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Explaining Homeless Youths' Criminal Justice Interactions: Childhood Trauma or Surviving Life on the Streets?
Abstract
Homeless youth are at increased risk for involvement in the criminal justice system. This study investigated childhood trauma as a risk factor for arrest or jail among a sample of youth seeking services at drop in, shelter, and transitional housing settings, while controlling for more established risk factors including: substance use, peer deviance, and engagement in survival behaviors. Standardized and researcher developed measures collected quantitative data through face-to-face interviews with youth (N = 202). Two sequential logic regression models identified significant predictors of arrest and jail, with a particular interest in the effects of childhood maltreatment. Youth with a history of physical abuse were nearly twice as likely to be arrested and to be jailed compared to non-abused youth, controlling for the significant influence of drug use and survival behaviors. These findings suggest the need for trauma screening and trauma-informed services for homeless youth at risk of illegal behavior.
... Precise counts for the number of people who experience homelessness upon reentry are not well documented, though justice involvement is known to increase a young person's likelihood of experiencing homelessness (Brezina & Agnew, 2012;Pilnik, 2016). Studies report as many as 78% of young people experiencing homelessness have been arrested (Chapple, Johnson, & Whitbeck, 2004;Yoder, Bender, Thompson, Ferguson, & Haffejee, 2014) compared to three to five percent of peers in the general population (Puzzanchera & Kang, 2017). YAEH engagement in high-risk survival strategies while on the streets increases their potential for exposure to criminal justice involvement (Brezina & Agnew, 2012;Ferguson et al., 2011;Perlman et al., 2014). ...
... YAEH engagement in high-risk survival strategies while on the streets increases their potential for exposure to criminal justice involvement (Brezina & Agnew, 2012;Ferguson et al., 2011;Perlman et al., 2014). In fact, compared to YAEH without reported justice-involvement, those who are justice-involved endorse higher rates of engagement in survival behaviors (e.g., sex for money or selling drugs) to help manage limited resources and opportunities to secure one's basic needs for food and shelter (Baron & Hartnagel, 1998;Ferguson et al., 2011;Yoder et al., 2014). However, these studies of YAEH evaluate justice-involvement without distinguishing between juvenile and adult involvement. ...
... Yoder and colleagues (2014) explored criminal justice involvement (arrest and jail) and histories of trauma and maltreatment with approximately 202 young adults (18-24 years) receiving services from a midwestern homeless youth service agency. YAEH with histories of physical abuse were found to be nearly two times more likely to be arrested compared to those without (Yoder et al., 2014). The relationship between a history of trauma and negative outcomes related to health, mental health, system-involvement, and recidivism is also well-documented throughout the literature among young people who have exposure to only one system (Baglivio et al., 2016;Onifade et al., 2014;Whitted, Delavega, & Lennon-Dearing, 2013). ...
Young adults experiencing homelessness (YAEH) have been found to have high rates of prior involvement with foster care and juvenile justice, but little is known about whether YAEH differ in their risk behaviors based on exposure to different systems. This study used a dataset of 1426 YAEH from 7 different US cities to examine the
historical risk and resilience characteristics of those involved in foster care alone, juvenile justice alone, both systems (dual status), and no system involvement. Logistic regression was used to examine whether different types of childhood system involvement predicted risk behaviors in young adulthood including substance use,
trade sex, suicide attempts, unplanned pregnancy, and involvement in the adult criminal justice system. Notably, 57% of youth had been exposed to one of the systems – 20% foster care only (n = 291), 18% juvenile justice only (n = 254), and 18% dual status (n = 261). YAEH without a history of system involvement had significantly lower childhood trauma scores and lower rates of lifetime mental health diagnoses compared to all three system involved groups, with dual status youth having the highest rates of both. In relation to risk outcomes, youth with dual status histories had higher odds of trading sex and those with juvenile justice involvement, either alone or
as dual status, had higher odds of being arrested after age 18 and of problematic substance use. Results suggest YAEH with prior involvement in child-serving systems have unique risk characteristics that vary by type of system involvement, with dual-system involved youth at particularly high risk. Findings highlight the need for
foster care and juvenile justice systems to work collaboratively in providing preventive interventions prior to system exit.
