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Preliminary Natural Resource Survey - Blackbird Mine, Lemhi County, Idaho
Abstract and Figures
Report describes effects of uncontrolled mine drainage on Chinook salmon, steelhead, resident fish populations and benthic invertebrates in Panther Creek, Idaho, Adverse effects to the stream ecology were attributed to copper and cobalt. Includes original data on sediment chemistry and toxicity testing with a benthic invertebrate, the amphipod Hyalella azteca.
Findings: Arsenic, cobalt and copper concentrations in sediments downstream of the mine effluents were elevated up to 300 times the upstream concentrations while only cobalt and copper were elevated in surface water. Cobalt and copper but not arsenic were readily released from sediments in leaching tests. Toxicity of metals in Panther Creek sediments was estimated through laboratory growth and survival testing with the amphipod Hyalella azteca. Cobalt and copper but not arsenic concentrations in sediment were strongly correlated with Hyalella toxicity. Normalizing metals concentrations to the amount of organic carbon in the sediment significantly increased the strength of the correlations, suggesting that the organic carbon content may moderate the bioavailability of copper and cobalt in sediments. Surface water and sediment contamination patterns corresponded to altered benthic community structure and reduced fish populations. The effects of copper and cobalt to invertebrates and salmonids from controlled experiments reported in the literature and those observed in Panther Creek are similar. Additionally, studies from other areas with similar metals contamination strongly suggest that (1) copper contamination impedes homing and downstream migratory behavior in anadromous salmonids, and (2) metals in the food chain are an important factor in reducing the survival and growth of juvenile salmonids.
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... The mainstem of Panther Creek is approximately 71 kilometers long, flowing north from its headwaters in the Salmon River Mountains into the Salmon River at river mile 210, west of Shoup, Idaho. The drainage area encompasses 1380 km 2 and includes seven major tributaries (Napias, Clear, Big Deer, Moyer, Deep, Musgrove, and Blackbird Creeks) (Mebane 1994;Hill et al. 2018). Four tributaries are mining-affected: Big Deer Creek, South Fork Big Deer Creek, Blackbird Creek, and the West Fork Blackbird Creek (Mebane et al. 2015). ...
... Although the majority of redds in 2015 were located between the Moyer/Musgrove and Blackbird confluences, the majority of juveniles were caught between the confluences of Napias and Trail Creeks (Figure 19), suggesting that this section of mainstem Panther Creek may provide good rearing habitat. This is consistent with previous observations of little overlap between suitable spawning and rearing habitats, which found ~70% of Chinook rearing occurred between the confluence of Blackbird Creek and the mouth of Panther Creek (Mebane 1994). ...
Shoshone-Bannock Tribes Fish and Wildlife Department 2017 Annual Report on Chinook Salmon supplementation in Panther Creek and the South Fork Salmon River
... The main-stem is approximately 71 kilometers long, flowing north from its headwaters in the Salmon River Mountains into the Salmon River at river mile 210, west of Shoup, Idaho. The drainage area encompasses 1380 km 2 and includes seven major tributaries (Napias, Clear, Big Deer, Moyer, Deep, Musgrove, and Blackbird Creeks) (Mebane 1994;Hill et al. 2018). Much of the drainage is steep mountain slopelands with narrow V-shaped valleys. ...
Annual Report on Shoshone Bannock Tribes' Monitoring and Evaluation of Chinook Salmon Supplementation Using Remote Site Incubators - 2018
... The main-stem is approximately 71 kilometers, flowing north from its headwaters in the Salmon River Mountains into the Salmon River at river mile 210. The drainage area encompasses 1,380 km 2 and includes seven major tributaries (Napias, Clear, Big Deer, Moyer, Deep, Musgrove, and Blackbird Creeks) (Mebane 1994;Hill et al. 2018). ...
