Media multitasking among American youth: Prevalence, predictors and pairings
... Much of the previous research that considers SMN multitasking during schoolwork among undergraduate students has not focused on gender differences (Bowman et al., 2010;Junco & Cotten, 2012;Karpinski et al., 2013;Lau, 2017). Research among middle school students has shown that gender influences multitasking behavior (Foehr, 2006;Rideout et al., 2010). Rideout et al. (2010) reported that female middle school students are more likely to report multitasking than males. ...
... Rideout et al. (2010) reported that female middle school students are more likely to report multitasking than males. The same finding was obtained by Foehr (2006) in a sample of 14-to 16-year-olds. This study makes a primary contribution by investigating the gender differences in multitasking with SMNs during schoolwork among undergraduate students. ...
... However, it is possible to compare this result with studies that consider gender differences in SMN multitasking with other tasks. For example, this finding is consistent with that of Ophir et al. (2009) but contradicts other multitasking studies, such as Foehr's (2006) and Jeong and Fishbein's (2007). Foehr (2006) found that females tend to multitask with media more than males. ...
... Persp ektywa linearna jest formą symbolicz ną, związaną nierozerwalnie z pojęciem ekranu klasycz nego, cechującego kulturę wizualną nowocz esności 13 , którego skrajnym prz ykła-dem jest fresk Andrei del Pozzo umieszcz ony na sufi cie kościoła San Ignatio w Rzymie, uzależniający właściwą interpretację relacji prz est rz ennych, jakie w nim obowiązują, wyłącz nie od jednego punktu widzenia, wyznacz onego prz ez koło umieszcz one na posadzce świątyni 14 . Jest to sp osób obrazowania zakładający, że widz jest nieruchomy i bezcz ynny, cz ego wymaga post rz eganie rz ecz ywist ości oraz elementów tworz ących jej st rukturę jako st atycznych 15 . A prz ecież -jak zauważył Marshall McLuhan -"koncepcja świata jako środowiska mniej lub bardziej st ałego jest wytworem piśmienności" 16 . ...
... Nie bez znacz enia w komunikacji z odbiorcami są także pozost ałe media sp ołecz nościowe -opisywana st acja telewizyjna posiada prężnie działające kanały zarówno na Facebooku, ale także na Twitterz e i Inst agramie. Redakcja wykorz yst uje także nowe technologie, w tym wirt ualną rz ecz ywist ość, wskazując jednocz eśnie, że "VR prz enosi widza do newsa tak blisko jak nigdy wcz eśniej" 15 . ...
... Ossowska sp rowadza pojęcie norm do reguł i prz episów 15 . Wsp ółcz esna moralność jej zdaniem zost ała zdominowana prz ez dwa główne nurt y, z których pierwszy -prosp ołecz ny -odwołuje się do zasad etyki dobrego wsp ółżycia międzyludzkiego, a jego podst awę st anowią życz liwość i wzgląd na dobro drugiego cz łowieka. ...
For centuries man has been described as a thinking, social and even
symbolic being. Th e second decade of the twenty-first century is the time
when hypermediacy – that is, the ability to communicate simultaneously
in many spaces or simply in one, mixed world – has become an attribute
of man. Mixing worlds can also make it diffi cult to recognize what is still
human and what is already robotic. We are more and more oft en dealing
with the process of so-called human robotization. Th e main aim of the article
is to reflect on the infl uence of technology on human nature. Contemporary
digitalization of human relations leads to far-reaching transformations
of epistemological and even ontological nature. Who will we be (or maybe
we already are?) – as people – when our fridges, washing machines, cars
and coffee machines will remind us of cert ain activities we should do,
or which we should not forget. Are we going to use them or maybe they
will use us? Who does human being become today? Th e thoughts of science
fi ction authors become reality. Th e creators of robots st ill surprise with new
features. A man who is a hypermedia being can have difficulty in separating
human reality from media virt uality.
... Persp ektywa linearna jest formą symbolicz ną, związaną nierozerwalnie z pojęciem ekranu klasycz nego, cechującego kulturę wizualną nowocz esności 13 , którego skrajnym prz ykła-dem jest fresk Andrei del Pozzo umieszcz ony na sufi cie kościoła San Ignatio w Rzymie, uzależniający właściwą interpretację relacji prz est rz ennych, jakie w nim obowiązują, wyłącz nie od jednego punktu widzenia, wyznacz onego prz ez koło umieszcz one na posadzce świątyni 14 . Jest to sp osób obrazowania zakładający, że widz jest nieruchomy i bezcz ynny, cz ego wymaga post rz eganie rz ecz ywist ości oraz elementów tworz ących jej st rukturę jako st atycznych 15 . A prz ecież -jak zauważył Marshall McLuhan -"koncepcja świata jako środowiska mniej lub bardziej st ałego jest wytworem piśmienności" 16 . ...
... Nie bez znacz enia w komunikacji z odbiorcami są także pozost ałe media sp ołecz nościowe -opisywana st acja telewizyjna posiada prężnie działające kanały zarówno na Facebooku, ale także na Twitterz e i Inst agramie. Redakcja wykorz yst uje także nowe technologie, w tym wirt ualną rz ecz ywist ość, wskazując jednocz eśnie, że "VR prz enosi widza do newsa tak blisko jak nigdy wcz eśniej" 15 . ...
... Ossowska sp rowadza pojęcie norm do reguł i prz episów 15 . Wsp ółcz esna moralność jej zdaniem zost ała zdominowana prz ez dwa główne nurt y, z których pierwszy -prosp ołecz ny -odwołuje się do zasad etyki dobrego wsp ółżycia międzyludzkiego, a jego podst awę st anowią życz liwość i wzgląd na dobro drugiego cz łowieka. ...
Media to różnorodność. W rozmaitych publikacjach możemy przeczytać
o mediach masowych, mediach tradycyjnych, alternatywnych,
nowych, a nawet nowych nowych. Inne medialne podziały traktują środki
przekazu w kontekście sposobu przekazywania treści – media wizualne lub
audialne oraz te, które łącz ą oba te przymioty – audiowizualne. Media to
jednak nie tylko środek przekazu, a ich wpływ nie ogranicz a się jedynie do
formy. To także, a może przede wszystkim – oddziaływanie treściami i kształtowanie
jednostek oraz społeczeństw. Powszechność mediów, tempo, w jakim
są rozwijane i udoskonalane, są ważnymi argumentami do uczynienia
ich technologicznym indykatorem dla ludzkiej przestrzeni życia.
Oddajemy w Państwa ręce tom o tytule Media Varia. Jednostki – społeczeństwa – technologie, będący plonem IX i X Ogólnopolskich Konferencji
Metodologicznych Medioznawców.
... Besides, it has been found that women switched between categories more frequently than men in performing a verbal fluency task (Lanting et al., 2009;Weiss et al., 2006). Recently, studies on media-based multitasking behaviour suggested that teenage boys spent more time in playing video games than girls, but teenage girls spent more time than boys in media multitasking (Cotten et al., 2014;Foehr, 2006;Rideout et al., 2010). The media involved either do not require continuous attention (e.g., instant messaging, email, and websites) or are not very attention demanding (e.g., music). ...
... Offer and Schneider (2011) suggested that fathers' multitasking at home involved less housework and child care. Studies on media-based multitasking behaviour (Cotten et al., 2014;Foehr, 2006;Rideout et al., 2010) suggested that teenage girls spent more time on multitasking with social networking sites, music, and online reading, whereas boys spent more time on playing games. It is therefore important to examine whether gender would moderate the effect of multitasking experience on multitasking ability. ...
... surfing as primary media (Figure 2). The gender difference pattern is highly consistent with that found in previous studies (Cotten et al., 2014;Foehr, 2006;Rideout et al., 2010). ...
There is a widespread stereotype that women are better at multitasking. Previous studies examining gender difference in multitasking used either a concurrent or sequential multitasking paradigm and offered mixed results. The present study examined a possibility that men were better at concurrent multitasking while women were better at task switching. In addition, men and women were also compared in terms of multitasking experience, measured by a computer monitoring software, a self-reported Media Use Questionnaire, a lab task switching paradigm, and a self-reported Multitasking Prevalence Inventory. Results showed a smaller concurrent multitasking (dual-task) cost for men than women and no gender difference in sequential multitasking (task switching) cost. Men had more experience in multitasking involving video games while women were more experienced in multitasking involving music, instant messaging, and web surfing. The gender difference in dual-task performance, however, was not mediated by the gender differences in multitasking experience but completely explained by difference in the processing speed. The findings suggest that men have an advantage in concurrent multitasking, and that may be a result of the individual differences in cognitive abilities.
... Youths who multitask a lot perform better at multitasking or other attentional skills. (Foehr, 2006). Watson & Strayer (2010) question in their study if all these multitasking abilities have made the youth's effective multitaskers or even 'supertaskers.' ...
... Youths who multitask a lot perform better at multitasking or other attentional skills. (Foehr, 2006). On the other hand, Carr (2011) states that rapid attention shifting with devices leads to loss of attention and a poor level of processing information. ...
This paper tried to investigate the effects of multitasking on 21 st century professionals. Multitasking has been a trend for several decades now. Students and professionals are equally engaged in it. In this study, (N=40) participants in different professions, including doctors, engineers, teachers, bankers, project managers, officers in a multinational company, and the army, were chosen to participate. They were working in Bangladesh, Saudi Arabia, Australia, and the United States. A questionnaire was administered to them. Statistical analysis was applied. Based on the study results, the paper concludes with some recommendations about how 21 st century professionals can meet the challenges of multitasking.
... On the contrary, Napoli (2010) maintains that the audience, as a concept, is evolving. With the appearance of new screens, habits of television consumption have diversified and become personalized: part of the audience has migrated toward other devices that allow consumption anywhere and at any time; furthermore, multitasking with two or more screens is common, especially among young people (Foehr, 2006;Venturini, Mishra & Carlier, 2013;Flores-Ruiz & Humanes-Humanes, 2014). On the other hand, internet users find on platforms like YouTube a source of video content that is wide and diverse, both in its subjects and in its origins (Burgess & Green, 2009;Ofcom, 2014;Gauntlet, 2015). ...
... Nevertheless, these practices do not occur frequently among young people. On the other hand, as in other studies (Foehr, 2006;Venturini, Mishra & Carlier, 2013;Flores-Ruiz & Humanes-Humanes, 2014), we describe a multi-platform, multitasking television viewer whose interaction with television content on internet is not always simultaneous with the television broadcast, since the use of a second screen in front of the television set is often not related to the content offered by the latter. The message sent from the television and marketing industries is that the television experience is amplified and enriched through the social audience and the additional content that television channels offer on internet (Lee & Andrejevic, 2014). ...