... Childhood and youth homelessness also leads to adverse cognitive functioning impacts which may engender negative educational impacts, limit labour market opportunities and flow on to poor decision-making and recklessness (Coates & McKenzie-Mohr, 2010;Edidin et al., 2012). The risk factors associated with homelessness often, but certainly not always, predate engagement with services such as hospitals, mental health clinics, the police, prisons and rehabilitation programs (Crawley et al., 2013;Dawson & Jackson, 2013;Yoder et al., 2014). ...
... Young homeless people exhibit elevated rates of being both the victims of assault and crime as well as engaging in criminal activity (Baron, 2006;Chapple et al., 2004;Hagan & McCarthy, 1997;Kaufman & Widom, 1999;Yoder et al., 2014). Association with 'delinquent' peers has been identified as a high risk factor prompting criminal activity (Chapple et al., 2004;McCarthy & Hagan, 1992;Warr, 2002). ...
... Drug use is not solely attributed to the condition of being homeless given the effects of other environmental and personal factors and the underlying medical nature of addiction (Spooner et al., 2001). Nevertheless, there is a strong correlation between substance abuse and service utilisation among homeless youth, both in terms of health services (Hauff & Secor-Turner, 2014) and engagement with the justice system (Baron, 2006;Baron & Hartnagel, 1998;McCarthy & Hagan, 1992;Yoder et al., 2014). Among 111 young people who had experienced problematic substance use in an Australian study, in which only one person had not been homeless, there was a sharp increase in substance abuse when youth transitioned to homelessness due to drugs being more available and commonplace (Daley & Chamberlain, 2009). ...
Our study utilizes Australian survey evidence to estimate the heath and justice costs of a cohort of young homeless people. Health and justice costs for young homeless people are highly skewed with median costs well below mean costs. This is particularly true of justice costs resulting from a relatively high proportion of young homeless people having no interaction with the justice system. Having a diagnosed mental health condition is a primary driver of both health and justice costs. Having been homeless or sleeping rough in the previous year is associated with approximately four times mean health and justice costs compared with not having experienced homelessness. High justice costs are associated not only with having a diagnosed mental health condition homelessness and rough sleeping, but also a high-risk of dependence on one or more drugs or alcohol, identifying as Indigenous and a history of out-of-home care before the age of 18.
... One of the correlates of youth housing instability is increased contact with the youth criminal legal (hereafter juvenile justice) system. A disproportionate number of youth experiencing homelessness will have contact with law enforcement compared to stably housed youth (Baron, 2016;Chapple et al., 2004;Chen et al., 2006;Edalati & Nicholls, 2019;Ivanich & Warner, 2019;McCandless, 2018;Omura et al., 2014;Snyder et al., 2016;Thrane et al., 2008;Walker et al., 2018;Yoder et al., 2014). This system contact represents a critical inflection point that presents varied risks and opportunities for stabilization (Nordess et al., 2002;Rodriguez, 2007;Walker & Herting, 2020). ...
... However, subtypes of maltreatment, including physical, sexual, and other types of abuse do not significantly predict the risk of juvenile justice system transition. Yoder et al. (2014) Actively homeless or runaway youth; Survivors of abuse, trauma, or mental disorder Exposure to childhood physical abuse predicts arrest and jail admission even after accounting for a homeless youth's level of substance use, interactions with deviant peer groups, and engagement in survival behaviors on the streets. Initial involvement in the justice system is associated with youths' attempts to make money and find resources to survive on the streets. ...
Background
Youth experiencing homelessness have disproportionate contact with the criminal legal system. This system contact represents a critical inflection point for enhancing risk or opportunities for stabilization; however, the policy and scholarly traditions examining the criminal legal system have not traditionally incorporated housing or other social determinants as a central focus of intervention.
Methods
We conducted a scoping review using PRISMA-ScR guidelines to examine how the research literature is currently addressing housing within the context of youth involvement in the legal system. Databases searched included PubMed, Web of Science, and Academic Search Complete. Google Scholar was used to identify papers not indexed in the academic databases of interest. Database searches were conducted between September and December 2019 and articles were restricted to those published in English between the year 2000 and 2019. Key study components extracted included demographic information regarding each sample, type of article, study methodology, direction of effects of interest, outcome measures and primary findings, as well as theoretical frameworks engaged by the authors.
