mines as well as Roman ones ( Rosman et al., 1997). Most importantly for this study, the initia- tion of large-scale mineral resource exploitation at Las Médulas, by Roman and earlier cultures, remains uncertain ( Lewis and Jones, 1970). ...
... It is unclear when Las Médulas was first exploited by the Romans. Archaeological finds suggest large-scale exploitation during the early imperial period (~25 BC-AD 197) ( Lewis and Jones, 1970), but earlier use cannot be excluded because of the destructive nature of mining techniques (Edmonson, 1989). Therefore, the results of our study suggest that an earlier, small- scale, exploitation of Las Médulas beginning ~300 BC is possi- ble. ...
... In this paper, we have documented the contemporaneous envi- ronmental consequences of Roman mining activities taking place near the extensive Las Médulas gold mine. We find evidence for mineral resource exploitation beginning at ~300 BC, slightly ear- lier than was previously proposed for Roman activities in this region ( Lewis and Jones, 1970). This regional metal pollution con- tinued for 420 years and left a profound geochemical signature in the Laguna Roya sediments. ...
Roman mining and metallurgy left a detectable signal of lead pollution throughout Europe, northern Africa, and the Middle East. Las Médulas, in Northwestern Iberia, was the largest Roman gold mine and fundamentally altered the local landscape. To document the environmental consequences of this activity, we present a 4000-year record of lake sediment geochemistry from Laguna Roya, 35 km south of Las Médulas. Using the concentrations of trace metals weakly bound to sediment including lead, antimony, bismuth, and arsenic, we find increased levels of these metals from 300 BC to AD 120, during the Roman Republic/Empire. We attribute these increases to the atmospheric deposition of heavy metals arising from the regional extraction, processing, and/or smelting of gold ores. Lead pollution at the peak of this activity (15 BC) is twice as high as modern-day concentrations, suggesting that the amount of pollution generated by pre-Industrial civilizations and the associated environmental impacts are much larger than previously estimated. We find additional increases in antimony and bismuth from AD 1500 to 1700, possibly associated with post-medieval mining activity. Concentrations of lead begin to increase again ~AD 1860 during the start of the Industrial Revolution and reach a peak in AD 1990. Declining modern-day levels of lead can be attributed to the phase out of leaded gasoline. This is one of only a handful of studies to document pre-industrial pollution levels substantially higher than present-day, adding to a growing body of evidence that anthropogenic environmental degradation has been taking place for several thousands of years.
... The Iberian Peninsula is characterized by the presence of significant mineral deposits exploited since antiquity (Rodríguez-Ferrer, 19-?;Pliny, 1979;Jones, 1969;Bird, 1972). The nature of the mining works and the total surface affected is represented by the gold deposits in NW Spain (Schulz, 1930;Quiring, 1935;Lewis and Jones, 1970;Domergue, 1971;Bird, 1972;Jones and Bird, 1972;Domergue and Herail, 1978;S anchez-Palencia, 1983;Herail, 1984;Fern andez-Posse et al., 1988;P erez-García et al., 2000;S anchez-Palencia et al., 2009;G omez-Fern andez et al., 2012). Although these ore deposits were already known before the Roman occupation of Iberia, it was the latter who developed, among many others, the most important mining complex in Europe, the so called Las M edulas (P erez-García and S anchez-Palencia, 1992). ...
... However, they were exploited by the Romans in primary form within veins in the Palaeozoic rocks, and in the secondary deposits located in the orange-red Miocene alluvial sediments and the more recent Quaternary terraces and fluvioglacial deposits (Figs. 2 and 3b). Today, a complex network of channels and water reservoirs identifies extensive system labour that aimed to collect, transport and store water for later use in the mining operations (Lewis and Jones, 1970;Domergue and Herail, 1978;S anchez-Palencia, 1980;Bird, 2004;Matías, 2006). ...
... This sequence is repeated all over the auriferous areas in the NW of Iberia (Domergue and Herail, 1978;S anchez-Palencia, 1980;Domergue, 1990). In Las M edulas, which is probably one of the best examples of Roman gold-related activity preserved in NW Iberia, its pristine preservation has allowed a detailed study of the hydraulic network (Lewis and Jones, 1970;Bird, 1972;S anchez-Palencia, 1980;Fern andez-Posse et al., 1988;Domergue, 1990;S anchez-Palencia et al., 2000;Bird, 2004). This network resulted in a more than 135 km-long channel-system, fully preserved only in the mountainous region north of the study area (Matías, 2006). ...
LiDAR technology, based on Earth's surface scanning, allows the compilation of high resolution digital
terrain models. Recently used in archaeological works for the discovery and description of heritage
features such as ancient human-made structures and building ruins, it is particularly effective in areas
with dense vegetation or difficult access, where surveying becomes complicated. Among its main advantages
over other traditional methods of archaeological research, it highlights the possibility of controlling
display parameters, which in turn facilitates data analysis and interpretation. In this study we
present an integrated LiDAR and aerial photography data analysis in order to obtain a detailed map of
ancient mining works within a small sector of the Roman mining district in northwestern Spain. The
presence of gold deposits led to intensive extractive work during the first century b.p.t. Although many of
the mining activities were focused on the northwestern area of Las M�edulas and Oma~nas, large deposits
were also found along the Duerna and Eria river valleys. Our results complement previous work carried
out in the Eria area (Valdería), providing new insights into the hydraulic engineering techniques and the
geometry of the main Roman exploitations. This work highlights the scope of the ancient mining works
and their impact on the landscape, which are much greater and more important than previously thought.
... Iberia was one of the main mining areas during this period, and mining here accounted for about 40 % of the global production (Nriagu 1983). Large-scale mining took place in SE (near Cartagena and Mazarrón), SW (Río Tinto) and NW Spain (Lewis and Jones 1970;Flores 1981;Rosman et al. 1997). In this study we present the results of a high-resolution analysis of a peat core from La Molina, a bog located in Asturias (NW Spain), an area that was intensely mined for gold during Roman times. ...