Supplementation of fish at the egg stage is a low‐cost alternative to hatchery rearing, presumed to improve adaptation to local natural conditions. The Shoshone‐Bannock Tribes began supplementing Chinook Salmon (Onchorynchus tschwytscha) in Panther Creek, Idaho, at the eyed‐egg stage in 2014. Chinook Salmon eggs were artificially fertilized and reared to eye‐up in‐hatchery, then planted in custom‐made in‐stream incubators (egg boxes) for volitional release and natural rearing. Using data from three brood years, we evaluated the efficacy of this supplementation program solely in terms of juvenile production: we related juvenile production to egg box placement and retrieval, assessed the relative contribution of egg box‐produced juveniles to overall juvenile abundance, and compared the performance (length, condition, dispersal distance, and survival) of egg‐box versus natural‐origin juveniles. Brood year and box placement within the stream (distance upstream) were the best predictors of whether or not an egg box was retrieved from its original location. Meanwhile, the condition of the box (i.e., intact, damaged, missing) was the best single predictor of juvenile production. Supplemented eggs represented an estimated 42%, 50%, and 42% of total egg deposition in Panther Creek in brood years 2014, 2015, and 2016, respectively. Parentage analysis revealed that egg boxes contributed 6% to 22% to 35% of parr production for the respective brood years when normalized to the estimated egg deposition—less than the egg‐to‐parr production estimated for natural redds. As fall parr, egg box progeny differed from natural fish in terms of their length and dispersal behavior, but were of similar length and condition at their emigration from Panther Creek and exhibited no significant difference in downstream survival through the Federal Columbia River Power System. Collectively, our results provide useful insights to fisheries managers interested in initiating or refining egg supplementation programs.
... The first stream we considered was Panther Creek, one of the major tributaries to the Salmon River, Idaho. Since the early 1990s because of copper contamination from mining activities that led to the loss of Chinook salmon and steelhead populations, Panther Creek has been the focus of many studies, litigation, and restoration efforts (e.g., EcoMetrix 2007; Mebane 1994 Mebane , 2002). Water chemistry was measured in detail in Panther Creek during 1993-1994; more recent data are unfortunately inadequate for the BLM. ...
The purpose of this critical review was to evaluate whether USEPA’s 2007 biotic-ligand model (BLM)-based copper criteria were sufficiently protective for threatened or endangered salmonids and their ecosystems. The review addressed conditions or biological effects that were beyond the scope of the model’s development but were within the scope of its intended application. For instance, the BLM was developed as a model for acute toxicity but is applied as a chronic criterion. The performance of the model is evaluated in diverse waters with diverse species, and with diverse effects endpoints such as reproductive or other chronic effects, chemosensory impairment, and field studies of aquatic insect communities.
The results of the review were largely favorable. With many independent data sets that tested a diverse assortment of aquatic organisms and endpoints across a wide variety of natural and laboratory waters, the 2007 copper BLM toxicity predictions were invariably at least correlated with empirical toxicity observations, which is considerably better than can be said for older hardness-based copper criteria. The analyses were most equivocal for the field experiments with aquatic insect and other benthic macroinvertebrates, yet even for these analyses the 2007 BLM-based criteria performance was clearly superior to that of the hardness-based criteria.
[Author’s note: Prepared on behalf of the U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS). This review was released as an obscure appendix to an obscure administrative document of limited circulation, but I thought it might be of interest to those interested in metals risk assessment and predictive toxicity models. I’ve considered updating and publishing and would appreciate feedback whether that might be of value].
Suggested citation:
NMFS. 2014. An evaluation of the accuracy and protectiveness of EPA’s 2007 biotic ligand model (BLM)-based copper criteria for copper [Appendix C. ]. Pages 434-502 in Biological Opinion on USEPA’s Approval of the State of Idaho’s Water Quality Criteria for Toxic Substances (NMFS No: 2000-1484). National Marine Fisheries Service, Northwest Region, Boise, Idaho, https://pcts.nmfs.noaa.gov/pcts-web/
... In Panther Creek, the majority of spawning habitat and historical locations of Chinook spawning were high in the watershed, upstream of copper discharges. However, Chinook were only observed spawning below the first major diluting tributary, a point above which copper concentrations averaged about 10-25 µg/l during the times of the spawning observations [13, 50]. Sublethal copper exposure has been shown to interfere with the downstream migration to the ocean of yearling coho salmon. ...