This article examines the different ways of interaction that young people have with television and online video content. Inspired by Van Dijck’s argument (2009), that there is a misleading assumption to define the audience in terms of passive recipients related to old media (e.g. television) and active participants who are internet users, the aim of this study is, firstly, to analyze if there are differences related to the type of medium; and, secondly, to examine if it is possible to develop an audience interaction typology in relation to television and to video content. The study presents the most significant statistical results of a survey of 475 students conducted at Mondragon University. After carrying out a factorial analysis, two multiple generalized linear regressions and a cluster analysis, our results show that it is statistically impossible to describe the audience’s attitude as a dichotomy between passive television viewers and active internet users. Likewise, it is not possible to develop an audience interaction typology in relation to television and to video content. The results rather show a multifarious profile of activity patterns related to specific contents and interactive practices on the Web. This study illustrates the complexity of content, context and audience practices in the new media environment.
... The Internet and media use have significantly changed the way people, including adolescents, live (Lu et al., 2019;Luo et al., 2020a;Rideout, 2015) and can sometimes lead to addiction (Chen et al., 2019). One example of media use is media multitasking, which refers to the concurrent engagement in multiple media activities or frequent change from one media activity to another (Foehr, 2006;Ophir et al., 2009). Media multitasking can also refer to media to non-media transition (Lim and Shim, 2016;Parry et al., 2020;Zhang and Zhang, 2012). ...
... The current definition of media multitasking generally includes the first two subcategories. That is, media multitasking refers to users engaging in different activities at the same time or frequently changing from one media activity to the other, which contain at least one media (Foehr, 2006;Lim and Shim, 2016;Ophir et al., 2009;Parry et al., 2020;Zhang and Zhang, 2012). ...
Purpose
The longitudinal impact of media multitasking on the development of executive function has been understudied, as most of the existing studies are cross-sectional. This longitudinal study addresses this research gap and uses multiple measures, i.e. behavioral and self-reported, to explore the impact of media multitasking on the executive function of Chinese adolescents.
Design/methodology/approach
This study followed 99 Chinese adolescents (M age = 14.41, SD = 1.10; 42 boys and 57 girls) for one year using both behavioral (2-back, Stroop Color and Number-letter tasks) and self-reported (questionnaire) measures. The adolescents were categorized as either heavy/high media multitaskers (HMMs; 19 boys and 29 girls) or light/low media multitaskers (LMMs; 23 boys and 28 girls). They were tested at baseline, 6 months later and 12 months later.
Findings
The results indicated that the accuracy scores for all cognitive tasks differed with age, but the switch-cost in the shifting task and the self-reported measures of executive function did not. And there were consistent differences between the HMMs and LMMs in the self-reported measures and 2-back accuracy. However, the interaction effect was found only in shifting ability, indicating a decline in the LMMs' self-reported problematic shifting behavior in daily life.
Originality/value
This study used behavioral and self-reported measures to confirm the longitudinal impact of media multitasking on executive function. The impact of media multitasking on executive function is more apparent in daily-life behavior than in cognitive task performance.
... Media multitasking, an increasingly prevalent phenomenon among adolescents, has attracted growing research interest from cognitive scientists (Foehr, 2006;Ophir et al., 2009;Wallis, 2010). Many scholars have sought to understand the negative impact of media multitasking on cognitive functioning by comparing heavy/high media multitaskers (HMMs, i.e., mean + 1 standard deviation [SD] or upper quartiles) and light/low media multitaskers (LMMs, i.e., mean -1 SD or lower quartiles; e.g., Ophir et al., 2009;Sanbonmatsu et al., 2013). ...
... Media multitasking refers to the simultaneous engagement in multiple media tasks (Foehr, 2006;Ophir et al., 2009;Wallis, 2010) and has been explored with various cognitive approaches. Some studies using conventional approaches such as self-reports have found that media multitasking is associated with low self-control and poor executive function (Luo & Liang, 2018;Magen, 2017;Sanbonmatsu et al., 2013;Shin et al., 2019). ...
This study examined the association between media multitasking and executive function in Chinese adolescents by comparing heavy/high and light/low media multitaskers, i.e., HMMs and LMMs, with self-reports, behavioral measures and functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). The participants were 12 HMMs (media multitasking scores above the 75th percentile) and 10 LMMs (media multitasking scores below the 25th percentile) chosen from a sample of 61 adolescents. Each participant completed a self-reported questionnaire on executive function and three executive function cognitive tasks: 2-back, Color Stroop, and Number-letter Determination) while wearing the fNIRS. The results indicated that: (1) the HMMs showed more impairment in executive function than the LMMs based on questionnaire data analysis; (2) there were no significant differences between the HMMs and LMMs in their performance on the cognitive tasks; and (3) the HMMs showed greater prefrontal activation than the LMMs during the 2-back and Color Stroop tasks. These findings implied that media multitasking might be associated with the reduced effectiveness in the brain areas responsible for executive function. These findings provide evidence of the negative relationship between media multitasking and executive function; and indicated the benefits of using multiple assessment methods in studying this topic.
... En la actualidad, este ámbito de estudio suscita especial interés debido principalmente a dos cuestiones relacionadas entre sí: la utilización cada vez mayor de encuestas online y el uso cada vez más extendido de dispositivos electrónicos, como los smartphones o las tabletas, para participar en ellas . En este sentido, investigaciones recientes han señalado la elevada frecuencia con la que las personas compatibilizan el uso de dispositivos electrónicos (por ejemplo, combinan el uso de teléfonos móviles con el visionado de televisión) y/o los compaginan con otras tareas (por ejemplo, simultaneando el uso de dispositivos móviles con tareas domésticas, con beber o comer, etc.) (Caparrós, 2014;Díaz de Rada, 2012;Díaz de Rada et al., 2019;Foehr, 2006;Jeong y Fishbein, 2007). Esto es consecuencia de la gran portabilidad de ciertos dispositivos y su aptitud para desarrollar múltiples tareas, lo que facilita su uso simultáneo. ...
... Currently, this area of study is of special interest primarily due to two related issues: the increasing use of online surveys and the use of electronic devices such as smartphones and tablets to participate in them . In this regard, recent research has pointed out the high frequency with which people make use of multiple electronic devices (for example, combining the use of cell phones with watching television) and/or combine their use with other tasks (for example, using mobile devices while carrying out domestic chores, with drinking or eating, etc.) (Caparrós, 2014;Díaz de Rada, 2012;Díaz de Rada et al., 2019;Foehr, 2006;Jeong and Fishbein, 2007). This is a consequence of the level of portability of certain devices and their aptitude in multitasking, facilitating their simultaneous use. ...
Recent studies show the high prevalence of respondents who perform other activities while responding questionnaires. Due to the scarcity of studies and the possible impact of multitasking on the quality of data, this paper analyses the percentage of respondents who multitask, and examines the most frequent secondary activities engaged in during an online survey conducted with panelists in Spain (N = 1,007). It also analyses a series of variables that are associated with different forms of multitasking and examines the effects of this on the quality of the data. The findings showed a high prevalence of multitaskers (39.7%). In addition, it was found that the profile of the participants varied according to the type of activity they carried out. The effect of multitasking on the quality of the data was limited.
... Electronic media use has become the most popular leisure-time activity for children and adolescents (7)(8)(9)(10)(11)(12)(13)(14)(15)(16)(17)(18) year olds) [1]. Electronic media use includes screen-based activities such as computer and smart phone use, electronic video games and television viewing. ...
... It may displace other activities, such as physical activity, sleep or homework, [13,14] all of which have been positively associated with academic performance [15][16][17]. Electronic media use has the potential to diminish concentration [18] and children and adolescents may be particularly susceptible to what they see on screen, which in turn may influence their beliefs and behaviours [19]. Excessive media use may even affect brain structure and function including reward processing, as shown in imaging studies with children and adolescents from 5 to 18 years of age [20][21][22][23]. ...
Introduction:
The effects of electronic media use on health has received much attention but less is known about links with academic performance. This study prospectively examines the effect of media use on academic performance in late childhood.
Materials and methods:
1239 8- to 9-year-olds and their parents were recruited to take part in a prospective, longitudinal study. Academic performance was measured on a national achievement test at baseline and 10-11 years of age. Parents reported on their child's duration of electronic media use.
Results:
After control for baseline reading, watching more than two hours of television per day at 8-9 years of age predicted a 12-point lower performance in reading at 10-11 years, equivalent to the loss of a third of a year in learning. Using a computer for more than one hour a day predicted a similar 12-point lower numeracy performance. Regarding cross-sectional associations (presumed to capture short-term effects) of media use on numeracy, after controlling for prior media exposure, watching more than two hours of television per day at 10-11 years was concurrently associated with a 12-point lower numeracy score and using a computer for more than one hour per day with a 13-point lower numeracy performance. There was little evidence for concurrent effects on reading. There was no evidence of short- or long-term associations between videogame use and academic performance.
Discussion:
Cumulative television use is associated with poor reading and cumulative computer use with poorer numeracy. Beyond any links between heavy media use and health risks such as obesity, physical activity and mental health, these findings raise a possibility of additional risks of both television and computer use for learning in mid-childhood. These findings carry implications for parents, teachers and clinicians to consider the type and timing of media exposure in developing media plans for children.
... • Establishing one's intentions • Identifying importance or salience of the content • Gathering sufficient evidence based on disciplinary or domain standards • Engaging in critical or reflective analysis • Judging the veracity or credibility of the information read or heard Wickelgren (1977) argues students who process faster when online than in print, they assume that they have performed better, without recognizing that the increased speed can contribute to decreased accuracy. Foehr (2006) argues learners in a digital world spend countless hours online-they know no other existence. Ackerman and Goldsmith (2011); Singer and Alexander (2017) argue student preference to study digitally as opposed to print, and their performance is better when reading online than offline. ...
... James (1890), Ebbinghaus (1913), Wickelgren (1977), Budson et. al (2001), Foehr (2006) , Kulikowich and Alexander (2010), Ackerman and Goldsmith (2011); and Singer and Alexander (2017) have provided an insightful understanding about the 'context of learning' and how technology may mirror clinical and academic framework perspectives into the future. The accessibility of the Internet to deliver instant information to meet the needs of learners interested in multiple educational disciplines, also allows multiple contexts. ...