... Large decadal variations in Pb accumulation were also detected in a high-resolution study of a lake sediment record from Ireland (Schettler and Romer 2006), and were attributed to possible changes in the wind regime and thus on atmospheric deposition. But Lewis and Jones (1970) described that Roman mining in NW Spain involved a sequence of phases of extraction and eventual exhaustions of the mines, meaning that operations at individual mines lasted from a few years to decades whilst regionally mining continued over several centuries as new sources were continually exploited. Thus, without discarding the possible influence of other processes (changes in wind direction and strength, processes affecting the growth of the mire, etc.), the pattern seen in La Molina may in fact reflect the history of mining exploitation and economic development in NW Spain. ...
... The Romans had conquered NW Spain by 19 BC, with the prospect of ore exploitation being a major driving force stimulated by smaller scale mining in prehistoric times (Lewis and Jones 1970). The chronological continuity in the La Molina record supports the idea that Romans may have initially focused their interest on already known (at least since late Iron Age) mining areas across Europe, reflecting the widespread consequences of the intensive and spatially extensive mining and metallurgical activity during Roman times. ...
Extensive mining took place in Spain during the Iron Age and Roman times, although a detailed chronology is still lacking due to the inherent difficulties in dating mining structures. In this study we sampled and analyzed a core from La Molina mire in the Asturias region, northern Spain. Because more than 100 Roman mines have thus far been found within 20 km of the mire, our aim was to shed light on local mining history, which we can then compare to the wider narrative of early mining pollution in Spain. We focus on the section from ~500 BC to AD ~600, which has a high temporal resolution of 6–15 year per sample. Geochemical analyses included the determination of major, minor and trace lithogenic elements (Si, Al, Fe, Ti, Ga, Rb, Y, Zr, Th) as markers of mineral content of the peat, and trace metals/metalloids (Mn, Cu, Ni, As, Pb) as well stable Pb isotopes, as potential markers of atmospheric metal pollution. The use of principal components analysis enabled the identification of a dominant geogenic component and a secondary pollution component. The earliest pollution signal of the covered period was recorded by ~300 BC, coinciding with the late local Iron Age. Average 206Pb/207Pb ratios of samples with ages older than this date was 1.204 ± 0.002, while all samples with a younger age had a less radiogenic ratio. Based on the metal pollution component four phases were identified: I, ~500 to 300 BC; II, ~300 to 20 BC; III, ~20 BC–AD 480; IV, AD ~480 to 600. The lowest isotopic ratio and highest proportion of pollution Pb (206Pb/207Pb ratio of 1.157 and 89 % of total accumulated Pb) was reached at peak Pb production during Roman times (AD ~180 to 340), indicating that this was the period of most intense metal contamination in the area over the studied period. It is remarkable that the La Molina record shows a more extended period (two centuries) of active mining in comparison with other areas in Iberia, and a pattern of repeated shifts in Pb pollution of short duration, which is likely related to the local history of exploitation and exhaustion of mines within the area.
... Roman gold mining in northwest Spain comprises a series of sites or districts reported since the early 70 s. The first systematic studies were carried out at Las Médulas [7,[47][48][49]. At the same time, geoarchaeological works initiated in the nearby Eria and Valduerna Districts based on traditional aerial image interpretation [8,18,19,50]. ...
... The Roman hydraulic system consists of a large network of canals that exceeds more than 800 km only in the province of León, where a single canal runs through more than 140 km [50,52,53]. Reduced slopes characterize these canals (<1.2%), which frequently keep a standard size diameter of 1.20 to 1.50 m [40,47,52,54,55], with mean caudal of 0.2-0.7 m 3 /s-considering a sheet of water upon 0.4-0.6 m- [50]. ...
This contribution discusses the potential of UAV-assisted (unmanned aerial vehicles) photogrammetry for the study and preservation of mining heritage sites using the example of Roman gold mining infrastructure in northwestern Spain. The study area represents the largest gold area in Roman times and comprises 7 mining elements of interest that characterize the most representative examples of such ancient works. UAV technology provides a non-invasive procedure valuable for the acquisition of digital information in remote, difficult to access areas or under the risk of destruction. The proposed approach is a cost-effective, robust and rapid method for image processing in remote areas were no traditional surveying technologies are available. It is based on a combination of data provided by aerial orthoimage and LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) to improve the accuracy of UAV derived data. The results provide high-resolution orthomosaic, DEMs and 3D textured models that aim for the documentation of ancient mining scenarios, providing high-resolution digital information that improves the identification, description and interpretation of mining elements such as the hydraulic infrastructure, the presence of open-cast mines which exemplifies the different exploitation methods, and settlements. However, beyond the scientific and technical information provided by the data, the 3D documentation of ancient mining scenarios is a powerful tool for an effective and wider public diffusion ensuring the visualization, preservation and awareness over the importance and conservation of world mining heritage sites.
... While the first evidence of environmental impact associated to mining goes back to the Bronze Age, the Roman period can be considered a key point when evaluating the environmental impact associated with mining (e.g. LEWIS & JONES 1970; DURALI-MUELLER et al. 2007; MARTÍNEZ CORTIZAS et al. 2013; LÓPEZMERINO et al. 2014; PY et al. 2014). One of the most emblematic examples of the changes that happened during this period can be found in Las Médulas (León, Spain), where, interestingly, landscape forms created by mining operations are now protected by different legal figures: Spanish Heritage Cultural Interest Site (1996), UNESCO World Heritage Site (1997) and Spanish Heritage Natural Monument (2002). ...
... The most evident and persistent over time and, thus, the most well known is the geomorphologic transformations derived from the large amounts of material removed by hydraulic extraction methods (ruina montium). Examples of this type of transformation can be found in Las Médulas (León) and in Monte Furado (Lugo) (LEWIS & JONES 1970; SÁNCHEZPALENCIA et al. 2009). But mining production in Roman times also caused perturbations that either have left no tangible mark on the present day landscapes or are not so obvious to the naked eye. ...
