Studies of acrylamide level in coffee and coffee substitutes: influence of raw material and manufacturing conditions

Abstract

Many animal studies have shown that acrylamide is both neurotoxic and carcinogenic. The first reports of acrylamide actually having been found in foodstuffs were published in 2002 by the Swedish National Food Agency in conjunction with scientists from the University of Stockholm. It has since been demonstrated that acrylamide arises in foodstuffs by the Maillard reaction, ie. between free asparagine and reducing sugars at temperatures >120 degrees C. Coffee in fact, forms one of the principal dietary sources of acrylamide, where it is normally drunk in large quantities throughout many countries worldwide that includes Poland. Thus, it constitutes a major dietary component in a wide range of population groups, mainly ranging from late adolescents to the elderly.
To determine the acrylamide level in commercial samples of roasted and instant coffee and in coffee substitutes by LC-MS/MS method. The influence of coffee species and colour intensity of coffee on acrylamide level was also detailed.
A total of 42 samples of coffee were analysed which included 28 that were ground roasted coffee, 11 instant coffees and 3 coffee substitutes (grain coffee). Analytical separation of acrylamide from coffee was performed by liquid chromatography followed by tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). To evaluate the colour intensity of ground roasted coffee and instant coffee we used method of arranging (sequence).
The highest mean acrylamide concentrations were found in coffee substitutes (818 pg/kg) followed by instant coffee (358 microg/kg) and then roasted coffee (179 microg/kg). One single cup of coffee (160 ml) delivered on average from 0.45 microg acrylamide in roasted coffee to 3.21 microg in coffee substitutes. There were no significant differences in acrylamide level between the coffee species ie. Arabica vs Robusta or a mixture thereof. The various methods of coffee manufacture also showed no differences in acrylamide (ie. freeze-dried coffee vs agglomerated coffee). A significant negative correlation was observed between acrylamide levels and the intensity of colour in roasted coffee; this was not the case however for instant coffee.
It was demonstrated that roasting process had the most significant effect on acrylamide levels in natural coffee, however there were no relationships found with coffee species. Due to the high acrylamide levels demonstrated in coffee substitutes, recommended amounts should be defined and manufacturers should be obliged to reduce such levels in these products.

Full text

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Background. Many animal studies have shown that acrylamide is both neurotoxic and carcinogenic. The first reports of
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junction with scientists from the University of Stockholm. It has since been demonstrated that acrylamide arises in foodstuffs
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ranging from late adolescents to the elderly.
Objectives. To determine the acrylamide level in commercial samples of roasted and instant coffee and in coffee substitutes
by LC-MS/MS method. The influence of coffee species and colour intensity of coffee on acrylamide level was also detailed.
Materials and methods. $WRWDORIVDPSOHVRIFRIIHHZHUHDQDO\VHGZKLFKLQFOXGHGWKDWZHUHJURXQGURDVWHGFRIIHH
11 instant coffees and 3 coffee substitutes (grain coffee). Analytical separation of acrylamide from coffee was performed
by liquid chromatography followed by tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). To evaluate the colour intensity of ground
roasted coffee and instant coffee we used method of arranging (sequence).
Results. The highest mean acrylamide concentrations were found in coffee substitutes (818 μg/kg) followed by instant coffee
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the coffee species ie. $UDELFD vs 5REXVWD or a mixture thereof. The various methods of coffee manufacture also showed no
differences in acrylamide (ie. freeze-dried coffee vs agglomerated coffee). A significant negative correlation was observed
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Conclusions. It was demonstrated that roasting process had the most significant effect on acrylamide levels in natural
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Numerous studies have demonstrated that acrylamide is
neurotoxic and may damage the central and peripheral
nervous systems (respectively CNS and PNS) in both
animal models and humans exposed to acrylamide at
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Cell culture studies show that acrylamide is genoto-
xic and amongst other things it results in chromosomal
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gland when acrylamide was supplied in the drinking
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Research on Cancer had assigned acrylamide to those
substances that are ‘probably carcinogenic to humans’
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exposure limits to dietary acrylamide are low for such a
substance that exhibits genotoxicity and cancerogenicity
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When foodstuff acrylamide levels were monitored
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In the latter case the acrylamide content reached a
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any data on acrylamide levels in instant coffee and in
coffee substitutes.
