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Blackheaded fireworm: Laboratory and field studies of its sex pheromone
Abstract
Electroantennogram (EAG) responses of maleRhopobota naevana (Hübner), the blackheaded fireworm, to all of the monoene straightchain 12- and 14-carbon alcohols and acetates implicated (Z)-11-tetradecenl-1-ol (Z11-14∶OH) and its acetate (Z11-14∶Ac) as sex pheromone components.Z11-14∶Ac produced the strongest EAG response of all compounds tested. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis of extract of female sex pheromone glands (SPG) confirmed the presence ofZ11-14∶OH (125 pg/female) andZ11-14∶Ac (600 pg/female) (all other monoenes had different retention times). In field tests, traps baited withZ11-14∶OH alone captured males, but traps baited withZ11-14∶Ac alone did not. Traps baited with a combination ofZ11-14∶OH andZ11-14∶Ac in various ratios did not produce better trap catches thanZ11-14∶OH alone. (Z)-9-Dodecen-1-ol acetate (Z9-12∶Ac), reported by others to be a field attractant, did not produce trap catch in our tests, but in combination withZ11-14∶ OH (98∶2 in septa corresponding to 95:5 in vapor,Z11-14∶OH toZ9-12∶AC) produced a sevenfold increase in catch overZ11-14∶OH alone. IfZ9-12∶AC had been present in extract of SPG at 2-5% ofZ11-14∶OH, it would not have been detected in our GC-MS experiment.
... Field studies of other moth pests have shown that dismption of pheromone communication is best achieved in some cases by the main pheromone component but in other cases by a blend of components that approximates the natural pheromone blend (reviewed in Minks and Carde 1988). Therefore, we tested both the main component of fireworm pheromone, (Z)-ll-tetradecen-l-01 acetate (=[Z] 11-14:Ac) (McDonough et al. 1987, Slessor et aI. 1987) alone and a 3-component blend of (Z) 11-14:Ac, (Z)-ll-tetradecell-1-01 (= [Z] 11-14:0H) and (Z)-9-dodecell-l-01 acetate (= [Z] 9-12:Ac), which is similar to the nahlral pheromone blend (McDonough et al. 1987, Slessor et al. 1987 and to 1 of the 2 more attractive monitoring lures (Fitzpatrick and Troubridge 1992). ...
... Therefore, we tested both the main component of fireworm pheromone, (Z)-ll-tetradecen-l-01 acetate (=[Z] 11-14:Ac) (McDonough et al. 1987, Slessor et aI. 1987) alone and a 3-component blend of (Z) 11-14:Ac, (Z)-ll-tetradecell-1-01 (= [Z] 11-14:0H) and (Z)-9-dodecell-l-01 acetate (= [Z] 9-12:Ac), which is similar to the nahlral pheromone blend (McDonough et al. 1987, Slessor et al. 1987 and to 1 of the 2 more attractive monitoring lures (Fitzpatrick and Troubridge 1992). Space for experimental plot trials was limited, so we did not test the 2-component blend recommended by Fitzpatrick and Troubridge (1992). ...
... The proposed camouflage mechanism of disruption, in which a female pheromone plume is similar to and cannot be distinguished from the hackground miasma of synthetic pheromone (Cardf 1981, Sanders 1981, may be operating when the 3-component blend is used as a disruptant. False trail follmving, in which males follow pheromone trails released from multiple point sources that mimic the natural blend and release rate (Sanders 1981, Bartell 1982, is unlikely to be operating here because the release rates of dispensers are on the order of milligrams per day, whereas females contain <1 ng of each component (McDonough et al. 1987, Slessor et al. 1987. However, the false trail following mechanism may be operating at the downwind edges of dismpted plots, where males may follow low-concentration plumes of the 3component blend into the disrupted area. ...
We assessed the potential of pheromone-mediated mating disruption to control the black headed fire worm of cranberries, Rhopobota naevana (Hubner). In experimental plots (30 by 30 m) on cranberry farms, spiral polyvinyl chloride pheromone dispensers released either the main component of fire worm pheromone, (Z)-ll-tetradecen-l-ol acetate, or a 3- component blend, (Z)-ll-tetradecen-l-ol acetate, (Z)-ll-tetradecen-l-ol, and (Z)-9-dodccen- 1-ol acetate, which is similar to the natural pheromone. In both years of the study, the incidence of mating of laboratory-reared female moths placed in pheromone-treated plots was reduced relative to those placed in control plots. Release rates of pheromone, which were estimated from the curvilinear relationship between the amount remaining in dispensers and time in the field, declined linearly and slowly over the experimental period. The estimated release ratio of the 3-component blend decreased from 5.2:1.9:1.0 at the beginning of the Season to 1.9:1.1:1.0 at the end. Results suggest that mating disruption is a promising technique for Immagement of the black headed fire worm.