Research on palaeoenvironmental archives has challenged the widely accepted view that atmospheric metal
pollution started with the Industrial Revolution, by demonstrating that it dates back to the Bronze Age when
mining and metallurgical activities spread. These activities and the exploitation of natural resources for metal
extraction and smelting involved intense transformation of the landscape from the Iron Age onwards, with
forest decline, among others, one of the most common. This paper examines the methodology used for the
detection of past atmospheric metal pollution and other environmental impacts associated with mining and
metallurgy and reviews the research performed in this field in North Iberia, with special attention to centuries
AD V-XI
... Era una medida coercitiva. Su venta era al mismo tiempo un aviso al resto de la población para que 19 Lewis, Jones 1970;Jones, Bird 1972;Domergue 1990;Domergue, Hérail 1999;Sánchez-Palencia 2002;Orejas, Sánchez-Palencia 2002; sobre las explotaciones mineras de Asturias véase Santos Yanguas 2004;Santos Yanguas 2012. 20 Ducrey 1968, p. 54-55. ...
... Lode and placer gold deposits have long been known in the Iberian Massif (Spain) (e.g. Lewis and Jones, 1970;Spiering et al., 2000;Vázquez-Calvo et al., 2013;Barrios, 2014). In particular, the Southern part of the Iberian Massif presents abundant evidence of gold deposits, including the occurrence of large gold nuggets (218 g). ...
The Fresnedoso creek gold placer (FGP) in the Moraleja Basin (W Iberian Massif) has been investigated in terms of morphological, textural and compositional evolution of gold particles. A mixture of two populations has been identified being coherent with primary sources located at a proximal (2.5-10 km), and distal (20-50 km) range. Shape and compositional evidences suggest recycling of paleoplacers (tertiary) has to be considered to some extend. Primary laminar morphologies point to lode deposits in small-flat veins hosted in the metasediments of the Schist Greywacke Complex. All these features suggest the Fresnedoso creek gold placer is a deposit constituted by with mono- and polycyclic particles. Transport distance – Flattening indexes (CFI, Shilo) models have been tested and result in useful information for exploration of undiscovered deposits, even with a limited dataset. Compositional analysis of gold particle morphotypes has revealed that the Fresnedoso gold is a AuAg bimetallic alloy. Textural and compositional groups include: type 1 (Au1= Au88-94Ag12-6), type 2 (Au2= Au99 Ag1) and type 3 (Au3∼ Au99Ag1). Variations in composition of type 1 (Particle's cores) could reflect differences in primary composition, spatial dispersion of sources or secondary processes, but fit within the compositional range of orogenic gold deposits. Secondary processes have been explored to explain compositional heterogeneity in the particles. Gold type 2 (rim) and 3 (micro-aggregates) represents two different de-alloying stages, from initial Ag-leaching at the rim and/or through grain-boundaries and microfractures (Au2), to complete resetting of primary chemical imprint, pervasive porous texture and Au re-precipitation with Fe-OOH and clays (Au3). A model is proposed which combines: Ag de-alloying enhanced in a Cl-Fe rich environment (lateritic) and the deformation/recrystallization processes related to mechanical cold-work in the river load-bed during transport.
... m 3 /s, considering a water depth of 0.2-0.35 m (Lewis and Jones, 1970;Sáenz and Vélez, 1974;Pérez-García, 1977;Sánchez-Palencia, 1980;López, 1980;Andrés-Bercianos et al., 2019). ...
This study explores the information gathered from the landscape transformation that occurred during the intense period of Roman hydraulic gold mining activity in northwest Spain. The Sierra del Teleno and its surroundings are characterised by the presence of Quaternary glacial and periglacial deposits and, locally, Neogene alluvial sediments, which were intensely mined by the Romans. However, the mining debris often obscures natural deposits, making their identification and description a challenging task. The aim of this study is to determine the existence of specific geomorphological features that can improve the identification of anthropic elements related to mining activity. River captures and widened drainage systems are among the most outstanding structures remaining, due to the extent and complexity of the work involved. However, other mining elements, such as anthropic modification of alluvial fans, moraine deposits and rock ridges are also evident in the landscape. In many cases, these remains are linked to the hydrologic infrastructure found in the area, which mainly comprises an extensive system of natural and man-made channels and distribution water-tanks. Difficulties arise in areas where no such structures are found. Thus, the use of geomorphic elements and patterns can help to distinguish natural and anthropic landforms. Using this approach, therefore, we have performed the first systematic and detailed analysis of the morphological imprint of Roman hydraulic gold mining activity on the landscape. These data will help piece together the puzzle of how the landscape was transformed by Roman mining activity, and can contribute to discussions surrounding the new epoch: The Anthropocene.
... Nord. 80 ouvrages de retenue, de facture romaine, sont aujourd'hui recensés rien qu'en Espagne (Viollet, 2004), à des fins agricoles ou minières (Lewis and Jones, 1970). Des barrages furent également construits en Tripolitaine (Vita-Finzi, 1961) et en Syrie (Calvet et Geyer, 1992) et participèrent à la prospérité de ces régions. ...
This work is concerned with the unusual concentration of hydraulic features located near the headwaters of the Nepeña valley. Throughout a spatial and architectural analysis we discuss the strategy(ies) of water management in the upper part of the valley and evaluate the social implication of such infrastructures. This thesis represents the first attempt to examine an archaeological watershed management in the 'Cordillera Negra' by compiling the data of Kevin Lane, Alexander Herrera and Jesús Maza.
... 30 000 years ago, rocks were employed as thermal stores and were used to cook food and boil water, thereby leading to more nutritious and digestible meals[35]. Somewhat more recently, the Romans developed a mining method known as hushing where powerful torrents of water were released from reservoirs with capacities of over 10 million litres in order to reveal mineral veins[36]. The development of the electrical grid in the 19 th and 20 th centuries provided opportunities for bulk electricity storage. ...