Dissolved copper (dCu) is a ubiquitous surface water pollutant that causes a range of adverse effects in fish as well as in aquatic invertebrates and algae. This technical memorandum is a summary and targeted synthesis regarding sensory effects to juvenile salmonids from lowlevel exposures to dCu. As such, the material presented here serves to summarize scientific research on dCu and its impacts on salmonid sensory systems. In addition, this document provides a benchmark analysis of empirical data generated in recent National Marine Fisheries Service investigations that have focused on salmon olfactory function. The review section, Appendix A, discusses peer reviewed and gray literature on the effects of dCu on salmonid sensory systems, associated sensory-mediated behaviors, and physiology. It is intended to facilitate understanding of the effects of dCu on sensory system–mediated behaviors that are important to survival, reproduction, and distribution of salmonids. The review does not address the effects of dCu on salmonid habitats, although copper is also highly toxic at low μg/L concentrations to aquatic primary producers and invertebrates (i.e., the aquatic food web). Undoubtedly, new information will become available that enhances our current understanding of copper’s effect on threatened and endangered salmonids and their supporting habitats. A large body of scientific literature has shown that fish behaviors can be disrupted at concentrations of dCu that are at or slightly above ambient concentrations (i.e., background).
In this document, background is operationally defined as surface waters with less than 3 μg/L dCu, as experimental water had background dCu concentrations as high as 3 μg/L dCu. Sensory system effects are generally among the more sensitive fish responses and underlie important behaviors involved in growth, reproduction, and (ultimately) survival (i.e., predator avoidance). Recent experiments on the sensory systems and corresponding behavior of juvenile salmonids contribute to more than four decades of research and show that dCu is a neurotoxicant that directly damages the sensory capabilities of salmonids at low concentrations. These effects can manifest over a period of minutes to hours and can persist for weeks. To estimate toxicological effect thresholds for dCu in surface waters, benchmark concentrations (BMCs) were calculated using a U.S. Environmental Protection Agency methodology. This paper presents examples of BMCs for juvenile salmonid olfactory function based on recent data. BMCs ranged 0.18–2.1 μg/L, corresponding to reductions in predator avoidance behavior of approximately 8–57%. The BMC examples represent the dCu concentration (above background) expected to affect the ability of juvenile salmonids to avoid predators in freshwater. These concentration thresholds for juvenile salmonid sensory and behavioral responses fall within the range of other sublethal endpoints affected by dCu such as behavior, growth, and primary production, which is 0.75–2.5 μg/L.
The paper also discusses the influence of water chemistry on the bioavailability and toxicity of copper to fish sensory systems. Studies exploring behavioral avoidance as well as representative studies of other effects to salmonids are also summarized. Salmon may be able to avoid dCu in environmental situations where distinct gradients occur. However, avoidance of dCu originating from nonpoint sources appears unlikely. Given the large body of literature on copper and responses of aquatic ecosystems, we focused on a subset of fish sensory system studies relevant to anadromous salmonids.
Point and nonpoint source discharges from anthropogenic activities frequently exceed these thresholds by one, two, and sometimes three orders of magnitude, and can occur for hours to days. The U.S. Geological Survey ambient monitoring results for dCu representing 811 sites across the United States detected concentrations ranging 1–51 μg/L, with a median of 1.2 μg/L. Additionally, typical dCu concentrations originating from road runoff from a California study were 3.4–64.5 μg/L, with a mean of 15.8 μg/L. Taken together, the information reviewed and presented herein indicates that impairment of sensory functions important to survival of juvenile salmonids is likely to be widespread in many freshwater aquatic habitats. Impairment of these essential behaviors may manifest within minutes and continue for hours to days depending on concentration and exposure duration. Therefore, dCu has the potential to limit the productivity and intrinsic growth potential of wild salmon populations by reducing the survival and lifetime reproductive success of individual salmonids.
