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Geoarchaeological investigations at the site of Julfār (al-Nudūd and al-MaΓāf), RaΜs al-Khaymah, UAE: preliminary results from the auger-hole survey

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The medieval port town of Julfār is associated with the archaeological sites of Kush, al-MaΓāf, and al-Nudūd. Although these sites have been excavated separately, they most likely functioned as successive administrative centres serving the port, as the town and the landscape in which it was situated evolved through time. We know that a significant lagoon once existed in this area which was navigable, probably via a series of deeper channels. It is possible that these waterways extended as far inland as the site of Kush, some 3 km from the present-day coast. Changes in the coastal geomorphology, driven primarily by fluctuations in relative sea level (RSL) and sediment supply, caused the lagoon to gradually silt up, and it is speculated that this was the mechanism which triggered the migration of the administrative hub of Julfār from Kush out to the coast. In order to test these ideas, geoarchaeological work was carried out to ascertain the nature and depth of sediments immediately adjacent to al-Nudūd and al-MaΓāf, as part of new archaeological investigations being carried out by Oxford Brookes University. The results are presented here, and show that a lagoon and channel system did exist in this area for over three millennia, and these sediments exhibit important relationships with terrestrial (dune) sands and archaeological deposits. This preliminary work forms the pilot study for a much larger survey which would aim to delineate the full extent of the lagoon and resolve the connection with Kush.
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Proceedings
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Volume 41
2011
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ISSN 0308-8421
ISBN 978-1-905739-40-0
Geoarchaeological investigations at the site of Julfār
(al-Nudūd and al-MaΓāf), RaΜs al-Khaymah, UAE:
preliminary results from the auger-hole survey (poster)
Mike Morley, robert Carter & Christian Velde
Summary
The medieval port town of Julfār is associated with the archaeological sites of Kush, al-MaΓāf, and al-Nudūd. Although these sites
have been excavated separately, they most likely functioned as successive administrative centres serving the port, as the town and
the landscape in which it was situated evolved through time. We know that a signicant lagoon once existed in this area which was
navigable, probably via a series of deeper channels. It is possible that these waterways extended as far inland as the site of Kush,
some 3 km from the present-day coast. Changes in the coastal geomorphology, driven primarily by uctuations in relative sea level
(RSL) and sediment supply, caused the lagoon to gradually silt up, and it is speculated that this was the mechanism which triggered
the migration of the administrative hub of Julfār from Kush out to the coast.
In order to test these ideas, geoarchaeological work was carried out to ascertain the nature and depth of sediments immediately
adjacent to al-Nudūd and al-MaΓāf, as part of new archaeological investigations being carried out by Oxford Brookes University.
The results are presented here, and show that a lagoon and channel system did exist in this area for over three millennia, and these
sediments exhibit important relationships with terrestrial (dune) sands and archaeological deposits. This preliminary work forms the
pilot study for a much larger survey which would aim to delineate the full extent of the lagoon and resolve the connection with Kush.
Keywords Julfār, Kush, geoarchaeology, lagoon, RSL
Introduction
The medieval port town of Julfār, situated on the south-
eastern side of the Arabian Gulf, is associated with the
archaeological sites of Kush, al-MaΓāf, and al-Nudūd
(Kennet 1997; 2002; 2003; 2004; Sasaki & Sasaki 1992;
Velde 2009) (Fig. 1). Previous excavations indicate that
Kush was occupied from the fth century BC (or earlier)
to the thirteenth century AD, and comprised a small
fortied centre, while Julfār al-MaΓāf is a major urban site
that can be dated to the fourteenth to the late sixteenth
century AD, with a possible contraction around the end
of the fteenth century. Excavations by Oxford Brookes
University at Julfār al-Nudūd, separated from al-MaΓāf by
a silted creek but arguably part of the same urban complex,
conrm a sequence spanning the fourteenth to the late
fteenth centuries, followed by semi-abandonment and
stone robbing. Historical references to Julfār begin before
the occupation of al-MaΓāf and al-Nudūd, with al-Кabarī
(early tenth century) referring to events occurring there in
the seventh century AD (King 1994).
Although these sites have been excavated as separate
entities, Kush and Julfār (both al-Nudūd and al-Matāf)
are most likely a sequential expression of the same
administrative centre, serving not only the port, but also
the fertile arable land situated on the toe of a large gravel-
fan complex nourished by water draining from the RuΜūs
al-Jibāl. It has been speculated that the geographical
migration of the urban centre from Kush to the Julfār sites
was driven by geomorphological processes (Velde 2009).