The focus of this project is the storage of thermal energy in packed beds for bulk electricity storage applications. Packed beds are composed of pebbles through which a heat transfer fluid passes, and a thermodynamic model of the heat transfer processes within the store is described. The packed beds are investigated using second law analysis which reveals trade-offs between several heat transfer processes and the importance of various design parameters. Parametric studies of the reservoir behaviour informs the design process and leads to a set of design guidelines. Two innovative design features are proposed and investigated. These features are segmented packed beds and radial-flow packed beds respectively. Thermal reservoirs are an integral component in a storage system known as Pumped Thermal Energy Storage (PTES). To charge, PTES uses a heat pump to create a difference in internal energy between two thermal stores; one hot and one cold. The cycle reverses during discharge with PTES operating as a heat engine. The heat pumps/engines require compression and expansion devices, for which simple models are described and are integrated with the packed bed models. The PTES system behaviour is investigated with parametric studies, and alternative design configurations are explored. A multi-objective genetic algorithm is used to undertake thermo-economic optimisations of packed-bed thermal reservoirs and PTES systems. The algorithm generates a set of optimal designs that illustrate the trade-off between capital cost and round-trip efficiency. Segmentation is found to be particularly beneficial in cold stores, and can add up to 1% to the round-trip efficiency of a PTES system. On the basis of the assumptions made, PTES can achieve efficiencies and energy densities comparable with other bulk electricity storage systems. However, the round-trip efficiency is very sensitive to the efficiency of the compression–expansion system. For designs that utilised bespoke reciprocating compressors and expanders, PTES might be expected to achieve electricity-to-electricity efficiencies of 64%. However, using compression and expansion efficiencies typical of off-theshelf devices the round-trip efficiency is around 45%.
... En este aspecto es preciso hacer también referencia a los trabajos de Lewis y Jones (1970) quienes asimismo critican abiertamente las fuentes escritas sobre las minas españolas como «diffuse and repetitive» y presentan, tras un superficial trabajo de campo, una visión muy particular de la explotación de Las Médulas, a la que aplican de forma extensiva sus criterios de trabajo desarrollados en la pequeña mina de Dolaucothi (País de Gales -Gran Bretaña), llegando a atribuir a causas naturales muchos de los restos de las cárcavas y barrancos de Las Médulas. Reconocen asimismo la total importancia de la red hidráulica para efectuar la explotación de este yacimiento e intentan reflejar en un rudimentario esquema el trazado y la llegada de los canales a Las Médulas, aunque sin ningún rigor topográfico. ...
It as been realised for the first time a detailed topographic reconstruction of the whole outline of the network of
canals to supply water to Las Médulas, the roman’s largest gold mine. The hydraulic analysis has also been elaborated.
The results show a novel supply structure which is due to the rigorous plan of mining works. The whole outline
reaches 600 km and was built under various mining stages. One canal which attracted water from Cabrera river was more than 140 km long. The most important features found in the construction of the canals was the fear outline with average slopes characteristics of each canal or group of canals, which increase with height. They vary between 0,0015 (0,15 %), the lowest, and 0,004 (0,4 %) the highest. The exact number of canals as well as its extension vary from the previous bibliography, though a deep revision should be done.
With few questions about systems of roman mining engineering employed at Las Médulas, this text include a
new translation and an original interpretation of PLIN.Nat.33.66-78, text about the gold-bearing Roman mining in the Iberian Peninsula, which determine exactly his knowledge about the true dimension of the techniques used in the exploitation of the gold mines in the Roman Empire.
... Up to present, no prehistoric mines have been reported for this area despite intensive mining having occurred during Roman times. This is not surprising because Roman ore exploitation in northern Spain may have reworked and expanded activities in already known prehistoric mining areas (Lewis and Jones, 1970), and later, modern mining operations destroyed or severely altered most of the prehistoric mines (de Blas, 1996). ...
Although archaeological research suggests that mining/metallurgy already started in the Chalcolithic (3rd millennium BC), the earliest atmospheric metal pollution in SW Europe has thus far been dated to ~3500-3200cal.yr. BP in paleo-environmental archives. A low intensity, non-extensive mining/metallurgy and the lack of appropriately located archives may be responsible for this mismatch. We have analysed the older section (>2100cal.yr. BP) of a peat record from La Molina (Asturias, Spain), a mire located in the proximity (35-100km) of mines which were exploited in the Chalcolithic/Bronze Age, with the aim of assessing evidence of this early mining/metallurgy. Analyses included the determination of C as a proxy for organic matter content, lithogenic elements (Si, Al, Ti) as markers of mineral matter, and trace metals (Cr, Cu, Zn, Pb) and stable Pb isotopes as tracers of atmospheric metal pollution. From ~8000 to ~4980cal.yr. BP the Pb composition is similar to that of the underlying sediments (Pb 15±4μgg(-1); (206)Pb/(207)Pb 1.204±0.002). A sustained period of low (206)Pb/(207)Pb ratios occurred from ~4980 to ~2470cal.yr. BP, which can be divided into four phases: Chalcolithic (~4980-3700cal.yr. BP), (206)Pb/(207)Pb ratios decline to 1.175 and Pb/Al ratios increase; Early Bronze Age (~3700-3500cal.yr. BP), (206)Pb/(207)Pb increase to 1.192 and metal/Al ratios remain stable; Late Bronze Age (~3500-2800cal.yr. BP), (206)Pb/(207)Pb decline to their lowest values (1.167) while Pb/Al and Zn/Al increase; and Early Iron Age (~2800-2470cal.yr. BP), (206)Pb/(207)Pb increase to 1.186, most metal/Al ratios decrease but Zn/Al shows a peak. At the beginning of the Late Iron Age, (206)Pb/(207)Pb ratios and metal enrichments show a rapid return to pre-anthropogenic values. These results provide evidence of regional/local atmospheric metal pollution triggered by the earliest phases of mining/metallurgy in the area, and reconcile paleo-environmental and archaeological records.