A ‘dichotomy of need’ occurs when a learner intrinsically develops a perception while using a 1:1 mobile device, that it is an allowable non-linear learning tool to demonstrate learning and assessment outcomes. This research study explores the literature and presents an analysis of study results to discuss the significance of this observation for the purpose of assisting curriculum designers to achieve student learning and assessment outcomes when integrating 1:1 mobile devices for learning. Linear curriculum design is traditional sequenced lessons designed to build knowledge for future assessment and accreditation. Non-linear curriculum design is the inclusion of knowledge sourced externally using a 1:1 mobile device for assessment and feedback. Linear curriculum design culture excluding non-linear knowledge is becoming contrary to the way students are learning and wanting to be assessed. The Internet and its online virtual collaborative communities, accessible via 1:1 mobile devices, now allows students to share and access knowledge to exert a position of power; challenging and testing the legitimacy of the presented curriculum design. The question then arises, “How can a linear curriculum design integrate and facilitate self-directed learning and acknowledge the ‘dichotomy of need’
occurring within a non-linear virtual environment? How can information management and knowledge building using 1:1 mobile devices be used to achieve measured learning and assessment outcomes? Included in this research study are results and discussion from a qualitative and quantitative sample that may provide further insight and guidance about how to balance the integration of 1:1 mobile devices when designing curriculum outcomes for learning and assessment.
... Waist-to-height ratio Short questions adapted from the New South Wales Population Health Survey [48] Adherence to dietary guidelines ACAES b Survey [49] Diet quality, food choices and food patterns Validated short physical activity question and study-specific sports participation questions [50] Physical activity Modified ASAQ c [51][52][53] Sedentary activity Actigraph GT3X+ activity monitors worn for seven days [54,55] Objective physical activity PSQI d -Short [56,57] Sleep quality PedsQL e Version 4.0 Generic Core Scales questionnaire [58] Quality of life Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale [58] Self-esteem Short questions adapted from the Project Eat Survey II [59] Self-efficacy Short questions adapted the social support and eating habits survey [60] and Social Support Scale for Physical Activity [61] Social support EDE-Q f [62] Eating disorders The following questionnaire-based assessments have demonstrated validity and reliability in adolescent populations and will be completed online at the in-person follow-up assessment. Diet quality, food choices, and food patterns will be measured using the Australian Child and Adolescent Eating Survey (ACAES) [49], and adherence to dietary guidelines will be measured using short questions adapted from the North-South Wales Population Health Survey [48]. ...
... Diet quality, food choices, and food patterns will be measured using the Australian Child and Adolescent Eating Survey (ACAES) [49], and adherence to dietary guidelines will be measured using short questions adapted from the North-South Wales Population Health Survey [48]. Physical activity and sedentary behaviors will be measured using a validated short physical activity question, study-specific sports participation questions [50], and a modified version of the Adolescent Sedentary Activity Questionnaire (ASAQ) [51][52][53]. For data quality, physical activity and sedentary behaviors will also be objectively assessed in a random 20% (30/150) subsample of participants using Actigraph GT3X+ activity monitors worn for seven days [54,55]. ...
Background
Obesity is among the most significant health challenges facing today’s adolescents. Weight gain during adolescence is related to cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, and some cancers in later life. Presently, adolescents living in Australia have limited access to age-appropriate obesity prevention services.
Objective
This study aims to investigate whether a two-way text message program, with optional telephone health counseling, improves body mass index (BMI) z score and lifestyle outcomes in adolescents who are overweight.
Methods
This study will be a single-blind randomized controlled trial (N=150) comparing a two-way text message intervention, with optional telephone health counseling, to usual care in adolescents (13-18 years old, inclusive) who are overweight (recruited from a pediatric weight management clinic and the broader community in Sydney, Australia). The intervention group will receive a six-month text message program, which consists of two-way, semipersonalized, lifestyle-focused text messages (four messages/week) in addition to usual care. The control group will be assigned to receive usual care. The study also includes a follow-up at 12-months. The primary outcome is a change in BMI z score at six months. Secondary outcomes are changes in waist-to-height ratio, diet, physical and sedentary activity levels, sleep quality, quality of life, self-esteem, self-efficacy, social support, and eating disorder and depression symptoms. Also, we will examine acceptability, utility, and engagement with the program through a study-specific process evaluation questionnaire, semi-structured telephone interviews, and an analysis of health counselor communication logs. The analyses will be performed by the intention-to-treat principle to assess differences between intervention and control groups.
Results
The study opened for recruitment in December 2019. Data collection is expected to be completed by December 2021, and the results for the primary outcome are expected to be published in early 2022.
Conclusions
This study will test the effectiveness of an interactive two-way text message program compared to usual care in improving BMI z score and lifestyle outcomes in adolescents with overweight. This interactive, innovative, and scalable project also aims to inform future practice and community initiatives to promote obesity prevention behaviors for adolescents.
Trial Registration
Australia New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (ANZCTR) ACTRN12619000389101; https://www.anzctr.org.au/Trial/Registration/TrialReview.aspx?id=377158&isReview=true
International Registered Report Identifier (IRRID)
DERR1-10.2196/16481
... Although media/ICT multitasking behaviors have been widely studied in populations of young adults and children (e.g., Foehr, 2006;Kononova, 2013;Kononova et al., 2014;Rideout, Foehr, & Roberts, 2010), few scholars have analyzed media multitasking habits across multiple age groups and generations (e.g., Carrier, Cheever, Rosen, Benitez, & Chang, 2009;Voorveld & van der Goot, 2013) and none-to our knowledge-has focused specifically on adults aged 65 and older. We know little about how multitasking with media/ICTs, which often increases cognitive demands, is integrated in daily routines of older adults whose cognitive ability starts to deteriorate (e.g., Buckner, 2004). ...
... Some participants explained that the habit to multitask depended on personality, gender, and age. Although numerous studies have explored relationships between these factors and multitasking behavior, these previous studies mostly focused on younger adults and general populations (e.g., Foehr, 2006;Kononova, 2013). Additional research should be done with samples of older adults, particularly, diverse samples of older adults, who may be more likely to use media/ICTs in different ways than did the participants in this study, all of whom were white. ...
Background and Objectives
The study’s objective was to explore older adults’ (aged 65 or older) descriptions of behavior related to multitasking with traditional and newer media/information and communication technologies (ICTs) and perceived benefits of such behavior, along with older adults’ preference for research methods used to study their multitasking behaviors. Employing common media-use measures that heavily rely on self-reporting in populations of older adults is challenging, especially given that patterns of media/ICT use are becoming increasingly complex. Cumulatively, people spend more time using media than they are aware of because of the tendency to use some forms of media simultaneously. As cognitive ability deteriorates with age, self-reported recollection of complex patterns of media/ICT use, such as multitasking, among older adults increases the threat to data accuracy.
Research Design and Methods: Twenty-eight community-dwelling older adults in a Midwestern U.S. state participated in in-depth interviews (average length was 40 minutes) to discuss their use of traditional and newer media/technologies in combination with other activities and outline methods researchers should use to study such behaviors.
Results
Participants reported they engaged in multitasking behaviors similar to those of younger generations, with the difference in the higher extent of using traditional media and ICTs. They talked about multitasking with radio and television for “background noise” as being a rewarding experience. They perceived the effects of multitasking to be detrimental to attention and performance and attributed this media-use habit to individual psychological and demographic differences. They preferred ethnographic observation and keeping a paper-and-pencil diary as research methods to study multitasking among their peers. Data-logging methods were less popular because they raised privacy concerns among interviewees.
Discussion and Implications
Different types of traditional and newer media and technologies could be used differently in situations that require older adults to focus, relax, or be efficient. The findings suggest that future researchers strive for a compromise between data access and data accuracy when they select a research method to study media use among older adults.
... The nature of tasks and the speed of task switching has led researchers to generate different classifications pertaining to multitasking. For instance, Foehr (2006) proposed four classifications based on the timing of switches. Simultaneous switch requires individuals to perceive different media through different sensory channels; interrupted switch involves sudden and interrupting stimuli that occur during the execution of the primary task; proactive switch involves conscious switches between media; and combination switch involves the occurrence of two or more of these together. ...
... Simultaneous switch requires individuals to perceive different media through different sensory channels; interrupted switch involves sudden and interrupting stimuli that occur during the execution of the primary task; proactive switch involves conscious switches between media; and combination switch involves the occurrence of two or more of these together. Foehr's (2006) classification further differentiates between the duration of switches: Temporary switch involves a short switch to a secondary task (e.g. studying, texting and returning to studying); dual switch involves switches between two equally important tasks, without prioritizing either; and media monitoring involves checking different media sources simultaneously without expecting interruption or interference. ...
Multitasking refers to the simultaneous execution of two or more tasks. Perceived multitasking superiority of the digital natives and gifted students in the popular education literature need to be investigated with robust studies. In this regard, the effect of different multitasking scenarios on multimedia learning was investigated with 93 gifted and 121 non-gifted middle school students. The respondents were assigned randomly to three different scenarios: Monotasking (i.e. watching an instructional video without interruption), concurrent multitasking (i.e. texting during an instructional video) and sequential multitasking (i.e. watching instructional and distractive videos successively). In addition to content learning, the students’ scores on topic interest, daily multitasking habits, subjective cognitive load and working memory capacity were considered. Working memory capacity correlated positively with learning outcomes. After it was included as a covariate, the results of a two-way between-groups ANCOVA revealed that multitasking conditions interfered with learning. Gifted students were consistently more successful than non-gifted students, but suffered during concurrent multitasking. Therefore, organizing instructional interventions according to an empirically questionable multitasking superiority seems problematic.
... The net plays a central role in their multitasking, acting as the hub media that they focus upon most. In effect, there is, recently, an increase in media multitasking (Foehr, 2006:23, Yahoo & Carat Interactive, 2003 Yet, understanding the role of media in young people's lives is essential for those concerned about promoting the healthy development of children and adolescents, including parents, pediatricians, policy makers, children's advocates, educators and public health group. While the 2010 Kaiser Family Foundation study attempts to estimate the percentage of media time spent by young people in media multitasking, such researches, however, were conducted in the industrialized country of America with its highly developed and localized ICT infrastructure. ...
... The focus of this study is on media multitasking as one of the new media use behaviours that developed over the recent years. While the existing literature about media multitasking has predominantly covered western audiences (Carrier et al., 2009;Foehr, 2006;Jeong & Fishbein, 2007;Ophir, Nass & Wagner, 2009;Roberts, Foehr & Rideout, 2010), the primary goal of this study is to explore whether media multitasking has become an international media use trend. And so, as the need to understand young people's media behaviour mounts, even locally, among advertisers, marketers, educators and policy makers, it becomes necessary to ascertain the pattern of media multitasking among the youths in Nigeria. ...