These processes were most likely dominated by changes
in relative sea level (RSL) related to shifts in global
climate during the Holocene (e.g. Gupta, Anderson &
Overpeck 2003; Parker & Goudie 2008). Climate-driven
sea-level uctuations would have resulted in marked
changes in the coastal geomorphology of the shores of
the Arabian Gulf (Bernier et al. 1995; Lambeck 1996;
Goudie, Parker & al-Farraj 2000).
Two observations are important in this respect. First,
Kush, the earliest ‘incarnation’ of Julfār, is situated c.3
km from the coastal locations of al-MaΓāf and al-Nudūd
and second, a lagoon and network of navigable channels
once linked the area around Kush with the coast. This
lagoon, for millennia the focus of human activity in this
area, is now largely inlled with sediment, forming a
sabkha. It is likely that this process, which would have
Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies 41 (2011): 223–232
Figure 1. The location of the main area of study showing the two sand islands of al-
Nudūd and al-MaΓāf, with the channel and entrance to the former lagoon indicated by
the blue arrow. Water still drains along the route of this former channel. The blue line
represents the probable course of at least one of the now inlled channels which would
have traversed the lagoon/delta environment.
Figure 2. A satellite image of the study area showing the locations and names of the auger holes
drilled in two transects.
Mike Morley, Robert Carter & Christian Velde224
disconnected Kush from the coast, helped to trigger the
relocation of the port administration to al-MaΓāf and al-
Nudūd in the fourteenth century AD (Kennet 2002), and
ultimately the modern town of RaΜs al-Khaymah, taking
the urban core with it. Al-Idrīsī (mid-twelfth century)
speaks of a partially submerged reef or sandbar off Julfār
that laden boats could not cross and this would also have
prompted a move from Kush to al-MaΓāf and al-Nudūd
(Jaubert 1836–1840, i: 157).
Methods
Geoarchaeological auger-hole survey
In order to gain some understanding of the spatial limits
and depth of stratigraphy associated with the former lagoon
(and related channel delta), two auger-hole transects were
chosen, running both parallel to the present-day shoreline
Figure 3. Composite sections (transects) of the sub-surface sediments recorded
during the geoarchaeological auger-hole survey. Facies have been linked, where
possible, to gain an understanding of the depositional environments present at the
site through time.
Geoarchaeological investigations at the site of Julfār (al-Nudūd and al-MaΓāf) 225
(to pick up the margins of the main outow channel),
and perpendicular landwards from the high ground of al-
Nudūd (to discern the landward limits of the island and
potentially identify the ‘back-beach’ area) (Fig. 2). Auger
holes were drilled with a Cobra TT power auger tted
with 60–100 mm window-sampler cores. Where possible,
auger holes were drilled equidistant from each other.
However, the location of modern buildings and dumps
dictated the distribution to some extent. The auger holes
were drilled to a depth of between 1.5 and 3 m, which was
the limit of the machines’ capabilities given the soft and
waterlogged ground conditions. All auger-hole locations
were recorded using a Trimble 5600 robotic total station,
and these data were used to construct two transects (Fig.
3).
Geochronology
The sequence recorded in the auger holes did not contain
organic material suitable for radiocarbon dating. Instead,
shells of the marine gastropod Cerithidea cingulata
were sampled, which have been used with some success
employing the Marine09 calibration dataset (Hughen et
al. 2009), and a marine reservoir correction of ∆R180±53
(Southon et al. 2002) tested against a date from the same
context using an atmospheric carbon calibration dataset
(Magee et al. 2009). A total of four Cerithid shells were
dated using the accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS)
method and calibrated to 2 σ (95 %).
Results are presented as conventional radiocarbon
ages, with samples calibrated using the Calib calibration
program Version 6.0.1 (Stuiver & Reimer 1993). Samples
from marine contexts were calibrated using the Marine09
calibration curve (Hughen et al. 2009) and a regional
reservoir age correction (∆R) of 180 ± 53 (Southon et al.
2002). Dates obtained from samples of terrestrial material
used the IntCal09 calibration curve (Reimer et al. 2009).
Both 1 and 2 σ variations have been presented in Figure
4 but only 2 σ results (with a condence of 95.4 %) have
been used in the interpretation and discussion of the
chronology.