... The highest level of ancient gold ore mining and beneficiation was reported during the Roman period, beginning in the 2nd cen tury BC Pliny the Elder (1st century AD) described this technology, and artifacts supporting his reports have been found in Spain ( Domergue and Herail, 1999;Jones and Bird, 1972;Lewis and Jones, 1970), Italy (Gambardi, 1999), and Great Britain (Burnham, 1997;Lewis and Jones, 1969;Timberlake, 2004). Gold production reached new levels, achieving industrial character, even by modern standards. ...
Ancient reports and mining relicts indicate that in antiquity technologies of high empirical level were used to enrich finely dispersed gold. This review describes the scientific bases behind these beneficiation technologies and confirms their historical significance. All of these ancient processes operate on the principle of selectively attaching finely dispersed gold particles onto a solid collector material via hydrophobicity, chemisorptive bonding, or electrical surface charges. This work begins by presenting the physical and chemical fundamentals of these processes. New research provides scientific explanations for several ancient variants of gold ore beneficiation that are discussed in the second section, including the dry and wet attachment processes used in pharaonic Egypt, sheepskins utilized as gold collectors in the Caucasian region, hemp utilized as a gold collector in Celtic Bohemia, and the use of gorse for gold beneficiation in the Roman Empire. The highest performing antique gold beneficiation technique was the use of gorse as a superhydrophobic gold collector and can be regarded as a precursor to the modern flotation process. The ancient processes demonstrate interesting correlations with modern gold ore beneficiation.
... The great historical and environmental concerns of Roman mining in the Iberian Peninsula have been well documented in areas such as Las Médulas (Lewis and Jones, 1970;Pérez-García et al., 2000), Riotinto (Leblanc et al., 2000;Nocete et al., 2005) and the Mazarrón-Cartagena district (Bellón, 2008;Ramallo and Arana, 1985). Special attention has been drawn to the exploitation of massive sulphide deposits in southern Spain, which is likely to have been the main responsible for the large-scale atmospheric pollution of Pb which occurred several thousand years ago in Europe (Hong et al., 1994). ...
... Extensive changes in the landscape have been widely documented in the Iberian Peninsula since the times of the Roman invasion, such as the impact of mining activities ( Lewis and Jones, 1970), the introduction of plant varieties (e.g., Conedera et al., 2004;Gil et al., 2004) or the intensification of deforestation ( Figueiral, 1995Figueiral, , 1996Carrión et al., 2000Carrión et al., , 2009Rubiales et al., 2007;López-Sáez et al., 2009). In the northern Iberian plateau (inland Spain), where this study was performed, biogeographers have long addressed the interpretation of modern vegetal landscapes ( Willkomm, 1896;Huguet del Villar, 1925;Font Quer, 1954;Calonge Cano, 1987;Franco Múgica et al., 2001Franco Múgica et al., , 2005Gil and Torre, 2007), while historians have debated the nature and timing of human-induced changes in the vegetation cover over time (e.g., Hopfner, 1954;Schulten, 1963;Blanco Abril, 2003). ...
The study of more than 700 charcoals from the Vaccaean settlement of Pintia (Padilla del Duero, Valladolid) provides new local and detailed data about the Iron Age II forest composition in Continental–Mediterranean inland Spain. Pinus gr. sylvestris/nigra (from which an unexpectedly high number of charcoals were identified), together with Mediterranean pines (also highly represented), Juniperus L. and evergreen and deciduous Quercus, were the main taxa living in the area, revealing two different marked biogeographical elements in the late-Holocene landscapes of the Duero basin: Mediterranean and Eurosiberian. On one hand, the results shed new light on the assessment of the origin of Mediterranean pinewoods in the area. On the other hand, the charcoal assemblage of Pintia reveals a more important presence of the current Mediterranean highland pines in the lowlands of the Central Iberian Peninsula in the late-Holocene suggesting the existence of interglacial refugia. Finally, this work highlights palaeoecological studies as valuable tools to support decisions on forest management related to conservation and restoration of our natural heritage.
Après une longue phase de déni, la place des techniques dans l’Antiquité fait l’objet de réévaluations portant aussi bien sur leurs avancées que sur leur diffusion et leur impact sur la société. Il n’est pas donc pas surprenant que le premier colloque scientifique organisé par l’établissement public de coopération culturelle du Pont du Gard ait été consacré aux machines hydrauliques dans le monde romain. En effet, cette manifestation internationale qui a réuni plus de 80 personnes, les 20-22 septembre 2006 s’est déroulée à l’ombre d’un monument emblématique du génie romain dans le domaine de la grande hydraulique. Avec ces étranges machines, on touche à un aspect méconnu de cette civilisation, mais dont l’importance est loin d’être négligeable tant du point de vue de l’histoire des techniques que pour la connaissance de l’économie antique. Se posent, en effet, des questions sur la diffusion de la connaissance technique dans le monde gréco-romain et sur leur adaptation aux différents besoins et milieux puisque ces machines se rencontrent aussi bien à la ville qu’à la campagne, dans les mines ou les carrières, et jusque sur les bateaux.
Colonia Iulia victrix Philippiensium was founded by Mark Antony after the battle of Philippi in 42 BC and was re-founded by Octavian as colonia Iulia Philippiensis, then Augusta, after the naval battle in Actium in 31 BC. Philippi was one of the most important stations along the Egnatia Road. During the Antonine period, in the second half of the 2nd c. AD, the city’s center was reconstructed in its most monumental form. The aqueduct for the water supply of the city has been dated to the same period. It is an open-channel aqueduct with a barrel vaulted cover that collected water from the Kefalari area (karstic springs of Voirani), about seven kilometers north-northwest of Philippi.