... The cranberry fruitworm, in particular, is generally considered the top pest threat for Wisconsin growers (Chasen and Steffan 2016). Fortuitously, the pheromones of these moth pests have been isolated, characterized, and tested for use within lures or mating disruption programs (McDonough et al. 1987;Fitzpatrick et al. 1995Fitzpatrick et al. , 2004Polavarapu et al. 2001). In addition, the spring flights of these three moth species are synchronous in Wisconsin (Steffan et al. 2017), which means that a single application of a pheromone-loaded carrier should be able to simultaneously provide mating disruption of all three species. ...
Pheromone-based mating disruption has proven to be a powerful pest management tactic in many cropping systems. However, in the cranberry system, a viable mating disruption program does not yet exist. There are commercially available pheromones for several of the major pests of cranberries, including the cranberry fruitworm, Acrobasis vaccinii Riley (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) and blackheaded fireworm, Rhopobota naevana (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae). Previous studies have shown that mating disruption represents a promising approach for R. naevana management although carrier and delivery technologies have remained unresolved. The present study examined the suitability of Specialized Pheromone & Lure Application Technology (SPLAT; ISCA Technologies, Inc., Riverside, CA), a proprietary wax and oil blend, to serve as a pheromone carrier in the cranberry system. In 2013 and 2014, we tested a blend of pheromones targeting A. vaccinii and R. naevana in field-scale, replicated trials. Pheromones were loaded into SPLAT and the resulting “SPLAT BFW CFW” formulation was deployed in commercial cranberry marshes. We compared moth trap-catch counts within SPLAT-treated blocks to those of conventionally managed blocks. In 2013, applications of SPLAT BFW CFW resulted in highly successful disruption of R. naevana and promising, though inconsistent, disruption of A. vaccinii. To improve disruption of A. vaccinii, the pheromone load was increased in 2014, providing 92% and 74% reductions in trap-catch for R. naevana and A. vaccinii, respectively. Importantly, larval infestation rates in SPLAT-treated blocks were lower than those of conventionally managed blocks. These results suggest that a multispecies mating disruption system (SPLAT BFW CFW) may represent an effective pesticide-alternative for serious pests of cranberries.
... We used MSTRS devices and affixed them to wooden stakes a t a height of 20 cm above the cranberry plant canopy. The canisters contained R. naevana pheromone, a blend of (2)-11-tetradecenyl acetate, (2)-11-tetradecen-1-01, and (2)-9-dodecenyl acetate in a ratio of 9:3:1 (McDonough et al. 1987, Slessor et al. 1987. These components were purchased from Bedoukian Research, Inc., Connecticut, diluted in reagent ethanol to a weight of 40 g of solution, and formulated with propellant in the canisters for a total weight of 160 g inside each canister. ...
The results of experiments in Wisconsin cranberry marshes by using a novel, controlled release system called the Metered Semiochemical Timed Release System, or MSTRS™, for disrupting pheromone-source location by males of the blackheaded fireworm, Rhopobota naevana (Hübner), are described. During the first flight, disruption (trap catch reduction) of males' ability to locate synthetic sex pheromone lures containing 10 μg of the R. naevana pheromone blend averaged 95.7% in the first grower location and 99.6% in a second grower location, regardless of the MSTRS deployment pattern. However, disruption averaged only 81.7%, 80.7%, and 56.4% for a 12 MSTRS-per-ha cross pattern, a 5 MSTRS-per-ha perimeter pattern, and a 12 MSTRS-per-ha perimeter pattern, respectively, in the third grower site. During the second flight, in which the night-only emission of pheromone was tried, disruption of trap catch averaged 86.7% in the first location overall for all MSTRS configurations, 85.4% in the second location, and 53.8% in the third and poorest disruption location. Significant levels of disruption were achieved season-long regardless of the MSTRS array, but there was no significant difference in disruption efficacy among the three arrays. No significant effect on larval infestation following the first flight was observed in the MSTRS-treated plots, but there was high sampling variability and very low infestation in the check plots, making it difficult to discern effects of MSTRS on larval populations.