Cerithidea cingulata shells were treated as 100%
marine for calibration of the radiocarbon dates (Marine09;
Hughen et al. 2009). However, there is some doubt as to
whether a mixed marine-atmospheric calibration would
be more appropriate (Carter, Morley & Morse 2011)
given that the habitat of these gastropods is an inter-tidal
mudat or littoral beach environment, where they are
likely to spend high tide submerged and low tide exposed
to the sub-aerial environment (Feulner & Hornby 2006).
Results
The two auger-hole transects are shown in Figure
3. In very broad terms, the sub-surface stratigraphy
encountered relates to sedimentation in a number of
depositional environments. These sediments have been
grouped together into facies which describe similar
Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies 41 (2011)
Mike Morley, Robert Carter & Christian Velde, Geoarchaeological investigations at the
site of Julfār (al-Nudūd and al-MaΓāf), RaΜs al-Khaymah, UAE: preliminary results from
the auger-hole survey
Figure 4 [old Table 1]
Facies Characteristics Interpretation
Facies 1 Dark greenish/bluish grey (5BG 4/1) fine sands
and silts, with marked variations in grain size and
concentrations of shells
Deep-water marginal environment,
probably at lagoon edge with high and low
stands
Facies 2 Dark greenish/bluish grey (5BG 4/1) medium to
coarse sand with occasional dense shell lenses
In-channel sedimentation, deposition in
relatively deep water
Facies 3 Pale brown to brownish yellow (10YR 7/4–6/6),
well-sorted medium sand with absence of shell
fragments
In-channel sand deposition, moderate to
shallow water
Facies 4 Light yellowish brown to brownish yellow
(10YR 6/4–6/6) poorly sorted medium to coarse
sands very rich in crushed and whole shell
Beach sands
Facies 5 Yellow (10YR 5/6) to reddish yellow (7.5YR
6/6) loose, fine to medium sand with absence of
shells or shell fragments
Dune sands
Facies 6 Light reddish brown (5YR 6/4) to light brown
(7.5YR 6/4) sand and fine gravel with occasional
ceramic fragments charcoal and mud brick
Archaeological layers
Figure 4. Summary characteristics of the four facies recognized during the auger-hole survey.
Mike Morley, Robert Carter & Christian Velde226
environments of deposition. These facies are presented
in Figure 4.
The results of the radiocarbon dating are presented in
Figure 5. The radiocarbon dates from auger hole (AH)
12, to the east on the landward side of the al-Nudūd
sand island, range from 2400–1990 cal BC at the base
to 380–40 cal BC at the top, indicating that just over 1 m
of sediment was deposited in a period of around 2000
years (c.0.5 cm/yr). The date of AD 1290–1420 cal in
AH1 dates the onset of a period of higher sea level when
terrestrial dune sands were inundated by encroaching
water levels. These dates exhibit good up-prole linearity
in chronology.
Depositional environments of Julfār
(al-Nudūd)
Several insights can be gained from the results of this
geoarchaeological auger-hole survey. At the base of
the sequence, the earliest sediments of Facies 1 and 2
were deposited in a relatively deep-water, anaerobic
environment. A radiocarbon date of 2400–1990 cal BC
(Beta-293294) indicates that deep-channel environments
existed during the Bronze Age at the site. Inland, to the
east of al-Nudūd, dark-coloured ne-grained sediments
indicate deep-water, low-energy environments,
suggesting that a lagoon was present here from a very
early period. It is possible that the sand islands of al-
Nudūd and al-MaΓāf did not exist at this time given that
beach facies are seen to underlie the dune sands in AH14.
Lower beach facies (Facies 4L), observed near
the base of AH12, may equate with those seen on the
northern slopes of al-Nudūd (base of AH5 and AH6) and
the southern slopes of al-MaΓāf (base of AH4 and AH14).
These are dated to 1720–1390 cal BC (Beta-293293)
suggesting that small sand islands existed in the delta at
this time. These are likely to have been ephemeral, semi-
terrestrial in-channel bars and sand spits. If the lower
beach facies in AH12 correlate with those seen in AH14,
the radiocarbon date gives a broad indication that the
al-Nudūd and al-MaΓāf sand islands formed after 1720–
1390 cal BC, as dune sand overlies the beach sands in this
auger hole.
The early dates from the back-beach area of al-
Nudūd reveal that this locality was an active marginal
environment for over four millennia. It is likely that the
delta (and possibly a lagoon) existed here for some time
even before the rst records from Kush around the fth
century BC (Kennet 1997). These environments would
have presented very attractive areas for Bronze Age
populations living and subsisting in this coastal landscape.