A
look at the innovations, especially in the economy, but also in other areas of
Roman society, reveals two sides of Roman civilization: In addition to a strong
sense of political and family traditions and a respect of traditional values there
was a great willingness to innovate if they were to increase the efficiency of
the political and social system, thereby increasing the dignity of the res
publica or, in the private sphere, the social rank of a family. Even the
policies of the middle and late Roman republic proved in many ways to be
innovative; In particular, we should point out the popular policy that since
the laws of the Gracchi has repeatedly formulated new proposals to adapt the
republic to new political, social and economic needs. Finally, under Augustus,
this policy culminated in the creation of a constitutionally new system, the
Principate, which combined the old institutions of the Republic with new power
structures. Technical innovations were perceived and positively valued by
ancient authors such as Vitruvius, Heron or Pliny; however, the Romans were
unable to quantify their economic effect, the increase in productivity.
However, it should not be overlooked that the technical innovations for the
economy, transport, architecture and infrastructure had profound consequences;
they are by no means to be considered as marginal, because they increased
productivity in agriculture and crafts, thereby contributing on the one hand to
increasing profits of large landowners and on the other hand to improving the
supply of agricultural products and craft products to the population.
Especially in the field of infrastructure, for example in the water supply,
they had positive effects on the welfare of the population. The technical
innovations were therefore undoubtedly in addition to the long period of peace
beginning under Augustus, which guaranteed to the inhabitants of the
Mediterranean an unprecedented external and internal security, an indispensable
condition of that urbanity, which in the Principate's time was characterized by
widespread prosperity and high aesthetic standards the material culture was
characterized.
A newly discovered 'Viereckschanze' near Stožice. Thanks to analysis of LiDAR data, it was possible to discover a new 'Viereckschanze' in South Bohemia. Its interpretation and dating was to a large degree confirmed by a combination of non-destructive methods: remote sensing (LiDAR, aerial photography), geophysical surveys and surface artefact survey. The site is heavily disturbed by agricultural activities.
A comprehensive study of the Las Murias-Los Tallares Roman gold mine (Castrocontrigo, León-Spain) was conducted using Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) technology and photointerpretation. The analysis of the mine structure show two main phases of ascending mining works and that the gold recovered by the Romans was at least 510 kg. Although LIDAR technology proves to be very valuable and essential to analyzing Roman hydraulic mining structures, there are some aspects that are still hardly decisive given the interpretation difficulties.
Slavery is difficult to ascertain in the archaeological record, especially because of the lack of material evidence. Using the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample of 186 societies, our aim was to find indirect and easily identifiable indicators of the presence of slavery. The results show links between slavery and the expected and familiar domains (e.g., warfare, polygyny, social and political integration) as well as its relationship to metallurgy, which can be considered an innovative finding. This text attempts to explain and give context to the metallurgy relationship with historical examples related to the exploitation of slaves during various stages of the operational chain of metal production. These include raw material extraction, production of charcoal, and construction or reconstruction of smelting furnaces.
In the southern part of the Teleno Sierra, there is an impressive set of channels and deposits which served the exploitation, which was considered to be a huge secondary gold deposit, mainly composed of colluvial deposits. Detailed analysis of roman mining works shows that apart from colluvial deposits, in an area of 4.5 Km of extension following East-West direction, also eluvial deposits were exploited, coming from in situ alteration of primary deposits, which on their part were target of extraction. This lucky discovery changes the classic model of the Teleno gold deposit formation, originally explained as mechanic alteration of consolidated paleoplacers, which allows to change to a model based on hydrothermal activity, lithologically and structurally controlled by the emplacement of gold quartz veins, which is more coherent with other primary gold mineralizations in the area. KEY WORDS: roman mining, Teleno, primary gold deposits. INTRODUCCIÓN En la Sierra del Teleno se encuentra el que ha sido clasificado por Claude Domergue como el mayor conjunto de minería aurífera romana que se conoce (Domergue, 1975). Este criterio ha sido aplicado en base a la extensión de las explotaciones romanas hidráulicas que jalonan ambas vertientes de la Sierra del Teleno, desde los ríos que flanquean la montaña hasta la misma cumbre, situada a 2188 m de altitud. Más de un centenar de depósitos de agua, que fueron abastecidos por una compleja red que alcanza los varios cientos de kilómetros de canalizaciones, se utilizaron para poner en
This chapter investigates the understanding that Classical Antiquity had of the earth, its origins, geology, geomorphology and the minerals contained within it with especial reference to metals. In addition, some attempt is made to investigate how the theoretical speculations interacted with the contemporary world of real materials and mining technology. A wide variety of evidences are presented from written and archaeological sources.
This paper reports the use of integrated geomatic applications based on LiDAR data and UAV assisted photogrammetry for the identification, description and interpretation of ancient Roman gold mining sites in Northwest Spain. The study compares Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) with different acquisition methods, resolution and accuracy for analysis of archaeological remains. DEMs have been analysed using different visualization tools, such as principal component analysis, local relief factor, multiple hillshading, sky-view-factor and openness in order to improve visualization of the models, aiming at the identification of archaeological features. Our study suggests that principal component analysis, openness and multiple hillshading were the most effective tools for identification of archaeological remains. The results indicate that 5 m LiDAR provides insufficient resolution to perform detailed analysis and accurate description of the hydraulic systems, but the use of visualization tools improved the localization and description of remains. The 1 m resolution LiDAR data highly improve the resolution and capabilities for recognition and interpretation of canals, water reservoirs and mining zones. In addition, the use of UAV technology for smaller detailed surveys has shown a powerful capacity to reduce costs and time-consuming processing calculations, gaining in data resolution. The implementation of .LAZ files allows classification and analysis of point clouds yielding similar results to LiDAR technology in vegetated areas. However, unlike airborne lasers, its application is mainly restricted to small survey areas. Our study has focused on two areas characterized by a diversity of roman gold mining elements preserved in the landscape, such as hydraulic systems (canals and water reservoirs, drained canals and other anthropic elements) and mining areas along the Eria River Valley Gold District. The work has been implemented with the creation of 3D virtual reconstructions of the selected features, which can help to visualize different elements of the archaeological record to the general public, providing a useful tool for preservation and display of cultural heritage.