Results
The search results returned 2154 titles for review. After screening all 2154 titles, 75 met eligibility for inclusion. Abstract reviews were conducted for all 75 papers. 36 abstracts met eligibility criteria and underwent full-text review. Ultimately, 29 articles satisfied eligibility criteria and were included in this scoping review.
Conclusions
Publications are primarily focused on the social epidemiology of risk factors and behaviors determining youth justice contact, but relatively less so on studies of interventions targeting youth delinquency, crime reduction, or recidivism that included housing support. The lack of continuity in theorizing from epidemiology to applied science in this area represents a gap in the literature that is likely reducing the effectiveness of interventions to interrupt patterns of legal system contact for youth. Integrating a public health framework that emphasizes the upstream social determinants leading to contact with the youth justice system would represent a paradigm shift for the field that would have beneficial effects on long term health outcomes for youth.
... Exposure to adverse events in childhood has been associated with homeless people running a greater risk of re-victimisation and criminal justice involvement (Edalati et al., 2020;Panadero et al., 2018). Yoder et al. (2014) comment that people living homeless who have a background of physical abuse were almost twice as likely to be arrested and imprisoned as those who did not. ...
... Those people living homeless whose infancy took place in particularly dysfunctional family settings presented greater probabilities of involvement with the criminal justice system and entering prison, which suggests a need to carry out evaluations and design care services for young homeless people who come from this type of setting (Yoder et al., 2014). Efforts to eradicate homelessness should also pay special attention to the health care needs of incarcerated persons who are released from prison (Kushel et al., 2005). ...
This article studies in a sample of women and men living homeless in Spain the issues that are most closely linked to involvement in the criminal justice system and incarceration. The study was carried out in Madrid (Spain) with a representative sample of men living homeless (n = 158) and a sample of women living homeless of a similar size (n = 138). A structured interview was used to gather the information. Results show that people living homeless in Madrid have had a greater degree of involvement with the criminal justice system and show higher levels of imprisonment, both before and after finding themselves in homeless situations. People living homeless who were imprisoned presented factors of particular vulnerability: Periods of childhood and adolescence in dysfunctional family settings, more frequently situations of homelessness, worse physical and mental health conditions, and higher levels of alcohol and drug abuse.
... Specifically, 30% of chronically unsheltered individuals have been noted as having a mental health condition and 50% of the same group have co-occurring substance use problems (Paquette, 2011). In the Midwest, a number of studies on homeless youth indicate they are no exception to mental health problems, victimization, and risky behaviors, but less is known about adult homeless populations in the region (Kort-Butler & Tyler, 2012;Tyler, 2009;Whitbeck, 2011;Yoder, Bender, Thompson, Ferguson, & Haffejee, 2014). Due to the diversity between homeless populations in various cities, it cannot be assumed that findings from one location will apply to another (Israel, Toro, & Ouellette, 2010). ...
The high prevalence of mental health problems among homeless individuals has been well-documented. However, studies have shown significant variability among regions and even cities. As a result, it is necessary to study the mental health of local populations in order to best meet their needs. The current study examined mental health and barriers to accessing care using a cross-sectional, mixed methods, approach. The aims of this study were to describe the prevalence of mental health problems, multiple morbidities, and barriers to accessing mental healthcare in a Midwestern sample of homeless individuals. We recruited 127 individual staying in a homeless shelter in Lincoln, Nebraska and matched them with 127 controls from a national normative data set. We also conducted three focus groups. Mixed methods analysis techniques were used to examine the results. Homeless participants had higher rates of most mental health problems when compared with controls. The greatest disparities were seen in the prevalence of thought problems, internalizing problems, externalizing problems, and obsessive symptoms. Numerous barriers to accessing care were commonly reported with a lack of access being the most commonly cited challenge. Homeless individuals require additional consideration when establishing and providing care given their high rates of multiple morbidities and apparent treatment resistance. Given all the barriers homeless people face, it would be beneficial to establish more accessible methods for individuals to get the help they need.