Shallower channels (Facies 3) existed across much
of the site following the deposition of Facies 1, 2, and
4L, with a date of 380–40 cal BC (Beta-293292) obtained
from channel sands in AH12. These channel sediments
overlie semi-terrestrial beach sediments in a number of
auger holes (AH5, AH6, and AH12) which could be an
indication of sea-level rise causing a minor incursion of
the sand island-dominated delta, resulting in a lagoon
forming behind the newly developing dune sand islands
of al-Nudūd and al-MaΓāf.
A high-elevation exposure of Facies 3 in AH1 is of
particular interest as it marks the inundation of a terrestrial
dune surface to form a marshy area at AD 1290–1420
cal (Beta-293291), with subsequent deposition of ne
silts and clays. The laminations at the base of Facies
3, overlying this anaerobic backwater environment,
alternate between ne channel sand and ne-grained silts
Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies 41 (2011)
Mike Morley, Robert Carter & Christian Velde, Geoarchaeological investigations at the
site of Julfār (al-Nudūd and al-MaΓāf), RaΜs al-Khaymah, UAE: preliminary results from
the auger-hole survey
Figure 5 [old Table 2]
Sample number Lab code Dated material 14C age (BP) Age Cal (1 σ) Age Cal (2 σ)
ND10AH1-1.90 Beta-293291 Charred
material
600 ± 40 AD 1300–1400 AD 1290–1420
ND10AH120.50 Beta-293292 Cerithidea 2700 ± 40 340–150 BC 380–40 BC
ND10AH121.20 Beta-293293 Cerithidea 3780 ± 40 1620–1450 BC 1720–1390 BC
ND10AH121.55 Beta-293294 Cerithidea 4270 ± 40 2280–2100 BC 2400–1990 BC
Figure 5. Results of the radiocarbon dating of Cerithidea cingulata shells and charred organic material.
These dates were calibrated using the Marine09 and IntCal09 datasets, with a marine reservoir
correction of ∆R 180±53.
Geoarchaeological investigations at the site of Julfār (al-Nudūd and al-MaΓāf) 227
and clays, suggesting that this area remained marginal
and prone to cycled inundation by overbank ooding
of proximal channels, possibly relating to an increase in
sea level. The absence of laminations higher up in this
exposure of Facies 3 reveals a consistently higher water
table. If this date does relate to a rise in sea level it might be
possible to correlate this transgression with a recognized
late Holocene event, such as the Medieval Warm Period
(c.750–1300). Such a correlation is discussed in more
detail below.
The inundation of the dune surface in AH1 (situated
some 40 m down the northern slopes of al-Nudūd) seems
at odds with the beach facies recorded throughout most
of AH5 at the same elevation. It is probable that the ne-
grained sediments in AH1 are marginal channel sediments
relating to uvial activity around the periphery of the
island originating from the toe of the alluvial fan — and
the mountains beyond to the east. As such, erosional
processes occurring in this area may have scoured away
underlying sediments before the deposition of the thick
beach facies in AH5 and the thinner bed in AH1.
Upper beach facies (Facies 4U) are recorded at
higher elevations at the edges of al-MaΓāf and al-Nudūd
(AH1, AH5, AH4, and AH10) and relate to younger
Figure 6. An aerial photograph taken in 1930 looking north–north-east. In the foreground is the
lagoon which was (and still is) present in the area of modern-day RaΜs al-Khaymah City, with barastī
dwellings on the mainland and on the sand spit. This lagoon is still evident in the modern landscape,
although it is partially inlled and covered by mangroves. In the middle distance is the now almost
totally inlled lagoon which is the focus of this study, with the islands of al-Nudūd (nearest, and
marked with an arrow) and al-MaΓāf quite clearly discernable. To the upper right of the photograph
are the RuΜūs al-Jibāl; and arcing down the right hand side is the fertile crescent of palm gardens
nourished by waters draining to the toe of a gravel fan. Kush was situated on this fertile land between
the right-hand edge of the photograph and the mountains at the top (C. Velde).
Mike Morley, Robert Carter & Christian Velde228
shorelines at the margins of the islands post-dating the
earlier phase of beach-sand deposition. Facies 4U beach
sands, recorded in AH10, must be signicantly younger
as they are overlain by archaeological material likely to
date from the fourteenth century AD onwards. The beach
sands (Facies 4U) in AH1 suggest migration away from
the channel systems, which could be partly in response to
a subsequent drop in sea level, again perhaps correlating
with a known late Holocene, low-amplitude climatic
event (e.g. Little Ice Age).