The concept of media multitasking has been highly valued and investigated in recent times. Because of its perceived importance to consumer bahaviour, there is intense interest in understanding how individuals, especially the youth, navigate this simultaneous multiple media use situation, which emerged as a result of today’s complex and highly mediated environment. This paper explored the pattern of media multitasking among the students in Nigerian universities; which kinds of communication media the students use most; what media multitasking pattern is the most common and what factors are responsible for media multitasking among the students. Anchored on Uses and Gratification theory, the survey method was used to get analyzable response from Nigerian university students. The findings show that while majority of the students in Nigerian universities engage in media multitasking as regular media use behaviour, aural and audiovisual media combinations constitute the most common media multitasking pattern among the students. The results also indicate that, while some personal and situational factors such as “the nature of tasks” and “availability of different media channels” predominantly drive and foster media multitasking, its major negative result is lack of attention on the part of the consumers. The paper recommends that, in order to control media multitasking and gain consumers’ attention, media contents should be organized to create synergies, instead of competing for attention.
... Istovremena upotreba više različitih medija igra veliku ulogu u mentalnim procesima ljudi i dece kao što su pažnja i kognitivna kontrola sopstvenih misli. (Foehr, 2006) Naučnici Univeziteta Stanford su izveli niz kognitivnih testova sa osoboma koje su definisane kao multitaskeri i drugom grupom ljudi koji istovremeno ne koriste ili retko koriste više od jednog medija istovremeno. Došli su do zaključka da multitaskeri teže i sporije izvode različite zadatke i da pri tom slabije filtriraju nebitne nadražaje. ...
... Prior research has shown that the differences in Internet use by gender have all but disappeared (Ono & Zavodny, 2003;Wasserman & Richmond-Abbott, 2005) (even though there are differences in specifics (Foehr, 2006;Hargittai & Shafer, 2006;). Hence, we expect that there will be no differences in the use of professional and social-oriented sites based on gender. ...
... Researches show that multitasking has been embraced by teenagers as a way of life. Many teenagers send text messages throughout the day while being simultaneously engaged in school and social activities, combining television viewing (28%) and listening to music (63%) are the most common practices conducted while using the internet (Foehr, 2006). ...
The objective was to understand the performance differences of heavy and light media multitaskers. Further, the differences across media multitasking groups when the subjects are performing a cognitive task in the presence of music were studied to understand the role of music in cognitive performance in terms of cognitive control. A sample of 300 girl students from the Government schools of Chandigarh in the age range of 14-18 years (mean age= 15.7 years) was taken for the purpose. The media multitasking questionnaire (Ophir et al., 2009) and the Stroop task (Stroop, 1935) were used. The two media multitasking groups, viz., heavy and light media multitaskers, significantly differed from each other. Media multitasking and cognitive control were found to be linked and the role of music indicated facilitating trend for performance. Studies conclude high levels of media multitasking result in poor cognitive performance in terms of cognitive control and music plays a facilitative role for such media multitasker’s cognitive control.
... Penting yang harus kita ketahui bersama bahwa dalam mengamati efek negatif dari penggunaan telepon di kalangan anak muda saat ini sangat beragam. Saat ini generasi muda telah tumbuh dengan teknologi seluler, beberapa telah dibesarkan dengan keberhasilannya bahwa orang-orang muda sekarang ini mungkin relatif mahir dan multi-tasking dalam konteks dunia nyata (Dwyer et al., 2018;Foehr, 2006). ...
The use of smartphones causes several changes in the behavior of a person who tends to be complacent with his world without caring about society. Smartphones can have a positive or negative impact depending on their use. This study aims to determine whether there is an influence of smartphone communication technology on social interaction. The research method used quantitative methods, the population was carried out at PT Paragon Technology and Innovation with a sample of 150. The results showed that there was an influence in it, that smartphone communication technology has links with users related to the process of social interaction, this can be proven by how someone uses communication tools in everyday life. The social interaction built by employees within the company seems to be very good, this is evidenced by the hypothesis obtained from data processing that smartphone communication technology in every interaction with colleagues has no effect. The interaction process will run well if it is done with face-to-face communication, without any interference from the communication tool, namely smartphones.
... uch of the multitasking which young people indulge in often revolves around media use and it has become a focus of concern (Foehr, 2006) for numerous reasons. Media multitasking i.e. engaging in more than one media activity at a time *Professor, Department of Psychology, Panjab University, Chandigarh. ...
A professionally committed teacher educator should possess all the attributes of a professional teacher. As a profession, teaching has been considered as the noblest profession from times immemorial. In this regard the National Policy on Education (1986) has also observed that the status of the teacher reflects the socio cultural ethos of a society. Besides, Kothari Commission (1964-1966) has put forth that of all the different factors which influences the quality, competence and character of teacher are undoubtly, the most significant. This study examined factors promoting teacher effectiveness like professional commitment, punctuality, job satisfaction, attitude towards teaching , appropriate training and good learning environment . The sample for the study consists of 800 secondary school teachers which were collected by random sampling. Professional commitment scale developed by Ravinder Kaur and Sarbjit Kaur was used and Teacher Effectiveness scale developed by Umme Kulsum. The results of the study showed that the effective secondary school teachers have more professional commitment towards their teaching profession. The results also revealed that effective teachers are more committed to their jobs and also show positive commitment both towards students as well as progressive betterment of society. Key Words: Teacher Effectiveness; Profess
... Hence there was an increasing amount of general multitasking of media and resources in successively younger generations.As a result, younger generations have become more adept at multitasking media and resources in general [25]. Compared to other age groups, teenagers and young adults are most confident in their multitasking ability and have the best task performance on dual visual and audio tasks [9,26]. ...
As media usage continues to increase on a global scale, fueled by the proliferation of mobile devices, this facilitates the effortless behavior of mediamultitasking. This paradigm shift in the way in which media is consumed presents fundamental challenges for the domains of Human-Computer Interaction (HCI), education, psychology, and commerce. This technological shift introduces a new dimension that is needed when attempting to understand user interaction related to both the devices themselves andthe digital platforms accessed. This study begins a process of developing an understanding of cross-cultural media multitasking habits through a survey of a large group of experimental participants. In this study, participants from two different countries were surveyed. The countries used in this study were the USA and Portugal. This research provides valuable insights into theincreasingly common phenomenon of media multitasking and the similarities and differences between cultures when users are engaging in this activity. This study contributes to previous research in the realm of media multitasking by expanding on foundational knowledge on a global scale setting the stage for more detailed research on predictors, outcomes, and habits of global media multitasking.
... The adverse effect of smartphone multitasking on academic performance may be explained by the cognitive overload concept [35] whereby non-academic multitasking in learning contexts aggravates the problem [36] but does not reduce the cognitive load [35]. Another possible explanation is that smartphone multitasking while studying inhibits metacognition and self-regulation and hinders the implementation of an appropriate learning strategy [37], which is essential to learning in general and to distinctive academic performance in particular [38]. ...
Background: Technology has advanced significantly within the past decade and along with that has come the ability to use a variety of devices for academic purposes. While this can make accessing information much easier and allow for new organizational methods, it can also provide the opportunity for more distractions. Sleep is fundamental to optimal functioning including health and behaviour. This paper describes the interrelations between screen use, sleep and academic performance. The purpose of this study was to explore technology use and its impact on sleep and academics in physiotherapy students in This novel pandemic lockdown and how the increased screen media usage and the uncertainty of the situation has an impact on their academic performance. We examined how this distraction potential can play a role in studying experiences and academic performance. A representative sample of 150 Physiotherapy students were surveyed to quantify technology use, sleep pattern, mental health and academic performance. Results: 73.3% of the population agreed that screen time did affect their sleeping pattern in the lockdown, 84.7% of the students conveyed that they could not perform study related activities optimally as per their academic capacity. 56.7% of the population also agreed that excessive screen time hindered their ability to perform academically well. Conclusion: This study provides preliminary insights into excessive screen time and its association with academic performance in Physiotherapy students.
... The adverse effect of smartphone multitasking on academic performance may be explained by the cognitive overload concept [35] whereby non-academic multitasking in learning contexts aggravates the problem [36] but does not reduce the cognitive load [35]. Another possible explanation is that smartphone multitasking while studying inhibits metacognition and self-regulation and hinders the implementation of an appropriate learning strategy [37], which is essential to learning in general and to distinctive academic performance in particular [38]. ...
UNSTRUCTURED
Technology has advanced significantly within the past decade and along with that has come the ability to use a variety of devices for academic purposes. While this can make accessing information much easier and allow for new organizational methods, it can also provide the opportunity for more distractions. Sleep is fundamental to optimal functioning including health and behavior. This paper describes the interrelations between screen use, sleep and academic performance. The purpose of this study was to explore technology use and its impact on sleep and academics in physiotherapy students in this pandemic lockdown.How the increased screen media usage and the uncertainty of the situation has an impact on their academic performance.We examined how this distraction potential can play a role in studying experiences and academic performance. A representative sample of 150 Physiotherapy students were surveyed to quantify technology use, sleep pattern, mental health and academic performance. 73.3% of the population agreed that screen time did affect their sleeping pattern in the lockdown , 84.7% of the students conveyed that they could not perform study related activities optimally as per their academic capacity. 56.7% of the population also agreed that excessive screen time hindered their ability to perform academically well.
... Multitasking is a ubiquitous phenomenon; studies have shown that up to 95 percent of the population reports multitasking each day and that large amounts of multitasking are occurring across all generations of persons (Carrier, Cheever, Rosen, Benitez, & Chang, 2009;Kenyon, 2008;Salvucci & Taatgen, 2008). Especially students are multitasking frequently (Foehr, 2006;Jeong & Fishbein, 2007). ...
The advent of podcasting offers opportunities for students to learn while performing another activity. While podcasting is advocated by many as helping to learn anywhere and anytime, research indicates that it is not so easy for people to do two things at the same time. Two experiments were set up to examine the effect of performing a secondary task while learning with an iPod. In the experimental groups, the participants had to combine a learning task (listening to an educational podcast) with a secondary task (walking or jogging). The control group only had to perform a learning task. Afterwards, all the participants had to complete a learning test. In the first study, there were no significant differences between the learning performances of students of the different conditions. In the second study, the students who were sitting down outperformed the students who were moving while studying.
... Some STs suggest they listen to music/watch TV on the background or use social media while studying which particularly one participating teacher educator finds inimical to effective learning (p.170). However, as Foehr (2006) suggests it is useful to keep in mind young people are good at multitasking and use of media is popular while doing homework. ...