... All machines contained pump spray bottles filled with 250 ml of 100% EtOH containing 3.96 g of a blend of (2)-ll-tetradecenyl acetate (Zll-14:Ac), (2)-11-tetradecenyl alcohol (Z11-14:OH), and (2)-9-dodecenyl acetate (Z9-12:Ac) in a ratio of 9:3:1 (McDonough et al. 1987, Slessor et al. 1987. These components were purchased from Bedoukian Research, Inc., Connecticut, and each was "95% pure. ...
We conducted a study to optimize the deployment of our controlled pheromone release system called metered semiochemical timed release system (MSTRSTM) and to measure its impact on male blackheaded fireworm, Rhopobota naevana (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae). The deployment pattern and pheromone emission rate of the MSTRSTM devices were adjusted to give optimal mating disruption in the widely dispersed cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon Aiton) beds from a perimeter-only pattern of deployment. During the first flight, disruption of pheromone source location averaged 98, 98, and 40% in the first, second, and third grower sites, respectively. During the second flight, disruption averaged 88% in the first grower site and 86% in the second and third grower sites. More importantly, high levels of mating disruption were achieved, as measured by the frequency of mating by captured free-flying females. About 24 and 15% fewer second-generation blackheaded fireworm females mated in the MSTRS(tm)-treated beds in the first and second grower sites, respectively, compared with the check plots. In the first grower site, the mean number of matings, as measured by the numbers of deposited spermatophores, per female captured during the second flight was 0.75 in the MSTRS(tm) beds and 1.8 in untreated beds. Number of matings per female in the second grower site averaged 1.0 in the MSTRS(tm)-treated beds and 1.48 in the untreated beds.
... 2) of the main component. The apparent disparity between the relative amounts of Z1 I-14:Ac and Z11-14:Al in the pheromone gland and the amounts required in a lure to enhance trap catch may be due to differences in the relative release rate of compounds from rubber sleeve stoppers (McDonough et al. 1987) or to a more rapid degradation of the aldehyde compounds compared with the acetate compounds (Howse et al. 1998). ...
The sex pheromone of the obliquebanded leafroller, Choristoneura rosaceana (Harris) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), from the Niagara Peninsula, Ontario, was investigated using chemical analysis, GC–EAD, and field trapping experiments. The pheromone gland contained: (Z)-11-tetradecenyl acetate (Z11-14:Ac), (E)-11-tetradecenyl acetate (E11-14:Ac), (Z)-11-tetradecen-1-ol (Z11-14:OH), and (Z)-11-tetradecenal (Z11-14:Al). The average amounts of Z11-14:Ac, E11-14:Ac, Z11-14:OH, andZ11-14:Al were 40.40, 0.83, 0.47, and 0.13 ng/female, respectively. Eight other structurally related compounds, (E)-11-tetradecenal (E11-14:Al), (E)-11-tetradecen-1-ol (E11-14:OH), pentadecan-2-one (15-2kt), hexadecanal (16:Al), hexadecan-1-ol (16:OH), heptadecan-2-one (17-2kt), octadecanal (18:Al), and octadecyl acetate (18:Ac), were also identified. In a field trapping experiment, adding Z11-14:Al to lures containing a 100:3:5 blend of Z11-14:Ac, E11-14:Ac, and Z11-14:OH in an amount equal to 2% of the main component significantly increased the number of moths captured in apple, Malus domestica (Borkh.) (Rosaceae), orchards. The removal of Z11-14:Al from lures containing a 100:2:1.5:1 blend of Z11-14:Ac, E11-14:Ac, Z11-14:OH, and Z11-14:Al resulted in a > 50% reduction in the average total number of moths captured in a trap. This study provides the first evidence that Z11-14:Al is present in the pheromone of an eastern North American population of C. rosaceana.
... As in previous smaller trials (Fitzpatrick et al. 1995), the reduction in matefinding in pheromone-treated plots was similar in the one-component and threecomponent treatments. When used as a lure, the three-component blend (Z11-14:Ac, Z11-14:OH, and Z9-12:Ac in a 9:3:1 ratio) attracts blackheaded fireworm males to traps (Slessor et al. 1987;Fitzpatrick and Troubridge 1992), whereas the single component (Z11-14:Ac) does not (McDonough et al. 1987;Slessor et al. 1987). Evenden et al. (1999) tested the hypothesis that the most attractive pheromone blend should be the most effective disruptant of pheromone communication and mating (an assumption thoroughly analyzed by Minks and Cardé 1988), and obtained results similar to ours. ...