[Open Access] This paper presents a 30+ year record of changes in benthic macroinvertebrate communities and fish populations associated with improving water quality in mining-influenced streams. Panther Creek, a tributary to the Salmon River in central Idaho, USA suffered intensive damage from mining and milling operations at the Blackbird Mine that released copper (Cu), arsenic (As), and cobalt (Co) into tributaries. From the 1960s through 1980s, no fish and few aquatic insects could be found in mine-affected sections of Panther Creek downstream of the metals contaminated tributaries, Blackbird and Big Deer Creeks.
Efforts to restore water quality began in 1995, and by 2002 copper levels had been reduced by about 90% with incremental declines since. As of 2013, resident fish populations in mining-influenced reaches of Big Deer and Panther Creeks appeared to have largely recovered while only limited recovery has occurred in smaller Blackbird Creek. Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) were early colonizers, quickly expanding their range as areas became habitable when Cu concentrations dropped below about 3X the chronic aquatic life criteria. Anadromous Chinook Salmon (O. tshawytscha) and Steelhead (O. mykiss) have reoccupied Panther Creek. Anadromous and resident salmonid populations appeared fully recovered in terms of similar densities, biomass, year class strength, and condition factors between reference sites and mining-influenced sites. Recovery of salmonids occurred within about 10-years after the onset of cleanup efforts and about 4-years after Cu chronic criteria had mostly been met. In contrast, Shorthead Sculpin (Cottus confusus) were slower than salmonids to disperse and colonize; but their numbers appeared to recover within four years after their first detections at a site. Benthic macroinvertebrate biomass has increased but species richness in mine-influenced sites has plateaued for several years at about 70 to 90% of reference. Specific invertebrate taxa had distinctly different recovery trajectories. Potential reasons for the failure of specific invertebrate taxa to recover include competition, greater sensitivity to Co than fish, and high sensitivity to Cu.
The distribution of Cu, Co, As and Fe was studied downstream from mines and deposits in the Idaho Cobalt Belt (ICB), the largest Co resource in the USA. To evaluate potential contamination in ecosystems in the ICB, mine waste, stream sediment, soil, and water were collected and analyzed for Cu, Co, As and Fe in this area. Concentrations of Cu in mine waste and stream sediment collected proximal to mines in the ICB ranged from 390 to 19,000 μg/g, exceeding the USEPA target clean-up level and the probable effect concentration (PEC) for Cu of 149 μg/g in sediment; PEC is the concentration above which harmful effects are likely in sediment dwelling organisms. In addition concentrations of Cu in mine runoff and stream water collected proximal to mines were highly elevated in the ICB and exceeded the USEPA chronic criterion for aquatic organisms of 6.3 μg/L (at a water hardness of 50 mg/L) and an LC50 concentration for rainbow trout of 14 μg/L for Cu in water. Concentrations of Co in mine waste and stream sediment collected proximal to mines varied from 14 to 7400 μg/g and were highly elevated above regional background concentrations, and generally exceeded the USEPA target clean-up level of 80 μg/g for Co in sediment. Concentrations of Co in water were as high as in 75,000 μg/L in the ICB, exceeding an LC50 of 346 μg/L for rainbow trout for Co in water by as much as two orders of magnitude, likely indicating an adverse effect on trout. Mine waste and stream sediment collected in the ICB also contained highly elevated As concentrations that varied from 26 to 17,000 μg/g, most of which exceeded the PEC of 33 μg/g and the USEPA target clean-up level of 35 μg/g for As in sediment. Conversely, most water samples had As concentrations that were below the 150 μg/L chronic criterion for protection of aquatic organisms and the USEPA target clean-up level of 14 μg/L. There is abundant Fe oxide in streams in the ICB and several samples of mine runoff and stream water exceeded the chronic criterion for protection of aquatic organisms of 1000 μg/L for Fe. There has been extensive remediation of mined areas in the ICB, but because some mine waste remaining in the area contains highly elevated Cu, Co, As and Fe, inhalation or ingestion of mine waste particulates may lead to human exposure to these elements.