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countries with a high coffee consumption. The presence
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depend on the coffee species. When the acrylamide
content of $UDELFD and 5REXVWDFRIIHHVDUHFRPSDUHG
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yet no effective tools available for decreasing acryla-
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The aim of this study was to determine the acryla-
mide level in commercial samples of roasted and instant
coffee and in coffee substitutes by LC-MS/MS method.
The influence of coffee species and colour intensity of
coffee powder on acrylamide level was also detailed.
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coffee and 3 coffee substitutes made by various manu-
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Acrylamide in coffee and coffee substitutes 175Nr 3
1R(&>@7KLVKDGEHHQSHUIRUPHGE\WKH
6WDWH6DQLWDU\,QVSHFWRUDWHGXULQJE\VDP-
pling from grocery shops and supermarkets throughout
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brands that originated from 8 manufacturers of which
3 were Polish coffee roasting companies. One sample
comprised at least two commercially available packages
RIWKHVDPHQDPHPDQXIDFWXUHUDQGEDWFKQXPEHULQWKH
minimum quantity of 1 kg. The methods of sampling and
amounts taken were in accordance with EC Regulation
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7KHURDVWHGFRIIHHVDPSOHVFRQVLVWHGRI$UDELFD
species (&RIIHD$UDELFD5REXVWD ( &RIIHDFDQHSKRUD)
DQGZHUHDPL[WXUHRIERWK7KHUHZHUHVDPSOHVRI
instant coffee of which 9 were a mixture of $UDELFD and
5REXVWD. The coffee substitutes samples were principally
composed of roasted cereals (ie. rye and/or barley) and
chicory root. One sample contained also roasted beetroot.
In accordance with specifications provided by manufactu-
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seven were freeze-drying whilst four were agglomerated.
All samples were transported and stored under con-
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sample replicates were mixed together from which a
representative portion was taken which then constituted
the laboratory sample.
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The laboratory samples consisted of 1.8 to 3 g
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the organic layer was removed. The aqueous layer was
incubated in an ultrasonic water bath. After cooling the
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were added. The sample was then further purified on
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DVSUHYLRXVO\ GHVFULEHG >@ 7KH PHWKDQRO IUDFWLRQ
so obtained was evaporated to dryness under nitrogen
and then reconstituted in 1 ml of mixture of water and
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injection volume for chromatographic analysis.
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Acrylamide in coffee was determined a previously
RSWLPLVHGDQGYDOLGDWHG/&0606PHWKRG>@&KUR-
matographic separation was achieved by the Dionex
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with the same absorbent. Analytical conditions: flow rate
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time was 5 minutes. Detection and quantification were
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ve ion mode with an electrospray capillary voltage (IS) of
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by the peak areas under the curve originating from the
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ĺ$$G3ZKHUHDVWKHLRQVĺ$$
DQGP]ĺ$$G3) were used for verification.
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This was performed according to an established
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
Photo 1. Samples of ground roasted coffee
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 6DPSOHVVLJQLILFDQWO\PRGHUDWHO\GDUN
 6DPSOHVVLJQLILFDQWO\GDUNHVW

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176 Nr 3
were arranged by members in order of increasing inten-
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a 1 to 11 one for instant coffee. Results were recorded
in custom-made reporting cards and then analysed
by .UDPHU¶Vtables where the upper division served
to determine if there were any significantly lighter or
darker colourings in samples amongst all those tested.
The lower division was used to establish which of the
samples differed.
6WDWLVWLFDODQDO\VLV
Results were calculated on a Microsoft Excel spre-
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given as the mean ± SD. ANOVA analysis was perfor-
med to first determine if any significant differences
existed between samples. When this proved to be the
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lay. Linear relationships were assessed by the 3HDUVRQ
correlation coefficient.
5(68/76
Concentrations of acrylamide in all the sample types
of commercial coffee studied are shown in Table 1.
The highest mean level values was in coffee substitu-
WHVJNJIROORZHGE\LQVWDQWFRIIHHJNJ
whilst the lowest were for roasted coffee at 179 μg/kg
(range: 61 – 397 μg/kg). The ANOVA analyses indicated
that there were significant differences present between
VDPSOHVS
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ODPLGHOHYHOVZHUHEHORZJNJRIZKLFKZHUH
ORZHUWKDQJNJ$FU\ODPLGHFRQFHQWUDWLRQVLQD
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whilst only two were higher at 386 and 397 μg/kg (Figu-
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DFU\ODPLGHOHYHOVEHORZJNJDQGRQHVWKDWUDQ-
JHGEHWZHHQ±JNJ,QDIXUWKHUWZRVDPSOHV
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KLJKHVWDFU\ODPLGHOHYHOVZKHUHWZRVDPSOHVIURPWKH
VDPHPDQXIDFWXUHUEXWIURPGLIIHUHQWEDWFKHVVKRZHG
DQGJNJZKHQFRPSDUHGWRDVDPSOHIURP
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%HFDXVHDFU\ODPLGHLVKLJKO\ZDWHUVROXEOHLWFDQ
be assumed that it the entire acrylamide content of com-
mercial products will be present in any coffee infusion.