The victim–offender overlap describes the relationship between crime involvement as a victim and an offender. This study assessed the presence and nature of this overlap in 2,126 young people reported missing for the first time in 2005 followed up for 10 years using police contact data from Victoria, Australia. The results demonstrated support for the presence of the victim–offender overlap, with a substantial proportion (n = 1,116, 52%) of the youth missing persons classified as victim–offenders. The number of times reported missing, younger age at first police contact, sex, having a history of family violence, and mental health-related concerns were common risk factors for both victimization and offending. Victim–offenders were also commonly victims and perpetrators of the same crime type. Findings further indicate the importance of targeting those at greatest risk of being repeat missing persons early and proactively in order to respond to, and limit, the potential for further victimization and offending.
This evaluation inspected the degree of symptom improvement associated with the Developmental Trauma and Attachment Program for decreasing symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among youth in residential treatment following complex trauma scenarios associated with domestic and international adoption/foster care. Participants were 61 youth (Mage = 13.23 years) who were predominately born in the United States (n = 41) with 20 identifying with international domiciles. Results indicated statistically significant decreases in symptoms from admission to discharge associated with medium-effect sizes across PTSD symptoms. Nearly one in three participants reported clinically significant changes associated with treatment, whereas two in five reported improvements but not in the clinically significant range. Female participants reported greater decreases in negative cognitions; however, no other differences in treatment response based on participant characteristics were detected. Limitations of the generalization of findings and recommendations for future researchers are provided.
Discrimination against the homeless is an increasingly documented phenomenon with detrimental mental and physical health impacts. Relatively less is known about potential buffers of the negative impact of this discrimination, though research suggests that resiliency and social support can help individuals who are homeless overcome adversity. A total of 147 unaccompanied youth experiencing homelessness (ages 16–24) completed a survey assessing self-reported experiences with homelessness discrimination, self-harming behaviors, drug/alcohol use and suicidality, as well as a measure of emotional quality of life (QOL). The results revealed that discrimination was associated with higher levels of suicidal ideation, drug/alcohol use and self-harming behavior. At high levels of discrimination, youth with high levels of emotional QOL reported less self-harming behavior compared to their peers with low levels of emotional QOL. These results contribute to a growing body of research establishing discrimination as an additional and relevant source of stress for individuals who are houseless.
Childhood experiences, both positive and negative, can have a tremendous impact on future violence, victimization and perpetration, and lifelong health and opportunity. As such, early experiences are an important public health issue. Much of the foundational research in this area has examined the prevalence and consequences of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs). The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) acknowledge ACEs as preventable and have therefore prioritized improving outcomes across the nation. Experiencing accumulated early-in-life adversities may lead to health-risk behaviors, such as substance abuse, and later-in-life health and social problems, including homelessness. Many social service agencies as well as the community at large are not thoroughly informed about these issues, often not recognizing when an individual has a history of trauma, which can then leave these concerns unaddressed. This chapter outlines trauma research with a focus on ACEs and homelessness and overviews Restorative Integral Support (RIS), an inclusive model for addressing ACEs and trauma by building resilience in programs and communities.
This chapter analyzes national and global research and policies for serving homeless youth, including the causes and consequences of youth homelessness. The chapter will identify best practices for locating, assessing, interviewing, and intervening with homeless youth in order to meet their needs. This chapter will also help to prepare students for participating in social work research, engaging in policymaking processes, and working with agencies and organizations invested in the continued development of best practices. The information presented assists readers in becoming more well-rounded practitioners to advocate for and intervene with homeless youth.
Using a prospective cohorts design, official criminal histories for a large sample of substantiated and validated cases of physical and sexual abuse and neglect from the years 1967 through 1971 (n = 908) were compared with those of a matched control group (n = 667) of individuals with no official record of abuse or neglect. Abused and neglected subjects had higher rates of having an adult criminal record than controls and a larger number of arrests as an adult. Based on a logit analyis, a model using four explanatory variables (age, sex, race, and abuse/neglect status) provided a good fit. In comparison with controls, abused and neglected subjects also had a higher frequency of arrests for violent offenses as adults; however, this was due primarily to significantly more adult violent offenses by abused males. Support for the cycle of violence is discussed as well as sex differences in the results, limitations of the findings, and implications for further research.
There is a substantial evidence base to suggest that victimization during childhood, whether that be abuse within the family home or criminal victimization outside it, increases the propensity towards offending behaviour. Despite the lack of research evidence to identify a definitive pathway from victimization to offending, this article presents some of the more persuasive theories as to why this relationship exists. Some of the most recent US and UK empirical evidence in support of this relationship is also presented. The consequences for offender treatment are considered.