Learner autonomy has been a popular topic of discussion and research with its potential to help learners manage their learning through taking charge of the process. It has also long been debated that teacher support for learner autonomy is a predictor of increased autonomous behaviours learners display in their learning. This study examines the perceptions of teacher educators about their conceptualisations of and support for autonomy, and the perceptions of student teachers about their conceptualisations of and practice of autonomy in their actual learning process. The study also looks at the factors that influence both teacher support and students’ development and implementation of autonomy. This study was carried out in the Faculty of Education in a university in North Cyprus. The research design utilised case study within a qualitative paradigm with semi-structured interviews and student/teacher diaries as the data collection methods to explore autonomy support and practice in a natural setting with in-depth data. Content analysis was used for the analysis of the data. Data from 15 teacher educators and 27 student teachers indicate that teacher educators support and student teachers practise learner autonomy in relation to five main categories: Metacognition, an Atmosphere Conducive to Learner Autonomy, Learner Training, Interdependence and Affect. According to both teacher educators and student teachers, there are serious barriers that hinder teacher educators’ support and inhibit student teachers’ practice. Conceptualisations and background of teachers and learners regarding autonomy, education system and teacher autonomy were reported to be the main barriers.
... In der heutigen Gesellschaft ist das Verhalten des Multitasking, besonders unter jungen Menschen, weit verbreitet (Foehr, 2006). Ein Grund dafür besteht darin, dass Zeit für viele als knappe und wertvolle Ressource gilt, weshalb es häufig das Bestreben einer effizienten Zeitnutzung gibt. ...
The study investigates the influence of smartphone use on everyday academic life. In particular, the ability to concentrate and the procrastination behavior of students are examined in more detail.
The psychological discomfort caused by distraction is investigated using the theory of cognitive dissonance. A quantitative online survey of students (n=304) at the Technical University was carried out for this purpose. The smartphone is used by more than 50 percent of the respondents in an excessive manner for private purposes. Addiction tendencies of the smartphone could also be proven within the study. This distraction potential of the smartphone is directly related to increased concentration problems, procrastination behavior and poorer performance during studies. Only a high level of self-control was shown to have an inhibitory effect on the negative effects of the smartphone. Dealing with mental discomfort usually leads to a change in behavior and thus interrupts the disruption of work, but here too an influence was found on the part of smartphone use that favors the opposite approach. The study offers indications for continuing to deal with the topic in a differentiated way and points to further possibilities for future research.
... Most typically, it is a multi-mediated experience punctuated with various forms of multitasking. Foehr (2006) writes that "the computer is the most multitasked medium because it offers many opportunities for media multitasking, both within itself as well as across other platforms" (p. 25). ...
The Digital Age is an unchartered sea abundant with astonishing possibilities but laden with a mine field of alarming risks and disturbing consequences. Children, natives in this unprecedented media environment, have fewer and fewer opportunities to absorb the humanizing benefits of interpersonal face-to-face communication and the wonders of a deep and lasting love of literacy. Rather than call for the elimination of digital media, we outline practical ways in which the arts—most especially drama—and creative forms of play can be used as pedagogical instruments that help re-establish a much needed balance in the education and socialization of children.
... The problem associated with distractions and multitasking is that they potentially affect the four stages of the cognitive response process; i.e., comprehension, retrieval, judgment, and response (Tourangeau, Rips, & Rasinski, 2000). Although research indicates that people are generally able to conduct several tasks at the same time, the quality of their performance depends on the combination of the tasks (see Adler & Benbunan-Fich, 2012;Carrier, Cheever, Rosen, Benitez, & Chang, 2009;Foehr, 2006;Jeong & Fishbein, 2007;Salvucci & Taatgen, 2011;Spink, Cole, & Waller, 2008). Research suggests that it may be more demanding to carry out two tasks that draw on similar mental resources than it is to carry out two tasks that draw on different mental resources (Salvucci & Taatgen, 2011). ...
The use of web surveys is a common and popular data collection method in behavioral and social research. Compared to other established survey modes, web surveys are frequently cheaper and less time consuming, because they are commonly self-administered. They also allow respondents to take part with few time and location restrictions. However, research has shown that web surveys are frequently associated with multitasking, which may negatively affect response behavior and response quality. In this study, we use paradata detecting switching away from the web survey to explore on-device media multitasking. We conducted a web survey in an opt-in access panel in Germany and randomly assigned respondents to a PC or smartphone condition. The results reveal that on-device media multitasking is more common on PCs than on smartphones. We also find evidence that engaging in on-device media multitasking affects response quality. Respondents who switch away are more likely to select the middle response category. In addition, the results show that the question presentation format, the device type, and respondents’ age and education are associated with the occurrence of on-device media multitasking. These findings point to the importance of controlling for on-device media multitasking in web surveys.
... The results of an initial study by the authors on media use and media multitasking habits of 10 participants of different geographical origins (of an otherwise fairly homogeneous group) has provided the impetus for a further in-depth questioning on whether nationality/regional affiliation can be seen as a predictor for media multitasking. In fact, the phenomenon of multitasking has been addressed by multiple studies, researching its causes, its effects, but also the ability of certain groups to engage: women are generally perceived to be able and more prone to multitask than men (O'Connell, 2002; Shellenbarger cited in Foehr, 2006); younger generations are reported to multitask more than older generations (Brasel & Gips, 2011). However, less attention has been paid so far to the influence of a further differentiating factor: the geographical affiliation or cultural origin of the respondents. ...
Multitasking, especially involving media, has become a constant in our daily lives, increasingly promoted by technological developments on ever-developing personal equipment. Media multitasking has frequently been studied from the perspectives of both gender and age, so as to determine who multitasks more or better: men or women, adults or younger people. There are, however, fewer studies on how origin, cultural or geographical background can affect the tendency to media multitask. This paper will attempt to analyse a possible link between geographical affiliation, media use and the tendency to multitask of a group of 36 researchers of different nationalities, working in the same research institute. Differences in the use of several media and global media-use values have been recorded, with Europe presenting the lowest media use - less than half of the values of the highest cluster (Latin America). SMS is the least prevalent media, with Computer-based applications and web-surfing constituting the most prevalent media in most clusters. The European cluster also presents the lowest multitasking values, while the West African cluster registers the highest index.
... Recent studies identify the phenomenon of media multitasking from three perspectives: (1) the simultaneous use of several media technology tools; (2) the combination of using media and traditional sources of information; (3) the combination of using offline and virtual activities [3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10]. While analyzing existing research on multitasking, we found a number of works considering the correlation of media multitasking with various cognitive processes in adolescents and youth: Volume and shifting of attention, low stability, and concentration of attention, as well as cognitive control and executive functions [1,[9][10][11][12][13][14][15]. ...
The paper addresses the phenomenon of media multitasking that is being widely spread among children and adolescents in the context of digital socialization. The previous research has revealed its strong connection with cognitive control, executive functions, and academic performance, yet the specificity and efficacy of media multitasking performance, especially among children while they carry out usual activities, remains insufficiently studied. A quasi-experimental study, including digital tasks of various types on a computer and smartphone, the dots task for executive functions, and a socio-psychological questionnaire, was conducted with the participants of three age groups: 7–10, 11–13, and 14–16 years old (N = 154). The results indicate that media multitasking is connected not with sex, but age; the older the participants are, the more likely they tend to work in a multitasking mode. Furthermore, preference for multitasking has been found to be positively related to higher user activity. Although the total task performance rate is insignificantly lower in the multitasking group as compared to the non-multitasking one, a significant negative effect of media multitasking on total performance time was revealed. The results of the study that indicate a strong connection of media multitasking with the intensity of Internet usage, cognitive functions, and performance time, suggest its considerable role in social and cognitive functioning of children and adolescents.
... Furthermore, ICTs have an influence on social practices, especially with regard to information access power [3]. In the context of learning, ICT is referred to as a tool that is needed by students in developing cognitive reasoning and psychomotor abilities [4]. This is also supported by Mohamed and Bakar [5], Bahrudin, et al. [6] which states that computer technology is an important integral tool in the field of teaching where the use of computer technology is said to be beneficial for students [7] and teachers. ...
Almost from the beginning, computer science was hampered by the perception that computer science exclusively focused on programming. This results in computational-related learning being very limited and minimally taught to students. The widespread use of ICT tools in indirect learning has changed the way students interact with content. This paper presents a different approach, while keeping the teacher at the centre of control of classroom activities but students are given the opportunity to explore the content to be learned by CS-Unplugged and Raspberry Pi. This activity aims to provide basic knowledge about how computers work. One of the activities is a simulation and experimentation on how computers work through the CS Unplugged approach. The basic knowledge formed from the simulation was then used as the basis for assembling a simple computer using Raspberry Pi. Based on the results of observations and interviews conducted, the utilization of CS Unplugged provides a learning experience that builds on the initial concept of how computers work. This is shown by an increase in students’ motivation and enthusiasm in learning how the computer works. This experience is what then makes it easy for students to do various computer assembly experiments using Raspberry Pi.
... The literature on media multitasking has focused only on gender differences in the frequency of media multitasking. In general, girls have tended to perform more media multitasking than boys for media activities such as instant messaging, email, and listening to music (Cotten et al. 2014;Foehr 2006;Rideout et al. 2010). However, little is known about the relationship between age and media multitasking, especially during adolescence, or whether the relationships among media multitasking, peer influence, family functioning, and self-esteem differ between boys and girls and between early and late adolescents. ...
Objective
Media multitasking has been found to have a negative relationship with young people’s psychological well-being. However, its relationship with self-esteem has only been examined among adults, and the mechanism underlying its association with adolescents’ well-being has been unclear. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between media multitasking and self-esteem and explore the effects of peer influence and family functioning as potential mediators of this association.
Methods
A sample of 725 Chinese adolescents (55.6% girls; Mage = 14.71, SD = 1.41) completed a paper-based survey, which included questions on demographics, media multitasking, peer influence, family functioning, and self-esteem. Structural equation modeling and multi-group analyses were performed on the collected data.
Results
Media multitasking (MM) showed a negative association with self-esteem (SE) (r = −0.17, p < 0.001); however, peer influence (PI) and family functioning (FF) entirely mediated this relationship, i.e., MM→FF→SE (β = −0.059, p < 0.05) and MM→PI→FF→SE (β = −0.025, p < 0.01). In addition, significant differences were found in specific mediation pathways among gender and age groups.
Conclusions
Overall, these findings have important implications for understanding the relationship between media multitasking and self-esteem among adolescents, as well as the age and gender differences.
... The literature details the relationships between multitasking and demographic characteristics (e.g., age, gender, education level). Several studies have shown that females tend to multitask more than males (Foehr, 2006;Jeong & Fishbein, 2007;Pilotta et al., 2004). This has been attributed to gender differences in cognitive ability associated with adaptation to dual information processing (Stoet, O'Connor, Conner, & Laws, 2013). ...