Taking into account the variations of acrylamide levels
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 6DPSOHVVLJQLILFDQWO\PRGHUDWHO\GDUN
 6DPSOHVVLJQLILFDQWO\GDUNHVW

Table 1. Comparison of acrylamide level in different types of coffee and coffee substitutes
Type of coffee
Acrylamide content
>ȝJNJRIFRIIHH@ >ȝJFXSRIFRIIHH@
x ± SD min ÷ max x ± SD min ÷ max
ground roasted coffee1179 ± 85a* 61 ÷ 397 a* ·
instant coffee358 ± 188b· b·
coffee substitutes3c· c·
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3 RQHWHDVSRRQJRIFRIIHHVXEVWLWXWHVZDVXVHGWRSUHSDUHDFXSRIFRIIHHPO

Acrylamide in coffee and coffee substitutes 177Nr 3
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
acrylamide cont ent [μg/kg]
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
number of samples of roasted coffee
‘check value’
for roasted coffee*
)LJXUH'LVWULEXWLRQRIVDPSOHVRIURDVWHGFRIIHHDFFRUGLQJWRWKHFRQWHQWRIDFU\ODPLGHQ 
* VRXUFH>@
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
acrylamide content [ȝg/kg]
0
1
2
3
4
5
number of samples of instant coffee
‘check value’
for instant coffee*
)LJXUH'LVWULEXWLRQRIVDPSOHVRILQVWDQWFRIIHHDFFRUGLQJWRWKHFRQWHQWRIDFU\ODPLGHQ 
* VRXUFH>@
162
188 180
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
Arabica (n = 6) Robusta (n = 10) mixture of Arabica and Robusta
(n = 12)
ȝg/kg of product
Figure 3. Comparison of acrylamide level in ground roasted coffee depending on the coffee species

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178 Nr 3
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μg in coffee substitutes (Table 1).
The mean amount of acrylamide present in the
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EXWQRWVLJQLILFDQWO\WKDQPHDQOHYHOVPHDVXUHGLQWKH
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&RIIHHRULJLQDWLQJIURPURDVWLQJIDFLOLWLHVLQ3RODQG
KDGVOLJKWO\KLJKHUPHDQDFU\ODPLGHOHYHOVDWJNJ
FRPSDUHGWRWKRVHRIRWKHUPDQXIDFWXUHUVDWJNJ
but as before this difference was not significant.
/LNHZLVHWKHKLJKHUOHYHOVRIDFU\ODPLGHIRXQGLQ
freeze-dried coffee compared to agglomerated coffee
JNJ YV  JNJ ZHUH DOVRQRW VLJQLILFDQW
7DEOH
7DEOH &RPSDULVRQRIDFU\ODPLGHOHYHOLQLQVWDQWFRIIHH
depending on the way of production
Type of coffee Number of
samples
Acrylamide content
>ȝJNJRIFRIIHH@
x ± SD min ÷ max
freeze-dried 7  ·
agglomerated   ·
The intensity of coffee colouring in the studied
VDPSOHVDUH VKRZQ LQ SKRWRV  DQG7KH UHVXOWV
demonstrate significant differences of intensity in
roasted coffees irrespective of the coffee species. In
IDFWDQHJDWLYHFRUUHODWLRQZDVREVHUYHGU 
SEHWZHHQDFU\ODPLGHOHYHOVDQGWKHLQWHQVLW\
RIFRIIHHFRORXULQJV)LJXUH7KHKLJKHVWVWDWLVWLFDOO\
VLJQLILFDQWSDFU\ODPLGHOHYHOVZHUHVHHQZKHQ
WKHFRORXUZDVOLJKWHVWDWJNJFRPSDUHGWRWKRVH
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
acrylamide cont ent [μg/kg]
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
the intensity of the color of ground roasted coffee
r = -0.5569; p = 0.0386
)LJXUH7KHFRUUHODWLRQEHWZHHQDFU\ODPLGHFRQWHQWLQFRIIHHDQGFRORULQWHQVLW\RIJURXQGURDVWHGFRIIHH
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
acr
y
lamide content
[
ȝ
g
/k
g]
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
the intensity of the color of instant coffee
r = 0.4616; p = 0.1530
Figure 5. The correlation between acrylamide content in coffee and color intensity of instant coffee

Acrylamide in coffee and coffee substitutes 179Nr 3
where the colour were moderately dark (197 μg/kg) or
dark (168 μg/kg) (Table 3).