Recent fieldwork in the Wanlockhead-Leadhills region has identified three basic types of gold mining remains: alluvial workings, prospection hushes and hushed openworks. Documentary evidence suggests that most of the alluvial workings are 16th century in date but the hushes are likely to belong to single phases of activity in the early 17th century and the late 18th century.
This paper presents the results of geoarchaeological research in the Portuguese Tagus Valley. Until recently, the Late Quaternary evolution of the Conhal of Arneiro (Nisa, Northeastern Alentejo, Portugal) was poorly examined and understood. Especially the large-scale exploitation for placer gold in historical times complicated the landscape reconstruction, Lis it systematically obliterated large parts of the archaeological and palaeoenvironmental record. The Pleistocene T2 Tagus River terrace was exploited over an area of 0.6 km(2), resulting in the removal of ca. 8.4x10(6) m. Of auriferous sediments. The sterile waste products that were evacuated towards the Tagus and its tributaries, clicked parts of the valleys and covered the Late Glacial-Holocene T1 terrace.
A geoarchaeological approach was vital to assess the different natural and anthropogenic processes and their interactions during the Late Quaternary, Firstly, the anthropogenic landforms were identified and interpreted as to their function in the exploitation process. Within this framework, the preserved fluvial landforms could be analysed and the Late Quaternary riverine evolution be reconstructed.
It is important to stress the patrimonial value of the Conhal since the unique cultural landscape created by the mining activities has been well preserved. The importance of such old industrial sites is however often disregarded. Of all the placer gold exploitations along the Tagus, only the Conhal area has been declared historical mining patrimony. The research presented in this paper can serve its,I guideline for the analysis of comparable areas and can be a stimulus towards protection and preservation of this unique heritage.
The first millennium bc saw great developments in all aspects of metal production. The introduction of coinage in the mid-first millennium bc created an enormous demand for precious metals: gold and, above all, silver. Metal ores in Northern and Western Europe, Balkans, Greece, Cyprus, Anatolia, Syria, Palestine, and Egypt are discussed. The main innovation in mining technology in the first millennium bc was the introduction of iron and steel tools, completely replacing the stone mining hammers and array of bone, antler, and bronze tools that had been used previously. The benefits of ores are also described. The article then addresses smelting and refining technologies. The uses of iron, steel, and brass are presented. The production of metals also survived the collapse of the Roman Empire in the west.
For the Roman empire the control of its metal and marble resources was of high significance: marble was central to the representation of imperial wealth and power and the uninhibited access to metal vital for the economic and political survival of the empire. This book aims to provide a detailed survey of the organizational measures devised for the extraction of metals and marbles and is restricted to mines and quarries under imperial control. Following the description of geological and topographical constraints and organizational challenges, the book focuses on the legal definition of mining and quarrying districts, the hierarchical structures and administrative responsibilities of the imperial officials (procuratores) and their staff, as well as the role of the Roman army, of private contractors and the workforce in these extractive operations. Finally, it addresses the position of mining and quarrying operations within the wider framework of the imperial administration and explores the role of the emperor vis-à-vis the mines and quarries within his empire. Although the emperor can play a vital part in allocating people and resources to quarries and mines, much of the organizational burden is placed on the men on the spot - a result of varying organizational constraints faced by procurators, Roman officers, or private contractors charged with running mining and quarrying operations.
This book offers readers a comprehensive and innovative introduction to the economy of the Roman Empire. Focusing on the principal determinants, features and consequences of Roman economic development and integrating additional web-based materials, it is designed as an up-to-date survey that is accessible to all audiences. Five main sections discuss theoretical approaches drawn from economics, labor regimes, the production of power and goods, various means of distribution from markets to predation, and the success and ultimate failure of the Roman economy. The book not only covers traditionally prominent features such as slavery, food production and monetization but also highlights the importance of previously neglected aspects such as the role of human capital, energy generation, rent-taking, logistics and human wellbeing, and convenes a group of five experts to debate the nature of Roman trade.
In ancient Greece and Rome an ambiguous relationship developed between man and nature, and this decisively determined the manner in which they treated the environment. On the one hand, nature was conceived as a space characterized and inhabited by divine powers, which deserved appropriate respect. On the other, a rationalist view emerged, according to which humans were to subdue nature using their technologies and to dispose of its resources. This book systematically describes the ways in which the Greeks and Romans intervened in the environment and thus traces the history of the tension between the exploitation of resources and the protection of nature, from early Greece to the period of late antiquity. At the same time it analyses the comprehensive opening up of the Mediterranean and the northern frontier regions, both for settlement and for economic activity. The book's level and approach make it highly accessible to students and non-specialists.
The mine of Llamas de Cabrera (Leon, Spain) is a gold deposit operated during the Roman Empire, in which primary and secondary gold ores coexist. The primary gold ores were hosted mainly in the upper layers of the Armorican Quartzite. They are lodes, being very abundant those hosted in N180°E/70-85°E tensional fractures and rare the ones associated to N70°E and N125°E fractures. They are formed by quartz and arsenopyrite very dominant over pyrite, galena, gold, chalcppyrite, bisrnuthinite, tetrahedrite and covellite. The accompanying hydrothermal alteration is silicification, sericitization and chloritization. The determined supergene minerals are scorodite, goethite and angle-site. The operated gold is free gold located generally in microfractures in arsenopyrite or quartz. Its content in silver varies from 1,99 to 7,62%, whereas the copper content is very low, remaining below the limit of instrumental detection. This study shows the existence of two phases of mineralization, deposited during two hydrothermal events of hercinian age, in addition to the supergenic phase. The secondary gold ores, operated in alluvial and colluvial sediments, were deployed by the action of the exogenous cycle on the primary gold deposits. We consider that the total volume of material moved at roman time ascended to 2 Mm 3.