Research has shown that multitasking in classrooms negatively impacts students' academic performance. This study investigated the indirect effects of multitasking on academic performance (i.e., Grade Point Average [GPA]) through self-efficacy for self-regulated learning (SESRL) in males and females (i.e., by gender). Measures of multitasking behaviors, in both online and traditional (i.e., face-to-face [F2F]) format classrooms, and SESRL were administered to university students. Two simple mediation and moderated mediation models were tested. The simple mediation analysis indicated that SESRL fully mediated the relationship between multitasking behaviors and GPA in F2F classes, and partially mediated this relationship in online classes. Evidence of moderated mediation effect was only found in online classes suggesting that there was a significant indirect effect for female students only. Female students with higher levels of SESRL experience a limited impact of online multitasking on GPA, resulting in better academic performance.
... What would accessible ICT-based learning tools look like? ICTs have been used in education for a much longer time than is usually thought, going back to the days of distance education through radio, including 13 See, for example, Foehr (2006), on the perils of multi-tasking, or intensely using Google (Carr, 2008). 14 The cited report included a small decline in investments in 2008-2009 due to the recession, however investments have continued to increase since then. ...
The present work aims at developing a scale for the assessment of a construct that we called “physical–digital integration”, which refers to the tendency of some individuals not to perceive a clear differentiation between feelings and perceptions that pertain to the physical or digital environment. The construct is articulated in four facets: identity, social relationships, time–space perception, and sensory perception. Data from a sample of 369 participants were collected to evaluate factor structure (unidimensional model, bifactor model, correlated four-factor model), internal consistency (Cronbach’s α, McDonald’s ω), and correlations of the physical–digital integration scale with other measures. Results showed that the scale is valid and internally consistent, and that both the total score and the scores at its four subscales are worthy of consideration. The physical–digital integration scores were found to be differently associated with digital and non-digital behaviors, individuals’ ability to read emotions in the facial expressions of others, and indicators of psychosocial functioning (anxiety, depression, and satisfaction with social relationships). The paper proposes a new measure whose scores are associated with several variables that may have relevant consequences at both individual and social levels.
In this study we investigated how digital leaners’ behavior could be used to identify their attentional state at the time. It was expected to map attentional states with the level of challenge presented and the level of engagement achieved by an activity related to learning. To identify the main attentional considerations and related behavior, we have administered a questionnaire among 43 participants and requested them to self-report on attentional states, the measures of motivation, and the required effort. The questionnaire was adapted from Everyday Life attentional Scale (ELAS), and tested on 6 activities related to learning, directly or indirectly. The average level of focus the participants reported on these activities ranged from 50%–65%. They also declared to feel restless (53.5%) and stressed (41.9%) when motivated to do a task. Interestingly, 67.4% of the participants attributed to social media use when distracted from the learning activity. This study opens several avenues to use behavioral data of digital learners to identify the attentional state shifts of digital learners. Relationships among the cognitive load, the behavioral interactions, and level of attention can be observed. However, the nature and the magnitude of such relationships are yet to be explored.
Students are increasingly more distracted and off-task with technology. While contemporary research has clearly argued the pervasive nature and problematic effects of media distracted behavior, research has yet to identify and validate, by way of a real-world experiment, an efficacious and promising practical or pedagogical response.
This dissertation study used a quasi-experimental, longitudinal experiment to test regulating smartphone applications that purport to mitigate distracted technology use and heighten the student attention.
To test whether or not different regulating applications “work” as purported, this study examined two different regulating applications and their effects on the media distracted behavior, student engagement, behavioral regulation, perceptions of technology dependency, and course performance.
The experiment included first-year college students enrolled in a mandated entry- level science course at a medium-sized public STEM and applied science university. Stratified random assignment permitted experimental, contamination, and control treatment group comparisons. Long-term motivation effects (including student-held feelings with self-efficacy, expectancy-value, and achievement goals) were also considered. Last, varying application affordances and design approaches were contrasted by way of feelings related to self- determination.
The results of quantitative and qualitative data analyses indicated that applications sporadically and minimally lowered student reported media distracted behavior in and outside of
class, but had no effect on engagement, behavioral regulation, or perceived dependency on technology. Unexpectedly, there was a negative effect on Chemistry motivation, as students reported lower expectancy-value, more negative achievement goals, and lower self-efficacy. Last, application use negatively affected student performance in the course as those asked to use regulating applications generally performed poorer as compared to those in the control and contamination groups.
Challenging the promising assertions of regulating applications, the results of this dissertation suggest that rather than alleviate the problem, these particular apps may actually exacerbate media distraction’s negative effects by also diminishing engagement, regulation, achievement, and motivation.
Growing consumption contributes to the creation of new consumer groups — childish parents and commercialized children. This process of turning adults into children and vice versa is reflected in dynamically developing marketing and advertising activities aimed at both target groups. Regardless of the age difference, for market experts they both present similar market behavior patterns. Traditional values have been reversed. Adverts emphasizing speed and facility are aimed at adults whereas advertising sophistication and responsibility is aimed at children. This mainly refers to some forms of promotion activity within primary, influence and future markets. Systematic consumer education for both groups seems to be a way to re-introduce a division into adults and children. It is impossible to educate children in the area in which parents and other adults are incompetent.
Media multitasking comprises a variety of different behaviors, ranging from watching TV while sending a text message to listening to music while gaming. However, we still know little about which media multitasking behaviors are selected more frequently and whether specific characteristics of the media activities determine this choice. Therefore, the present study examined to what extent media multitasking is predicted by 4 cognitive dimensions (Wang et al., 2015) and by instant emotional gratification. We reanalyzed 15 data sets that assessed between 36 and 144 media multitasking combinations each. The findings show that media multitasking occurs more frequently among media combinations that are characterized by a high control over task switching, do not present information in a transient manner, do not access the same sensory modality, and do not require a behavioral response. Moreover, media multitasking occurs more frequently among media combinations that provide instant emotional gratification. These findings further illuminate media multitasking by unraveling the cognitive and emotional characteristics of media multitasking. The findings demonstrate that in addition to cognitive resources and demands, media multitasking is predicted by instant emotional gratification.
This article is a review of recent researches on digital multitasking problem. Claiming that digital technologies are changing the traditional roles of a teacher and a student, we must clearly understand a kind of effects arised at the moment digital technologies are used in the classroom. Moreover, the methods of applying digital technologies for the success of students’ academic progress are not always obvious to the teacher himself. The goal of the research analysis on digital multitasking in education problem is to identify shifts in settings and accents from the operationalism methodology to attempts of application of analytical philosophy of consciousness methodology and / or postmodern philosophy. This allows us to analyze the intentions, motives of the educational process participants and thereby define new conceptual boundaries of digital multitasking.
Purpose
Smartphone multitasking behavior has become prevalent in our daily lives, yet factors influencing smartphone multitasking behavior have not been fully investigated. This study aimed to examine the roles of a set of demographic, personality and motivational factors on smartphone multitasking behavior, and how these factors were related to general and application-specific types of smartphone multitasking behavior.
Design/methodology/approach
A cross-sectional study was conducted in which 2,659 smartphone users were invited to complete an online survey on smartphone multitasking behavior. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses were used to examine the roles of demographic, personality and motivational factors on smartphone multitasking behavior.
Findings
The results showed that, in general, demographic factors, such as gender, age, occupation status, education and smartphone usage time significantly predicted smartphone multitasking behavior. People characterized by agreeableness, extraversion, neuroticism and openness to experience were more likely to multitask with smartphones. Information seeking, efficiency and habit motivations were identified as major motivational factors for smartphone multitasking behavior. The roles of demographic, personality and motivational factors differed much across varied types of application-specific smartphone multitasking behavior.
Originality/value
This study extends and advances the literature on media multitasking, smartphone multitasking in particular, by identifying a set of demographic, personality and motivational factors as antecedents of smartphone multitasking behavior. In addition, this study revealed the differentiated roles of the above-mentioned factors across varied types of smartphone application usages. The findings provide important implications for practitioners to tailor smartphone applications and services to different target smartphone users and use situations.
Learning on a mobile device in everyday settings makes users particularly susceptible for interruptions. Guidance (memory) cues can be implemented to support users in resuming a learning task after a distraction. These cues can take a wide range of forms and designs and, to work effectively, need to be carefully adapted to the mobile learning use case. In this work, we present a structured in-depth literature review on task resumption support for mobile devices. In particular, we propose a design space based on 30 carefully chosen publications to highlight well-evaluated design ideas as well as currently underrepresented research directions. Furthermore, we evaluate the causes of interruptions in the domain of mobile learning and derive design ideas for task resumption support on mobile devices. To this end, we conducted two focus groups with HCI experts (\(N=4\)) and users of mobile learning applications (\(N=3\)). Based on the literature review, focus groups, and further related work, we discuss ideas and research gaps for task resumption cues in mobile learning. We derive six design guidelines to support researchers and designers of mobile learning applications and emphasize promising research directions and open questions.
The purpose of this article is to look anew at the concepts of reading, reading development, and reading research as they exist beyond the boundaries of the “science of reading” controversy. The context for this reconceptualization is reading in the digital age and the challenges that today’s readers confront daily. Those challenges include information saturation, the proliferation of misleading and malicious online content, the struggle to use valid evidence to support claims, and the tendency to treat complex issues in an overly simplistic fashion. How these concerns pertain to the ongoing “science of reading” debate is also considered. The author concludes with an overview of three recommendations for addressing the challenges faced by readers in this digital age. If they are to be realized, these recommendations require the consolidated effort of reading researchers, reading educators, school leaders, parents, policymakers, and students themselves.
This study examines the effects of exposure to Islamic State media content and its effect on behavioral intention (support for ISIS). A survey of Muslim adults living in the United States was conducted (N = 396) to examine the relationship of media exposure on empathy and attitudes toward ISIS and behavioral intention. Using social cognitive theory as a theoretical framework, relationships between variables were examined through mediation analyses. Results show participants do not favor ISIS. Findings and implications are discussed.
FÁZIK, Jakub. Horizonty informačnej gramotnosti. In: STEINEROVÁ, Jela, zost. Knižničná a informačná veda XXVII. Bratislava: Univerzita Komenského v Bratislave, 2017, s. 162-184. ISBN 978-80-223-4439-5. //
V centre pozornosti autora príspevku sú modely informačnej gramotnosti. Analyzované modely ISP, The Big Six Skills, The Seven Pillars of Information Literacy, Information Literacy Landscape a The Seven Faces of Information Literacy poskytujú informácie ako o obsahových možnostiach výskumov informačnej gramotnosti, tak i o metodologických a metametodologických aspektoch informačnej gramotnosti, ktorými možno výskumy realizovať. V rámci každého modelu je analyzovaný účel vzniku modelu, kontext, v ktorom model vznikal a teoretické východiská. V prípade dvoch modelov – ISP a The Seven Faces of IL – ktorým predchádzal empirický výskum, je opísaný výber výskumnej vzorky, priebeh výskumu a použité metódy zberu a vyhodnocovania dát. Následne sa autor snaží vytvoriť na základe metametodologických kritérií základnú typológiu modelov. //
The paper is focused on the analysis of selected models of information literacy (ISP, The Big Six Skills, The Seven Pillars of Information Literacy, Information Literacy Landscape a The Seven Faces of Information Literacy) in several respects of special methodology of social-scientific research and general methodology. Within the categories of social science methodology, the author deals with comparing the contexts and the theoretical basis on which the analyzed model was created. Two models – the ISP a The Seven Faces of IL – are based on the outcome of empirical research. The author offers information on the process of data and research sample selection, the research process itself and the methods of data collection and evaluation. In the framework of general methodology, the author attempts to create the basic typology of models.