,QFRQWUDVW WR URDVWHG FRIIHH WKHUH ZDV QRUHOD-
tionship observed between acrylamide content and the
intensity of colour for instant coffee (Figure 5). Less
acrylamide was in instant coffee with the lightest colo-
XULQJVJNJWKDQFRIIHHZLWKPRGHUDWHO\GDUN
or dark colourings at 381 μg/kg and 399 μg/kg respec-
WLYHO\DOWKRXJKWKHVHGLIIHUHQFHVZHUHQRWVLJQLILFDQW
(Table 3).
',6&866,21
The mean acrylamide content in the roasted coffee
samples was 179 μg/kg ranging from 61 to 397 μg/kg
depending on the product. Similar findings were obse-
rved in a study by $QGU]HMHZVNLHWDO>@ZKLFKWHVWHG
GLIIHUHQWFRIIHHW\SHVDYDLODEOHRQWKH86$PDUNHW
ZKHUHDFU\ODPLGHOHYHOVUDQJHGIURPWRJNJ
Higher amounts of acrylamide were found in various
coffee types in Denmark by *UDQE\ and )DJK>@
$FFRUGLQJWRWKLVVWXG\>@RQHOLWUHRIH[SUHVVRFRI-
fee contains on average 9.5 μg of acrylamide (range 7
WRJZKLFKLQWHUPVRIDNJRIFRIIHHJLYHVDQ
DYHUDJHHTXLYDOHQWRIJLW ZDV DVVXPHG WKDW
JRIURDVWHGFRIIHHZHUHUHTXLUHGWRPDNHXSOLWUH
of drinking coffee). A smaller amount was demonstra-
WHGE\DQRWKHUVWXG\FRQGXFWHGLQ3RUWXJDO6RDUHVet
DO>@ZKHUH H[SUHVVRFRIIHHFRQWDLQHG DFU\ODPLGH
from 57 to 181 μg/kg coffee (the authors claiming that
DQH[SUHVVRFRIIHHLVPDGHXSRIJH[WUDFWZLWKPO
ZDWHU+RZHYHUPXFKORZHUDFU\ODPLGHFRQFHQWUD-
tions were demonstrated by 6HQ\XYDand *RNPHQ>@
LQ7XUNH\ZLWKOHYHOVLQJURXQGURDVWHGFRIIHHUDQJLQJ
IURPWRJNJ
The mean levels of acrylamide in instant coffee were
found to be 358 μg/kg which was twice that in roasted
coffee (179 μg/kg). Similar results were obtained by
RWKHUVWXGLHV$QGU]HMHZVNLHWDO>@DQG6RDUHV et al
>@,Q WKH 86$ WKH DFU\ODPLGH FRQWHQWRI LQVWDQW
FRIIHHUDQJHGIURPWRJNJZKHUHDVWKHPHDQ
acrylamide levels in commercial products in Portugal
ZHUHJNJ>@/RZHUDFU\ODPLGHFRQFHQWUDWLRQV
than those presented were seen in instant coffee studies
IURP7XUNH\>@LHRIWRJNJ6RPHZKDWKL-
gher acrylamide levels (8 μg per litre of drinking coffee)
ZHUHVHHQLQWKHDIRUHPHQWLRQHG'DQLVKVWXG\>@RI
*UDQG\ and )DJK7DNLQJLQWRDFFRXQWWKDWJRI
FRIIHHDUHXVHGSHUOLWUHLQGULQNLQJFRIIHHWKHQLQVWDQW
coffee in the Danish study contained 597 μg acryla-
mide/kg of commercial product. A monitoring study
FRQGXFWHGWKURXJKRXW(XURSH>@GXULQJ
GHPRQVWUDWHGVOLJKWO\KLJKHUDFU\ODPLGHOHYHOVZKHUH
RQDYHUDJHLQVWDQWFRIIHHFRQWDLQHGJNJUDQJLQJ
EHWZHHQWRJNJ
The presented study showed that coffee substitutes
FRQWDLQRQ DYHUDJH  WLPHV WKH DPRXQWRI DFU\OD-
mide found in roasted coffee. The results are similar
to that demonstrated in the aforementioned European
VWXG\>@ZKHUHWKHPHDQDFU\ODPLGHOHYHOVIRXQGLQ
FRIIHHVXEVWLWXWHVZHUHJNJZLWKDPD[LPXP
RI JNJ$FU\ODPLGHFRQFHQWUDWLRQVLQ FRIIHH
substitutes depend on the composition of products.