Observed on the landward toe of al-Nudūd (AH10,
AH11, and AH12) were ne silts and sands thought to
relate to deep-water, low-energy deposition, most likely
in a lagoonal environment located behind the islands and
away from the main delta. The beach facies above these
lagoonal silts (AH10) could therefore reect a subsequent
lowering of sea level (or period of coastal progradation),
which ultimately liberated this part of the island for later
human activity in this back-beach area. It is possible that
anthropogenic modication of the drainage system was
responsible for these changes. The building of a town
wall and signicant ditch across the gravel fan in the
twelfth century AD or earlier (Velde 2009) most likely
had an impact on drainage patterns in this area.
Facies 5 dune sands relating to the sand islands of
al-Nudūd and al-MaΓāf were observed at the highest
elevations, often overlain by archaeological deposits of
Facies 6 (e.g. AH9 and AH14). The earliest archaeology
of Facies 6 could relate to the early fourteenth century in
terms of the likely earliest ages of al-Nudūd. However, the
chronology and the sedimentological context suggest that
al-Nudūd spread down the northern slopes (and probably
around all sides of the island) following the subsequent
regressive sea-level cycle.
The archaeological activity (Facies 6) seen at the top
of the sequence in AH1 took place on the beach at the
margins of al-Nudūd, most likely reecting the use of the
margins of the island as areas to land and moor boats.
These marginal areas could have also accommodated
small barastī (Κarīsh) structures such as storage huts,
workshops, and simple dwellings (Fig. 6). Archaeological
activity also occurred on the other side of the channel,
on the southern edge of al-MaΓāf at a much lower level,
possibly suggesting that this activity was earlier than
that seen at al-Nudūd. At the highest point of al-Nudūd,
observed in AH9, Facies 6 archaeological sediments
(including mud brick and fragments of ceramic material)
directly overlie dune sands, indicating the use of the
relatively stable interior of the island as a focus of human
activity. In AH9, following a period of human activity
on al-Nudūd, there was another phase of dune-sand
deposition punctuating the two periods of archaeological
activity.
Discussion
Sea-level change in the Arabian Gulf in response to
low-amplitude climatic events
Expressions of low-amplitude, high-frequency Late
Holocene climate events outside the North Atlantic where
they were rst recognized have been identied across the
globe (e.g. Saudi Arabia — McLaren et al. 2009; Indian
Ocean and Arabian Sea — Gupta, Anderson & Overpeck
2003; India — Kale et al. 2000; Vietnam — Li et al. 2006;
Sargasso Sea Keigwin 1996). The lag times between
global climate events and changes in regional sea-level
curves are still under some debate (Lambeck 1996;
Armitage et al. 2011), but it is likely that signicant lags
would have occurred as polar ice caps responded slowly to
subtle changes in global climate (e.g. Sierro et al. 2009).
The Medieval Warm Period (MWP; or Medieval Climatic
Optimum) and Little Ice Age (LIA) have been recorded
in northern latitudes at AD c.750–1300 and 1500–1800
respectively (Gupta, Anderson & Overpeck 2003).
The correlation of these events with climatic shifts in
Arabia is relatively well documented (e.g. Fleitman et al.
2004; Preusser et al. 2005; McLaren et al. 2009). Gupta,
Anderson and Overpeck, in their study of ocean cores
in the Arabian Sea (2003), found evidence for wetter
conditions during the MWP. Their results suggest that
subtle shifts in intensity of the Asian south-west monsoon
at this time could be linked to similar changes in the
North Atlantic. McLaren et al. (2009) correlate the MWP
with an intensication of monsoon activity in Arabia
from 700 to 1300 yr BP (AD 650–1250). This period of
relative humidity has also been recorded in the Wahiba
Sands (Ramlat al-Wahībah) (Preusser et al. 2005), and
in speleothem records from southern Oman with a wet
phase at AD 1320 and a subsequent drier phase lasting
from 1320 to 1660 (Fleitman et al. 2004).
The key point here is that while shifts in atmospheric
conditions are likely to have occurred largely in synchrony
across large areas of the globe (e.g. changes in the North
Atlantic climate linked to shifts in the Indian Ocean
monsoon cycles), there was probably a lag in sea-level
change as a response to climatic shifts as this is linked
to the expansion and contraction of polar ice masses,
primarily in the northern polar regions. During the late
Geoarchaeological investigations at the site of Julfār (al-Nudūd and al-MaΓāf) 229
Holocene, uctuations in the Greenland Ice Sheet would
have had an effect on global sea levels (Long et al. 2009).