This article explores the psychosocial and behavioral adjustment outcomes associated with verbal, emotional, physical, and sexual abuse among homeless young adults as well as the associations among abuse types. Convenience sampling was used to select 28 homeless young adults (ages 18 to 24) from one drop-in center. Overall, subjects experienced high rates of direct abuse (that is, verbal, emotional, physical, and sexual abuse) and indirect abuse (that is, witnessing family verbal and physical abuse). Chi-square tests revealed that proportions of clinical depression, internalizing and externalizing behaviors, alcohol use, and foster care history were higher among subjects who experienced abuse than among those without reported abuse histories. The findings suggest that homeless young adults experience coexisting types of direct and indirect abuse, which can negatively influence outcomes related to their psychosocial functioning and behavioral adjustment. An inclusive multi-type abuse approach, with both direct and indirect abuse types, is needed to draw accurate conclusions regarding the effects of each specific abuse type on homeless young adults' psychological and behavioral adjustment.
Little is known regarding the predictors of arrest for homeless and runaway youth. The self-reported criminal activity of homeless and runaway youth has been associated with familial abuse, deviant peers, and situational street stressors. The path to running away was suggested to differ by gender, with more girls running away from sexually and physically abusive homes than boys. We asked two questions in our research: Are the predictors of arrest among homeless and runaway youths similar to the predictors of self reported offending and do these predictors differ by gender? Our results indicated that association with deviant peers, prior arrest, sexual abuse, and poor parental monitoring were associated with the number of arrests homeless and runaway youths reported. Yet the effects of prior arrest and deviant peers were stronger for boys, suggesting a gendered process of arrest for homeless and runaway youth.
The Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI) is a short diagnostic structured interview (DSI) developed in France and the United States to explore 17 disorders according to Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM)-III-R diagnostic criteria. It is fully structured to allow administration by non-specialized interviewers. In order to keep it short it focuses on the existence of current disorders. For each disorder, one or two screening questions rule out the diagnosis when answered negatively. Probes for severity, disability or medically explained symptoms are not explored symptom-by-symptom. Two joint papers present the inter-rater and test-retest reliability of the Mini the validity versus the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI) (this paper) and the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IH-R patients (SCID) (joint paper). Three-hundred and forty-six patients (296 psychiatric and 50 non-psychiatric) were administered the MINI and the CIDI ‘gold standard’. Forty two were interviewed by two investigators and 42 interviewed subsequently within two days. Interviewers were trained to use both instruments. The mean duration of the interview was 21 min with the MINI and 92 for corresponding sections of the CIDI. Kappa coefficient, sensitivity and specificity were good or very good for all diagnoses with the exception of generalized anxietydisorder (GAD) (kappa = 0.36), agoraphobia (sensitivity = 0.59) and bulimia (kappa = 0.53). Inter-rater and test-retest reliability were good. The main reasons for discrepancies were identified. The MINI provided reliable DSM-HI-R diagnoses within a short time frame, The study permitted improvements in the formulations for GAD and agoraphobia in the current DSM-IV version of the MINI.
Homeless youths' use of substances is highly related to experiences of trauma and the development of posttraumatic stress symptoms. The current study approached homeless young people to elicit their perspectives regarding how their substance use and trauma experiences are interrelated. Recruited from a homeless youth service settings, youth (n = 50) participated in qualitative, semi-structured, face-to-face interviews that queried youth on two broad topics: how substances might place youth at risk for victimization and how substances may be used as a coping strategy. Youth identified several ways substance use placed them at further risk (e.g., decreasing awareness of potential danger, increasing physical risk through overdose or addiction, disconnecting them from support systems, and increasing risk for violence related to criminal behavior). They also described multiple ways in which substances temporarily helped them cope with past trauma (e.g., escaping difficult thoughts, improving negative moods, relaxing, and socializing with others). Many youth (68%) described using substances as a “temporary fix” or “band-aid” to cope with memories of past trauma that eventually placed them at higher risk for further victimization. Adaptations to existing prevention services that incorporate the interconnectedness between substance use and trauma are suggested.