These products contain chicory root and roasted ce-
UHDOVHJU\HEDUOH\DQGVRPHDOVRURDVWHGEHHWURRW
All these ingredients contain acrylamide precursors ie.
reducing sugars such as glucose and fructose as well as
asparagine. The differences in acrylamide levels found
may be accounted for by the variety of coffee substi-
tutes sampled and of having different manufacturers
and differing raw materials that thereby influence the
ILQDOFRPSRVLWLRQ RI SURGXFW )RU H[DPSOH FKLFRU\
URRWVFRQWDLQWZLFHDVPXFKIUXFWRVHDVJOXFRVH>@
where the former is more reactive than the latter during
DFU\ODPLGHIRUPDWLRQ)XUWKHUPRUHLWKDVEHHQQRWHG
by :RURELHMand 5HOLG]\ĔVND>@WKDWWKHUHDUHODUJH
differences in reducing sugars present in coffee substi-
WXWHVZKLFKWKXVHIIHFWWKHOHYHOVRIDFU\ODPLGHIRXQG
in a given final product.
It should be stated that none of the roasted coffee
or instant coffee samples showed acrylamide levels
WKDWH[FHHGHGWKHFKHFN YDOXHRIDQG JNJ
UHVSHFWLYHO\DV VWDWHGLQ (& UHFRPPHQGDWLRQV IURP
>@$WSUHVHQWWKHUHDUHKRZHYHUQRVXFKFKHFN
values existing for coffee substitutes.
Although the study showed that acrylamide levels
were lower in $UDELFD coffee than in 5REXVWD or mixtu-
UHVWKHUHRIWKHVHGLIIHUHQFHVZHUHQRWVLJQLILFDQW+R-
ZHYHUOLNHILQGLQJVKDYHEHHQVKRZQLQDQRWKHUVWXG\
by /DQW]HWDO>@ZLWKDFU\ODPLGHOHYHOVRIDQG
JNJLQUHVSHFWLYHO\5REXVWD and $UDELFDFRIIHH
Table 3. Comparison of acrylamide level in roasted and instant coffee depending on the intensity of colour
Intensity of coffee color15RDVWHGFRIIHHQ  ,QVWDQWFRIIHHQ 
Number of samples x ± SD Number of samples x ± SD
VLJQL¿FDQWO\OLJKWHVW  * 
VLJQL¿FDQWO\PRGHUDWHO\GDUN 5 168 ± 55 3 381 ± 119
VLJQL¿FDQWO\GDUNHVW 5 197 ± 69  
1 evaluated on the basis of .UDPHU¶Vtables
*VWDWLVWLFDOO\VLJQLILFDQWGLIIHUHQFHS

+0RMVND,*LHOHFLĔVND
 Nr 3
WKHGLIIHUHQFHVDOVREHLQJQRWVLJQLILFDQW,QDGGLWLRQ
a study by $OYHVHW DO>@GHPRQVWUDWHGWKDW5REXVWD
coffee had significantly higher acrylamide than $UDELFD
FRIIHHYVJNJWKHODWWHUGHSHQGLQJRQ
the country from which the beans originated. It appe-
DUVWKDWGXULQJURDVWLQJPRUHDFU\ODPLGHLVIRUPHGLQ
5REXVWD coffee than $UDELFDFRIIHHEXWXSWLOOQRZWKH
determining factors remain unexplained. Nevertheless
it has been suggested that fresh 5REXVWD coffee beans
FRQWDLQPRUHDVSDUDJLQH>@WKDQ$UDELFD ones.