Blackheaded fireworm (Rhopobota naevana (Hbn.)) mating can be disrupted by pheromone components released from spiral polyvinyl chloride (PVC) dispensers in large field plots on cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon (Aiton) (Ericaceae)) farms. The main pheromone component ((Z)-11-tetradecen-1-ol acetate (Z11-14:Ac)) or a blend similar to natural pheromone (Z11-14:Ac, (Z)-11-tetradecen-1-ol (Z11-14:OH), and (Z)-9-dodecen-1-ol acetate (Z9-12:Ac)) was released from PVC dispensers into 0.8-ha plots on cranberry farms. Regardless of the treatment, free-flying males in treatment plots located fewer than 5% of individually caged virgin females, whereas mate location in most control plots ranged from 14%–75%. Location of pheromone lures loaded with 1.0 mg of the three-component blend was reduced in both treatments, but not to the same extent as was location of females. The magnitude of mating disruption indicated by 0.01-mg lures was similar to that indicated by caged females. Estimated release rates from dispensers loaded with Z11-14:Ac alone were linear and similar in both years of the study, declining from 575–720 mg/ha per day to 175–220 mg/ha per day after 100 days. Three-component dispensers placed in the field in July 1994 showed a steeper decline in release rates of Z11-14:Ac and a change in component ratios from 6.2:2.5:1 to 8:2:1 (Z11-14:Ac: Z11-14:OH: Z9-12:Ac) over the 60-day release period. After one season of mating disruption, the number of eggs and the number of foliar samples with larval feeding shelters were not consistently reduced in treatment plots. Mated females may have dispersed into the plots and oviposited. PVC dispensers effectively disseminate pheromone for mating disruption but are labor-intensive to use. In the cranberry system, their use might be limited to research plots and isolated farms of <8 ha.
... Blackheaded fireworm moths are able to mate within a day or two after emergence. Females release pheromone (McDonough et al., 1987;Slessor et al., 1987) to attract males. Most matings can be prevented by pheromonemediated mating disruption (Fitzpatrick et al., 1995(Fitzpatrick et al., , 2004Fadamiro et al., 1998). ...
This study examines the effects of delayed mating on two successive generations of blackheaded fireworm, Rhopobota naevana Hübner (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), a pest of cranberry, Vaccinium macrocarpon Aiton (Ericaceae). The first (spring) generation produces eggs that hatch soon after oviposition, whereas the second (summer) generation produces mostly diapause eggs. Unmated female and male moths were placed together on the first, second, fourth, sixth, or eighth day after emergence. In the first generation, incidence of mating was greatest in the 1-, 2-, and 4-day treatments then declined as female survival decreased. In the second generation, incidence of mating was lowest in the 1-day treatment and greatest in the 2-, 4-, and 6-day treatments. Most second generation females in the 6- and 8-day treatments survived to mate. The mean oviposition period was 2.6 days for first generation females and 4.1 days for second generation females. Fecundity of singly mated females in both generations declined as age at mating advanced, but the pattern of decline differed between generations. First generation females that were mated on the first or second day laid more eggs than those mated on the fourth, sixth, or eighth day, and the number of infertile eggs increased as age at mating advanced. Fecundity of second generation females declined more gradually and the number of infertile eggs was greatest for females mated on the first, sixth, or eighth day. A consequence of the marked decline in fecundity due to mating delays in the first generation was that mean fecundity of the entire group of first generation females was ca. 13% less than that of the group of second generation females. On cranberry farms, pheromone-mediated mating disruption can prevent or delay mating of blackheaded fireworm. If the frequency of disrupted (prevented and delayed) matings is similar in the two generations, fewer eggs will be laid in the first generation than in the second.
... Research on the identification of sex pheromones for several cranberry pests has been published. One of the earliest reports was for the pheromone of Sparganothis fruitworm [Roelofs and Comeau 1970;Polavarapu et al. 2001], followed by the identification of the sex attractants for cranberry girdler [McDonough and Kamm 1979] and BHF [McDonough et al. 1987;Slessor et al. 1987]. The chemistry of the sex pheromone of CFW was identified [McDonough et al. 1994]. ...