Considerable debate exists over the accuracy of self‐reported media use measures. This report compares two methodologies for studying Internet and traditional media use: online surveys and diaries. A study was conducted with undergraduate students from two universities. Participants were asked to (a) complete a survey and (b) keep a diary over the course of one day. Both instruments assessed how frequently they engaged in various media use activities, including television viewing, radio listening, Web surfing, email sending and receiving, music listening, and video game playing. Results indicate that survey estimates of media use are consistently higher than diary use, but both methods are significantly correlated with each other, within a given medium. Given uncertainty about which method is more accurate, a third method of data collection, electronic tracking, is described.
A new conception of sensation seeking is presented, along with a new scale [the Arnett Inventory of Sensation Seeking (AISS)]. The new conception emphasizes novelty and intensity as the two components of sensation seeking. Two studies were conducted to validate the new scale. In the first study, the AISS was found to be more strongly related to risk behavior than Zuckerman's Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS) among 116 adolescents aged 16–18 years, although the new scale contains no items related to risk behavior (in contrast to the SSS). In the second study, involving 139 adolescents, similar relations were found between the AISS and risk behavior, and the new scale was also found to be significantly correlated with the Aggression subscale of the California Psychological Inventory (CPI). In addition, adults (N = 38) were found to be lower in sensation seeking than adolescents. In both studies, males were higher in sensation seeking than females.
Accurate information on behavior of young children at home is crucial to the study of child development. The present study compared parent diaries of 5-year-old children's time spent with television to concurrent automated time-lapse video observations. In addition, a number of control groups were employed to assess the effects of observational equipment in the homes. The sample consisted of 334 mostly white middle-class families, of whom 106 had observational equipment installed. Results indicated no systematic subject selection of families who were willing to have observational equipment as compared to the controls. In addition, there were no differences in reported viewing behavior between the observed families and controls. Of 3 types of parent estimates of 5-year-old TV viewing, concurrent diaries correlated best with video observation (r = .84) and produced a very small absolute mean time error. Direct parent estimates of typical time spent viewing produced smaller correlations and large overestimates as compared with diaries.
A new theoretical framework, executive-process interactive control (EPIC), is introduced for characterizing human performance of concurrent perceptual-motor and cognitive tasks. On the basis of EPIC, computational models may be formulated to simulate multiple-task performance under a variety of circumstances. These models account well for reaction-time data from representative situations such as the psychological refractory-period procedure. EPIC's goodness of fit supports several key conclusions: (a) At a cognitive level, people can apply distinct sets of production rules simultaneously for executing the procedures of multiple tasks; (b) people's capacity to process information at "peripheral" perceptual-motor levels is limited; (c) to cope with such limits and to satisfy task priorities, flexible scheduling strategies are used; and (d) these strategies are mediated by executive cognitive processes that coordinate concurrent tasks adaptively.
This paper evaluates the effectiveness of the Experience Sampling Method (ESM) among preadolescents and young adolescents by examining its implementation in a study of 483 5th-9th graders. Four specific methodological questions are addressed: (1) How adequate is the sampling of adolescents? (2) How adequate is the sampling of adolescents' experiences? (3) Does the method alter the phenomenon it attempts to measure? (4) How valid are the data obtained? Methodological information collected as part of the study suggests that the data obtained by the ESM accurately represents most of the experience of most of the individuals in the sample population.
Research during the 1990s has demonstrated the potential of television-as-background to interfere with performance on concurrent cognitive processing tasks. An experiment examined hypothesized structural interference effects of background television on working memory. To assess effects on phonologically based working memory, participants were tested on their memory for lists of letters and digits. Background television caused stronger deleterious effects on the primacy component of verbal working memory. Participants were tested for effects on visuo-spatial working memory using the Brooks spatial sentence memory task. Where participants were left to choose their own strategy for performing the Brooks task, no significant influence of background television emerged. When participants were instructed in the specific memory technique to use in the Brooks visuo-spatial working memory task, background television had a significant negative effect on performance. However, stronger effects appeared when using a verbally based memory technique than a spatially based technique.
This article applies a limited-capacity information processing approach to the question of whether audio / video redundancy improves memory for television messages. Audio / video redundancy is defined as a continuum. Four different types of stimuli frequently used to operationalize redundancy are considered in terms of: (a) how much capacity they require to be fully processed; (b) how complex they are; and, (c) how much audio and video information they contain. Predictions based on these considerations are made about relative memory for each type of stimulus at three levels of processing (encoding, storage, and retrieval). The three major memory measures are conceptualized as providing information about different aspects of the information processing of a message. Specifically, recognition measures index how much information was encoded, cued recall indexes how much information has been stored, and free recall indexes the information available for retrieval. The predictions made using this theoretical approach are initially tested using the results previously reported in the literature. Over 75% of the reported results are in the direction predicted. It is suggested that talking head messages are different from other forms of audio / video redundancy, that audio memory is affected more by audio / video redundancy than video memory, and that video memory is affected more by complexity and amount of information—both of which are frequently confounded with redundancy.
This experimental study examines the effects of audio and visual redundancy on recall and story understanding in television news. College students viewed a series of voice-over news stories that varied in the amount of redundancy between the two channels and then responded to both auditory and visual recall measures. The results show higher auditory recall and story understanding in the high-redundancy condition than in the lower redundancy conditions. Visual recall shows the reverse pattern with higher recall scores in the lower redundancy conditions than in the high-redundancy condition.
Proposed and tested is a causal process that could account for empirical relationships between television viewing and academic achievement. It is argued that television, when used as a secondary activity, interferes with performance on otherwise intellectually demanding tasks. Performance on seven different cognitive processing tests were examined for respondents in four television-viewing conditions and a no-TV control group. Dependent variables included measures of short-term memory, linguistic processing speed, reading comprehension, complex problem-solving abilities, and mental flexibility. Predictions based on four mechanisms were tested. Significant performance decrements in television conditions occurred for measures of reading comprehension, spatial problem solving, and cognitive flexibility. Results were most consistent with the idea that background television influences performance by causing cognitive processing capacity limits to be exceeded on difficult and complex tasks.
A survey study was conducted to explore the frequency with which students use background media in self‐instructional home study settings, and the perceived effects of students' use of background media on their homework performance. A questionnaire administered to 1,700 students in Grades 8 and 10 asked students to indicate how often they perform different types of homework assignments and how often they incorporate different types of background media while doing them. In addition, students indicated how they divide their attention between homework assignments and background media, and how they perceive the effects that media may have on their performance on different types of homework assignments. Results indicated that the frequency with which students reportedly combined homework and media depended on the type of schoolwork (learning assignments versus paper‐and‐pencil assignments), type of background medium (audio media or TV), and the students' level of secondary education. In general, students felt that their performance on learning assignments was impaired by the use of background media. Their performance on paper‐and‐pencil assignments, however, was somewhat increased by the use of background audio media and music TV.
An experiment was conducted testing Armstrong and Greenberg's (1990) model of the effect of background television on cognitive performance, as it applies to reading comprehension and memory. Subjects completed a cued‐recall test of the content of an expository prose passage read under quiet conditions or concurrently with the presence of one of two types of television content (prime‐time drama versus commercials). Effects on immediate versus delayed recall were examined. Overall, significant deleterious effects of background television were found, controlling for prior abilities and motivation. Deleterious effects were stronger and more consistent when testing occurred immediately after reading, rather than after a five‐minute filled delay. Background commercials resulted in more consistently negative effects than did TV drama.
ABSTRACT Research on task ,switching and dual-task performance ,has spawned ,two lit- eratures that have, to a surprising extent, developed independently. This tutorial reviews the principal findings of each ,tradition and considers how ,these phenomena ,may ,be related. Beginning with Jersild 1927, task-switching studies reveal that when people perform two tasks in succession, with each task requiring different responses to the same set of stimuli, substantial slowing occurs. Recent research suggests that while this slowing can be partially ameliorated by allowing sufficient time between tasks, advance reconfiguration is almost always incomplete. In studies of dual-task performance, stimuli arc presented very close together in time, and subjects attempt concurrently to perform two wholly distinct tasks. A substantial slowing of one or both tasks is usually observed. The most stubborn source of this slowing appears to be queuing of central processing stages, sometimes supplemented by other kinds of interference. This queuing occurs even when ,the tasks are highly dissimilar and is unlikely to reflect voluntary strategies. A number,of possibilities for how task switching and dual-task queuing plight be related are discussed critically, including the possibility that queuing might stem from an inability to maintain two distinct task sets at the same time. What happens ,when ,people try to switch rapidly between ,one task and
An experiment was run to test the effect on reading comprehension of distraction by a television programme, which was presented while reading took place. Respondents, classified in terms of extroversion or introversion, carried out two reading comprehension tests in silence and in the presence of a television drama programme. As predicted, extroverts and introverts both performed better in silence, but there was a significant interaction that showed that extroverts performed better than introverts in the presence of television distraction. The findings are discussed in relation to previous research on this subject.
Previous research has shown negative background television effects on reading comprehension and memory. This experiment addressed two questions about such negative effects: (a) Are these effects due to interference with processes of initial comprehension and memory encoding, processes of memory retrieval, or both? and (b) Are the effects of background TV stronger for recall or recognition memory? Possible compensating positive effects of background TV were also addressed: Can viewing similar background television content during recall as that viewed during reading improve memory through facilitative context effects? Participants read newspaper science articles with background TV or in silence and completed recall and recognition tests after a filled delay either with TV or in silence. Deleterious effects were obtained for recall memory only and resulted solely from the presence of background TV at the time of comprehension / encoding. No facilitative context effects were obtained by reinstating the same program at the time of recall as experienced at the time of reading.