The instant coffee products that appear on the Polish
PDUNHWYDU\LQWKHPHWKRGVRIPDQXIDFWXUHHVSHFLDOO\
in how the coffee is dehydrated. When coffee is freeze-
GU\LQJIURPIUR]HQH[WUDFWVWKHLFHLVUHPRYHGWKRXJK
ZDWHUHYDSRUDWLRQKRZHYHULQDJJORPHUDWHGFRIIHHWKH
extract is dried under streams of hot air up to the moment
that the dissolvable granules are formed. Despite such
GLIIHUHQFHVWKHFXUUHQWVWXG\GLGQRWVKRZDQ\VLJQLIL-
cant association between these methods of production
ZLWKDFU\ODPLGHOHYHOVWKHDSSDUHQWLQFUHDVHRI
acrylamide in freeze-dried coffee was not significant.
$QHJDWLYHDQGVLJQLILFDQWFRUUHODWLRQSZDV
demonstrated between acrylamide concentrations and
the intensity of color which was consistent with other
ZRUN7DH\PDQVHWDO>@DQG*RNPHQ& 6HQ\XYD>@
Lower acrylamide levels in dark coloured coffee com-
pared to the light coloured ones reflect the sensitivity of
DFU\ODPLGHWRGHFRPSRVHGXULQJURDVWLQJDFU\ODPLGH
is principally formed at the start of the roasting process
but its content decreases the longer the roasting conti-
QXHV>@(YHQWKRXJKWKHUHZHUHGLIIHUHQFHVLQ
FRORXULQJZLWKLQWKHLQVWDQW FRIIHHVDPSOHVWKLVZDV
found not to be linked to acrylamide concentrations.
The presented study confirms that the roasting
process is a key factor in determining the acrylamide
levels in the finished product. The species bean (ie. raw
PDWHULDOKDV D VPDOOHU HIIHFW DOWKRXJK LW ZRXOGEH
worth checking the acrylamide content in $UDELFD and
5REXVWD coffee according to country of origin.
It can be summarised that coffee forms a significant
source of dietary acrylamide within the population of
persons consuming high amounts of coffee. Of special
concern is the high acrylamide levels in coffee sub-
VWLWXWHVZKLFKRIWHQWDNHVWKHSODFHRIQDWXUDO FRIIHH
especially in the more vulnerable population groups
such as children and pregnant or breast feeding women.
It is therefore vital that check values are established for
FRIIHHVXEVWLWXWHVWKDWQXWULWLRQDOUHFRPPHQGDWLRQVDUH
modified accordingly in affected groups and that targe-
WHGHGXFDWLRQLVXQGHUWDNHQ)XUWKHUPRUHEHFDXVHRIWKH
wide variations of acrylamide concentrations within the
VDPHJURXSRIFRIIHHSURGXFWVPDQXIDFWXUHUVVKRXOG
take whatever steps are necessary to reduce such levels.
&21&/86,216
1. The study findings confirm that coffee can be an
important dietary source of acrylamide. Amongst
WKHYDULRXVFRIIHHW\SHVFRIIHHVXEVWLWXWHVKDGWKH
highest mean acrylamide concentrations (818 μg/kg)
followed by instant coffee (358 μg/kg) and then by
roasted coffee (179 μg/kg).
 :HGLGQRWILQGVLJQLILFDQWGLIIHUHQFHLQDFU\ODPL-
de content between coffee types or mixtures (ie.
$UDELFD vs 5REXVWD vs mixtures thereof) nor in the
methods of manufacturing instant coffee (ie. freeze-
-drying vs agglomeration).
3. We found a negative correlation between acrylamide
levels in roasted coffee and the intensity of color of
coffee. This was not observed with instant coffee.
 7KHSUHVHQWHG VWXG\ FRQILUPV WKDW WKH SURFHVVRI
roasting coffee beans is a significant factor in deter-
mining the acrylamide content in the final product.
,QFRIIHHVXEVWLWXWHVWKLVFULWLFDOIDFWRULVWKHFRP-
position of the raw material.
Acknowledgements
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IRRGVWXIISURFHVVLQJDQGWKHLULPSDFWRQKXPDQKHDOWK¶
XQGHUWDNHQE\WKH1DWLRQDO)RRGDQG1XWULWLRQ,QVWLWXWH
:DUVDZ3RODQG1R'.
Conflict of interest
7KHDXWKRUVGHFODUHQRFRQIOLFWRILQWHUHVW
5()(5(1&(6
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DWUL]02OLYHLUD33.: Acrylamide in espresso coffee:
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stigations into the levels of acrylamide in food. http://
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