Integrated pest management (IPM) was formally introduced to the cranberry industry in 1983 through support of a scouting program by the University of Massachusetts-Amherst. In that year, 6.5 ha of commercial cranberry were scouted by an IPM specialist. IPM has been successfully adopted by cranberry growers. In 2007, estimates indicate private consultants, company personnel, and individual growers combine to scout more than 80% of Massachusetts' cranberries (<4,050 ha). During the past 25 years, IPM has come to mean much more than simply sweep netting for insect pests and installing pheromone traps. Successful modern cranberry growers must have a working knowledge of insect biology, weed ecology, plant physiology, and disease life cycles. They must know how to apply products with novel chemistry, have proficiency with several pesticide-delivery systems, integrate traditional cultural practices into modern horticulture, select new varieties, cost-effectively renovate out-dated farms, and adjust to the pressures stemming from the encroachment of urbanization. In the 1980's and 1990's, growers primarily determined their response to reaching economic and action thresholds based on the current price of cranberry and the cost of the product they had chosen to apply. Over the past few years, the decision tree has changed. Growers must truly weigh their chosen management strategies in terms of social and environmental costs in addition to the simple economics of product and commodity price. Research by scientists at the UMass Cranberry Station, in collaboration with their colleagues across North America, has been addressing the current and future needs of the cranberry industry. This paper describes the history of IPM in Massachusetts, the challenges of managing a dynamic and expansive pest complex in a suburbanized environment, and the research that has supported and promoted sustainable cranberry production in Massachusetts.
... Fitzpatrick, personal communication), the pheromone of R. naevana is likely to provide useful information to T. sibericum regarding the presence of host eggs. Initially, we tested whether T. sibericum females were arrested during searching behavior in the presence of the main component of blackheaded fireworm pheromone (Z)-11-tetradecen-1-ol acetate (Z11-14: Ac) (McDonough et al., 1987;Slessor et al., 1987). This pheromone component is currently being tested for its potential in the pheromone-based mating disruption of fireworm (Fitzpatrick et al., 1995). ...
Searching times and residence times of Trichogramma sibericum Sorokina were measured in the laboratory on individual cranberry leaves that had been treated with the sex pheromone of blackheaded fireworm [Rhopobota naevana (Hbner)] and on leaves that were left untreated. Mean searching time was higher on leaves treated by passive diffusion with either 50 or 100 g of the main component of fireworm pheromone, (Z)-11-tetradecen-1-ol acetate (Z11-14: Ac), than on control leaves. Mean residence times were also higher on leaves treated by passive diffusion with 50 g of Z11-14: Ac than on leaves untreated with pheromone. Pretrial oviposition experience in either the presence or the absence of host pheromone did not influence variation in searching time or residence time. This indicates that neither associative learning of the odor of host pheromone nor a more generalized increase in response to chemical stimuli after oviposition (priming) affects retention responses of T. sibericum to pheromone. Results are discussed in the context of current theories on the evolution of learning in insect parasitoids and as they relate to the concurrent use of pheromone-based mating disruption and releases of T. sibericum for pest management of the blackheaded fireworm.
The diversity of biological systems, at different levels of the organization of the material, forms one of the main characteristics of the organic universe - the phenomenon of polymorphism. Numerous investigations have shown that polymorphism appears beginning from the intracellular organization of the material up to the level of the biocenosis. This new book is based on the notion of polymorphism as the co-existence in the dynamic balance of two or more morphophysiologically distinctive forms within the population.
About one hundred unsaturated long straight chain compounds (C10-C16) containing a terminal hydroxyl or acetoxyl group were synthesized and their attractiveness to male Lepidoptera were tested in various environments. In this screening test. male insects of ninety-three species which belong to fifteen families were attracted specifically. It was indicated that monoene alcohols and acetates constitute a main group of sex pheromones of the Lepidoptera native to Japan. Discussed are the structure-activity relationship in the attractants and the chemical structural features of components, which are expected to be present commonly in Torticidae, Noctuidae etc.