The authors conceive of this work as not only examining the social and behavioral scientific evidence for the influence and role in society of a mass medium, but also as implicitly advocating certain principles for the aggregation and interpretation of scientific findings. The pattern of findings across bodies of data becomes the central element in teaching conclusions. It is expected that answers will come not from a single study, but from the clustering of outcomes, whether in the form of an estimate of the relationship between variables in the meta-analytic sense or the convergence of findings of a disparate order that encourage a particular broad interpretation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study examined the hypothesis that media exposure and attention partially mediate the effects of variables such as demographics and personal experience on risk judgments. Risk judgments, including perceived severity, prevalence, controllability, familiarity, and concern about alcohol-related injuries, comprised the outcome measures. Alcohol-related injuries included assaults, motor vehicle crashes, and other injury incidents such as falls, fire, and drowning. Results supported the hypotheses of partial mediation with respect to most risk judgment factors. In particular, effects of education, gender, sensation seeking, and prior firsthand or secondhand experience with alcohol-related mishaps on judgments of concern and/or severity were partially mediated by media variables. The authors concluded that media effects on risk judgments can be usefully understood as part of a larger social process in which media are selectively attended to due to exogenous influences; part of the effect of these exogenous influences on these social risk judgments was via these media influences. Media use variables also retain a degree of influence after controlling for these exogenous factors.
Two experiments examined how TV news viewers divide attention between the audio and video messages of news stories. The experiment tested the “belongingness” hypothesis which asserts that two distinct perceptual stimuli will be attended to as if they were a single stimulus when they appear to belong together. The experiments extended the belongingness hypothesis by manipulating semantic units (i.e., audio and video messages) rather than perceptual units. Auditory-visual redundancy was used to manipulate the belongingness variable. It was hypothesized that dissonant audio and video would be viewed as conveying two different messages, with the result that attentional capacity would be exceeded. Conversely, redundant stories would be viewed as conveying one message, with the results that attentional capacity would not be exceeded. Using secondary task methodology—reaction time tasks in Experiment 1 and memory preloads in Experiment 2—the belongingness hypothesis was supported.
This paper presents an information-processing model that is directly applicable to the investigation of how mediated messages are processed. It applies the model to the case of television viewing to demonstrate its applicability. It provides a measure for each part of the model. It presents evidence that supports the model in the television-viewing situation. Finally, it demonstrates how the model may be used to further research and understanding in well-known theoretical traditions. This model is not meant to stand in opposition to any of these theories but, rather, should work well with them by providing hypothesized mechanisms that may underlie well-known effects. This model should prove useful both to researchers and, eventually, to message producers. To the extent that we can better understand how the content and structure of messages interact with a viewer's information-processing system to determine which parts and how much of a communication message is remembered, we will make great strides in understanding how people communicate.
Television producers, across all types of programming, assume young viewers can parallel process simultaneously presented messages. For instance, television news producers appear to believe that young viewers can attend to weather icons, lexical news crawls, and sports scores while they also attend to news anchors who present the news. Nonetheless, attention theory suggests parallel processing on this scale cannot be executed efficiently. Given the format's popularity, perhaps those messages take advantage of perceptual grouping, as described by Treisman, Kahneman, and Burkell (1983). Perceptual grouping describes a process where separate but semantically related messages are attended to simultaneously with minimal effort. Using secondary task methodology, we measured participants' attentional capacity while they watched an example of this format: CNN's Headline News. In addition to this visually complex condition, we created a visually simple condition by deleting graphics and news crawls. Participants in this latter condition attended to both the auditory and visual channels, thus retaining story facts conveyed by both channels. Participants in the complex condition, however, shifted attention to the auditory channel. Ten percent of the factual information contained in news stories was lost to participants. It appears that this multimessage format exceeded viewers' attentional capacity. In conclusion, we discuss the implications for attention theory.
This study measured the effect of audio-video channel correspondence on attention and memory. Three versions of four TV news stories were the stimuli. The high-correspondence version employed a specific audio-video semantic match, the medium-correspondence version a less specific match, and the no-correspondence version no match. High channel correspondence promoted the most efficient division of attention and the best memory scores on visual and factual recognition measures. The medium-correspondence version yielded significantly worse visual memory and attention scores, but factual attention and memory scores equal to those for the high-correspondence version. The no-correspondence version yielded high visual recognition scores, but the worst visual attention scores, suggesting that attentional capacity boundaries were overwhelmed by the stimulus. The results across all conditions suggest that when attentional capacity is exceeded, memory of the overall story is degraded.
One of the classic questions about human thinking concerns the limited ability to perform two cognitive tasks concurrently, such as a novice driver's difficulty in simultaneously driving and conversing. Limitations on the concurrent performance of two unrelated tasks challenge the tacitly assumed independence of two brain systems that seemingly have little overlap. The current study used fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) to measure cortical activation during the concurrent performance of two high-level cognitive tasks that involve different sensory modalities and activate largely nonoverlapping areas of sensory and association cortex. One task was auditory sentence comprehension, and the other was the mental rotation of visually depicted 3-D objects. If the neural systems underlying the two tasks functioned independently, then in the dual task the brain activation in the main areas supporting the cognitive processing should be approximately the conjunction of the activation for each of the two tasks performed alone. We found instead that in the dual task, the activation in association areas (primarily temporal and parietal areas of cortex) was substantially less than the sum of the activation when the two tasks were performed alone, suggesting some mutual constraint among association areas. A similar result was obtained for sensory areas as well.
Interference between two concurrent tasks can be measured as an increased reaction time during simultaneous performance compared to when each task is performed alone. We tested the hypothesis that two tasks interfere because they require activation of overlapping areas of the cerebral cortex. With positron emission tomography we measured cortical activation as fields with significant increase in regional cerebral blood flow during single task performance of an auditory and a visual go/no-go task and an auditory and a visual short-term memory (STM) task. In a separate experiment we measured the degree of interference between the two go/no-go tasks and between the two STM tasks during dual task performance. Both the two go/no-go tasks and the two STM tasks activated overlapping parts of the cortex and interfered significantly during dual task performance. The two STM tasks had a larger volume of overlap and also significantly larger increase in reaction time during dual task performance, compared to the go/no-go tasks. The results thus indicate that two concurrent tasks interfere, with a resulting increase in reaction time, if they require activation of overlapping parts of the cortex.
Some observational studies have found an association between television viewing and child and adolescent adiposity.
To assess the effects of reducing television, videotape, and video game use on changes in adiposity, physical activity, and dietary intake.
Randomized controlled school-based trial conducted from September 1996 to April 1997.
Two sociodemographically and scholastically matched public elementary schools in San Jose, Calif.
Of 198 third- and fourth-grade students, who were given parental consent to participate, 192 students (mean age, 8.9 years) completed the study.
Children in 1 elementary school received an 18-lesson, 6-month classroom curriculum to reduce television, videotape, and video game use.
Changes in measures of height, weight, triceps skinfold thickness, waist and hip circumferences, and cardiorespiratory fitness; self-reported media use, physical activity, and dietary behaviors; and parental report of child and family behaviors. The primary outcome measure was body mass index, calculated as weight in kilograms divided by the square of height in meters.
Compared with controls, children in the intervention group had statistically significant relative decreases in body mass index (intervention vs control change: 18.38 to 18.67 kg/m2 vs 18.10 to 18.81 kg/m2, respectively; adjusted difference -0.45 kg/m2 [95% confidence interval [CI], -0.73 to -0.17]; P = .002), triceps skinfold thickness (intervention vs control change: 14.55 to 15.47 mm vs 13.97 to 16.46 mm, respectively; adjusted difference, -1.47 mm [95% CI, -2.41 to -0.54]; P=.002), waist circumference (intervention vs control change: 60.48 to 63.57 cm vs 59.51 to 64.73 cm, respectively; adjusted difference, -2.30 cm [95% CI, -3.27 to -1.33]; P<.001), and waist-to-hip ratio (intervention vs control change: 0.83 to 0.83 vs 0.82 to 0.84, respectively; adjusted difference, -0.02 [95% CI, -0.03 to -0.01]; P<.001). Relative to controls, intervention group changes were accompanied by statistically significant decreases in children's reported television viewing and meals eaten in front of the television. There were no statistically significant differences between groups for changes in high-fat food intake, moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, and cardiorespiratory fitness.
Reducing television, videotape, and video game use may be a promising, population-based approach to prevent childhood obesity.
To describe U.S. youth's access and exposure to the full array of media, as well as the social contexts in which media exposure occurs.
A cross-sectional national random sample of 2065 adolescents aged 8 through 18 years, including oversamples of African-American and Hispanic youth, completed questionnaires about use of television, videotapes, movies, computers, video games, radio, compact discs, tape players, books, newspapers, and magazines.
U.S. youngsters are immersed in media. Most households contain most media (computers and video game systems are the exception); the majority of youth have their own personal media. The average youth devotes 6 3/4 h to media; simultaneous use of multiple media increases exposure to 8 h of media messages daily. Overall, media exposure and exposure to individual media vary as a function of age, gender, race/ethnicity, and family socioeconomic level. Television remains the dominant medium. About one-half of the youth sampled uses a computer daily. A substantial proportion of children's and adolescents' media use occurs in the absence of parents.
American youth devote more time to media than to any other waking activity, as much as one-third of each day. This demands increased parental attention and research into the effects of such extensive exposure.
Children spend a substantial portion of their lives watching television. Investigators have hypothesized that television viewing causes obesity by one or more of three mechanisms: (1) displacement of physical activity, (2) increased calorie consumption while watching or caused by the effects of advertising, and (3) reduced resting metabolism. The relationship between television viewing and obesity has been examined in a relatively large number of cross-sectional epidemiologic studies but few longitudinal studies. Many of these studies have found relatively weak, positive associations, but others have found no associations or mixed results; however, the weak and variable associations found in these studies may be the result of limitations in measurement. Several experimental studies of reducing television viewing recently have been completed. Most of these studies have not tested directly the effects of reducing television viewing behaviors alone, but their results support the suggestion that reducing television viewing may help to reduce the risk for obesity or help promote weight loss in obese children. Finally, one school-based, experimental study was designed specifically to test directly the causal relationship between television viewing behaviors and body fatness. The results of this randomized, controlled trial provide evidence that television viewing is a cause of increased body fatness and that reducing television viewing is a promising strategy for preventing childhood obesity.
Through evolution, humans have acquired 'higher' cognitive skills — such as language, reasoning and planning — and complex social behaviour. Evidence from neuropsychological and neuroimaging research indicates that the prefrontal cortex (PFC) underlies much of this higher cognition. A number of theories have been proposed for how the PFC might achieve this. Although many of these theories focus on the types of 'process' that the PFC carries out, we argue for the validity of a representational approach to understanding PFC function.
Online and offline assessment of the television audience
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Time to do everything except think
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It's Not Only Rock and Roll: Popular Music in the Lives of Adolescents
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The Mommy Brain: How Motherhood Makes Us Smarter
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The First Sex: The Natural Talents of Women and How They Are Changing the World
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The Trouble With Multitasking
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