The earliest use of water power for hushing, either to prospect or to mine, has understandably focussed on the suggested Roman evidence from Dolaucothi, yet there are numerous other examples, most of them associated with areas of lead and, occasionally, copper extraction, and many of which remain truly enigmatic, though clearly old nevertheless. Roman hushing to extract gold is well documented in Spain and elsewhere, but is there any evidence that they used this practice here when prospecting for other metal ores? What could hushes or leats be for if not for mining or prospecting? Documentary evidence plus that of recent fieldwork would seem to suggest that many of these features associated with mining are pre-18th century. Yet was this a practice reintroduced from the Northern Pennines, or might some of it be associated with the working of lead by (or under the aegis of) Cistercian monks some 300 years before Agricola? Could some be examples of Roman or even pre-Roman exploration? Initial results from a line of on-going research carried out by David Bick and the author will be discussed. Attempts at the (approximate) dating of hushing in upland Wales through the archaeological sectioning of feeder leats, hushing ponds and dams and their infills have all met with varying levels of success, yet the results would seem to suggest a very wide range of dates for these features.
The earliest mining activities began in the Neolithic (9000 bce onwards) and were small-scale affairs, generally confined to tapping flint for tool-making.Keywords:ancient Greece;economic history;engineering;history of science, medicine and technology;Roman history;slavery;technology
Torcs made from the gold/silver alloy known as electrum are among the most striking features of British Iron Age craftsmanship; yet despite the interest they generate, little effort has been directed towards unravelling the problems of their development. This paper seeks to correct this neglect by considering the reasons for the decline of electrum torc art, with particular reference to those found in East Anglia.
Many current models of the Roman economy are predicated on a bleak Late Antiquity, including Hopkins’ “taxes and trade” model. These models have yet to reckon with an uptick in economic matrices in the early 4th. This article addresses one piece of this puzzle, namely, expansion of villa construction in Hispania. The articles argues that this expansion was tied to increased imperial presence and intensified taxation, and produced a band of social opportunism of which villas are the detritus.
This book deals systematically with communication problems in the Roman world where numerous languages apart from Latin and Greek were spoken. How did the Romans communicate with their subjects in the remoter parts of the Empire? What linguistic policies did they pursue? Differing forms of bilingualism developed, which had a significant effect on the way the Romans and their subjects thought, spoke and wrote. A wide range of cultural, historical and linguistic questions concerning the varying developments in bilingualism are addressed.
Spain has deep roots in the underground. The territory of myth and legend, of cave and tunnel, has existed in Spain since that ancient time overwhelmed with shreds of fog, where all was myth around heros like Túbal Hércules, Gárgoris and Abidis. The underground evokes strong links with life and death, light and darkness, and has served as a source of inspiration for art through the centuries. The history of tunnels in Spain reflects the mosaic of cultures that have inhabited Iberia from prehistoric times till today. This contribution on the subterranean History of Spain traces the country's heritage in the form of natural caves, troglodyte dwellings, mining, crypts, galleries in fortresses and castles, aqueducts, qanats, cellars, and other landmarks.
En el presente estudio formulamos la hipótesis según la cual el culto al dios indígena Coso/Cossue en el sur del conventus Asturum, evidenciado por el hallazgo de siete altares votivos en la región leonesa de El Bierzo, fue consecuencia de migraciones de grupos de población desde las regiones costeras galaicas, donde el dios recibía un culto mayoritario, hacia las explotaciones auríferas del territorio astur. Para establecer la hipótesis, analizamos los demás casos de difusión cultual causada por emigraciones hacia áreas mineras en la Península Ibérica.
The north-west corner of Spain was long neglected by Roman archaeologists, who have tended to concentrate on the more spectacular remains to be found in the south and east. However, recently more attention has been directed there by workers of several nationalities, who have now produced a quite extensive literature on the gold mines, as well as on wider aspects, chiefly in connection with the activities of the legion VII Gemina. Yet there has been little attempt in all this to examine why a substantial military force was maintained in the region for so long. This paper aims to review that problem to about the end of the second century A.D. The evidence available is almost entirely epigraphic, chiefly consisting of epitaphs and religious dedications. Building inscriptions are scarce. For convenience all the epigraphic material from the north-west of Spain that is relevant to the disposition of the army is collected in the appendix, and in the main text reference will be made to the numbers given there. In addition a few historical passages are of importance, but the archaeological site evidence is very slight. The nature of the evidence is such that most attention must be devoted to the units attested in the region and their deployment, with little to be said about their actual bases. Previous work on the subject has been dominated by the late Antonio García y Bellido in several masterly papers. However it has tended to concentrate more on the history of the units themselves than on questions of topography and the reasons behind their presence.
One of the more tangible benefits that accrued to Rome from the conquest of an empire was the acquisition of significant mineral resources, significant because Italy, although rich in iron, could not provide a sufficient supply of the whole range of metals needed by the Roman state for coinage and by members of the élite for the luxury artefacts that helped to enhance their social status. Once Rome had gained control over metalliferous regions of the Mediterranean, Romans, and especially Italians, were not slow to become involved in mining overseas, while the state came to gain considerable revenue from the leasing of contracts for the right to exploit state-owned mineral resources.
This paper examines the relationship between the design and use of mechanical technology, patronage and investment, and economic return, using three main case studies: water-lifting devices, the water-powered grain mill, and the diverse uses of water-power in mining. Water-power was used on a wide scale and in diversified forms at an early date (by the first century A.D.), and the use of mechanical technology to perform economically critical work had an important impact on economic performance and the potential for per capita growth, especially in the latter centuries B.C. and the first two centuries A.D. Conversely, in the third century A.D. the cessation of the employment of hydraulic mining techniques enabling large-scale extraction of gold and other metals may have had an adverse impact on the economy as a whole. Growth and progress do not necessarily follow a linear pattern of advance; technologies are lost as well as adopted.