Averaged results from Greenland ice core records for
the past 2000 years show that there have been two cold
minima thought to relate to the LIA centred on AD 1500
and 1850 and a warming on c. AD 1000 relating to the
MWP (Dahl-Jensen et al. 1998). It is reasonable to assume
that during cold minima and warm maxima there was a
concomitant expansion and contraction in the Greenland
Ice Sheet. These changes in ice mass would have direct
consequences on global sea levels, although as yet we
do not have a clear appreciation of the lag between, say,
climatic cooling and an increase in ice mass. If the date
of 1290–1420 cal BC does relate to an increase in relative
sea level then it could be that we are seeing an expression
of the MWP (centred on AD 1000) in the Arabian Gulf.
Conclusions
This geoarchaeological auger-hole survey has shown that
the environments in the area of study (the margins of
al-Nudūd and al-MaΓāf islands) have changed markedly
during a period of around 4000 years. It should be noted
that this geoarchaeological study should really serve as a
pilot to a much larger study, which would cover a much
wider area landwards towards Kush, and radiate out
from the present study area to delineate the extent of the
lagoon and delta. Until this larger study is undertaken,
this reconstruction has to remain necessarily speculative
due to the small size of the study area relative to the
likely extent of the lagoon in former times. A number of
conclusions can be drawn at this stage:
Holocene shifts in Arabian climate, which can
be linked to global climatic events recorded in
the North Atlantic, are likely to have resulted
in uctuations in relative sea level. Although
relatively minor, these transgressive and
regressive events could have resulted in marked
changes in the southern Arabian Gulf shoreline.
The observed inundation of a terrestrial dune
surface in AH1 could relate to higher sea levels
as a result of warmer conditions experienced
during the Medieval Warm Period affecting
northern polar ice masses, which also resulted in
more humid conditions in Arabia (e.g. Anderson,
Overpeck & Gupta 2002; Gupta, Anderson &
Overpeck 2003; Parker & Goudie 2008). A
broadly synchronous late Holocene high sea-
level event has been recorded in northern Bahrain
(Carter, Morley & Morse 2011).
A signicant water depth was once present to the
north and east of the sand island of al-Nudūd and
radiocarbon dates reveal that these environments
existed as far back as the Bronze Age, possibly
before the existence of al-Nudūd and al-MaΓāf
when this area of the coast was a broad, open
delta. As the islands developed sometime after
the fourteenth century BC, the edge of a lagoon
is evident on the landward side of al-Nudūd,
which is likely to have extended some way
further inland, and at its greatest extent probably
extending inland as far as the ancient settlement
of Kush.
Through the complex interaction between
changes in relative sea level, neo-tectonics, and
sediment ux to the catchment, the lagoon began
to gradually inll with sediment and shallow
channels drained the lagoon area, probably with
sizable channels still owing around the back-
beach area of al-Nudūd.
These changes in the coastal geomorphology
were driven by both anthropogenic and natural
processes; the former occurring due to irrigation
of the palm gardens of Shimāl and possibly the
building of the city wall which also acted as
a conduit for drainage water; and the latter in
response to a rise in relative sea level.
The changes in the coastal landscape around the
Julfār area would have necessitated changes in
the position of the administrative centre (the core
area of the port town), especially as the navigable
waterways in the lagoon area silted up and boats
could only travel as far as the islands of al-Nudūd
and al-MaΓāf.
Acknowledgements
The Oxford Brookes University team would especially
like to thank the Ruler of RaΜs al-Khaymah, His Highness
Shaykh Saud bin Saqr al-Qasimi, for approving the work
and providing all the necessary nancial support. Thanks
are also due to the staff of the National Museum of RaΜs
al-Khaymah, particularly Imke Moellering and Hilal
Hilal.
Mike Morley, Robert Carter & Christian Velde230
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Authors’ addresses
Mike W. Morley, Oxford Brookes Archaeology and Heritage (OBAH), Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK.
e-mail mmorley@brookes.ac.uk
Robert A. Carter, Oxford Brookes Archaeology and Heritage (OBAH), Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK.
e-mail r.carter@brookes.ac.uk
Christian Velde, Department of Antiquities and Museums, Ras al-Khaymah, United Arab Emirates.
Mike Morley, Robert Carter & Christian Velde232
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