The purpose of this article is to report on the testing of responses of multimetric macroinvertebrate and habitat indices to common disturbances to streams: stream habitat alteration, excessive sediment, and elevated metals concentrations. Seven macroinvertebrate community metrics were combined into a macroinvertebrate biotic index (MBI), and 11 channel morphology, riparian, and substrate features were combined into a habitat index. Indices were evaluated by comparing the habitat results to fish population surveys and comparing the macroinvertebrate results to habitat ratings, percent fine sediments measured by Wolman pebble counts, and copper concentrations. Macroinvertebrate scores decreased with increasing percentages of fine sediments measured either across the bankfull or instream channel widths. Macroinvertebrate scores decreased with increasing copper. One metric, richness of Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera (EPT) taxa, was more responsive to both copper and sediment than was the multimetric MBI. Habitat scores corresponded well with the age class structure of salmonids, but not with that of benthic sculpins. Both salmonid and sculpin age classes declined with increasing percentages of fine sediments. The decline was graded with the sculpin age classes, whether fine sediments were measured across the instream or bankfull channel, whereas salmonids consistently responded only to the instream fine sediments.
This summary paper brings together several facets of research on heavy metal pollution. It is hoped that this research program will provide an estimate of “safe” levels of copper-zinc pollution for maintaining salmon populations. Some parts of the work have received final analysis, and are indicated by reference to publications, while other parts have preliminary conclusions at present. In most cases we have simplified background discussions for brevity.
Whole body, gill, and liver copper uptake, gill Na+-K+-ATPase specific activity, and gill and liver acid-soluble thiols (AST), glutathione, and cysteine of rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) were measured during 28 d of exposure to 55 μg copper∙L−1. Na+-K+-ATPase specific activity was inhibited by 33% within 24 h of copper exposure, but this was compensated by a significant increase in microsomal protein so that the total Na+-K+-ATPase activity per milligram of gill tissue returned to normal by day 14. There was no accumulation of copper and no increase in AST, glutathione, or cysteine in the gill. However, after 7 d of exposure, hepatic AST and glutathione had increased by about 2 times, and a sulfhydryl-rich, acid-soluble protein, tentatively identified as metallothionein, increased by 2.8 times. Copper accumulation was highest in the liver, but other tissues also accumulated copper.
Studies in Maine show that anomalous amounts of cobalt are likely to be present in the active sediments of streams draining
areas with Ni-Cu-Co deposits associated with mafic rocks. Cobalt in stream sediment from Idaho decreases downstream less rapidly
than copper.
The toxicity of copper and zinc sulphates to juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) was tested in very soft water at 17 °C. The salts were tested separately and in mixtures. Incipient lethal levels were 32 μg/litre of copper alone or 420 μg/litre of zinc alone.Concentrations were expressed in "toxic units" by taking them as proportions of incipient lethal levels. Compared this way, resistance-times were similar for the two metals. Experiments showed that the incipient lethal level for mixtures was attained when addition of toxic units contributed by each metal reached a total of 1.0. The lethal threshold was therefore governed by simple additive effect of the two toxicants. This result is useful for applying to pollution problems in the field.In stronger mixtures totalling 2 and 5 toxic units, fish died faster than would be expected from their resistance to the metals separately. This type of potentiation in short-term tests seems to account for more-than-additive effects previously reported in the lit...