The half-lives (t
1/2) of alcohol sex pheromones, 1-alkanols, acetate sex pheromones, and an epoxide (disparlure) were determined on natural rubber septa. Thet
1/2 values for the homologous alcohols from decanol to heptadecanol increased regularly from 2.2 to 1117 days, but thet
1/2 of octadecanol was 609 days. Thet
1/2 values of (Z)7-, (E)7-, and (Z)9-tetradecen-1-ol acetates were 154, 168, and 199 days, respectively, whereas those of five other tested 14-carbon acetates ranged from 310 to 350 days. The dependence oft
1/2 values on chain length and double-bond position is consistent with the hypothesis that molecular size is an important variable affectingt
1/2 values. Also, in accordance with the hypothesis, when aZ-alkenyl compound has a much shortert
1/2 than the corresponding saturated compound, thet
1/2 values of theZ compound and itsE isomer may be quite different. Thus, (E)-9-tetradecen-l-ol acetate had at
1/2 of 331 days. Thet
1/2 of disparlure was 180 days. The effect of thecis-7,8 epoxide group is apparently similar to that of the olefin group in lowering thet
1/2 below the value that would be expected solely on the basis of chain length.
Splitless capillary gas chromatography indicated the presence of (Z)- and (E)-11-tetradecenyl acetate and (Z)-11-tetradecenyl alcohol in the washes of female abdominal tips of the blackheaded fireworm,Rhopobota naevana (Hubner). Gas chromatography combined with mass spectroscopy confirmed the presence of tetradecenyl acetate in extracts of female tips. The low levels observed in these extracts (< 1 ng/female equivalent), prevented further chemical and spectroscopic identification. These materials were found to be stimulatory at low levels in electroantennogram studies. A combination of 9 μg of (Z)-11-tetradecenyl acetate and 3 μg of (Z)-11-tetradecenyl alcohol on rubber septa in wing traps provided an effective attractant. (Z)-9-Dodecenyl acetate, a previously reported attractant, did not significantly increase field trapping catches when added to the binary mixture, but was found to enhance trap catches when added to each of the primary components.
The holly bud moth, Rhopobota naevana (Hbn.) Kearfott, was introduced into British Columbia before 1923 and has subsequently spread southward through Washington into Oregon. It is now an important pest in Oregon holly plantings. Evaluation of insecticides for holly bud moth control showed that a high degree of control can be obtained with organic phosphate insecticides. Malathion consistently provided excellent control with one spray applied sometime between the opening of the leaf buds and the time of blossoming. Good control was also obtained with methoxychlor. DDT did not give consistent results under the same conditions. The difference between the results with the organic phosphates and with DDT might be explained on the basis of DDT tolerance in the holly bud moth. Another possible explanation is that the organic phosphate insecticides have an ovicidal effect which DDT does not have. The results with methoxychlor make the first explanation more probable.
Moths identified as adults of the blackheaded fireworm of cranberry, Rhopovbota naevna (Hbn.), were obtained from larvae that were very destructive to the "evergreen heckle berry," Vaccinium ovalum, Pursh., on the Olympic Peninsula in Washington in 1958 and 1959. These larvae are known locally as "tipworms" from their habit of feeding on the terminal growth of the young shoots of the host plant. The "evergreen huckleberry" is a new host for host for the blackheaded fireworm in America. Previously it was known only from cranberry. Two parasitic insects were reared from, the "tipworms," an ichncumonid wasp, Horogenes sp., and a tachinid fly, Eulasoniasp. Both are now records. The parasitic wasps killed the "tipworms" in the last larval stage and destroyed about 10% of them. The synonomy of the blackheaded fireworm is questioned and reasons for this uncertainty are given.
Field results have shown that male moths of some species are not always trapped by the ratio of pheromone components produced by the female moths. For cases involving a binary mixture of geometrical or positional isomers, this phenomenon may be explained by use of a threshold diagram in which the isomer ratio in the mixture is plotted against release rate (concentration). In this diagram an attraction area is bounded by the threshold for flight activation over the full range of binary mixtures and by the threshold for alteration of in-flight behavior (disorientation) by each pheromone component. A low release rate of the natural mixture may fall within this attraction area, or a high release rate of mixtures in certain other ratios may fall within this area and would be expected to attract male moths. This hypothesis has been used to explain heretofore anomalous trapping data with some moth species, and it can be useful in future studies on defining pheromone blends, species specificity, and potentially disruptive mixtures for insect control.
The half-lives (tin1/2) of acetate sex pheromones andn-alkyl acetates were determined on either or both West Co. and Arthur H. Thomas Co. natural rubber septa. These septa gave equal half-lives. Thet
1/2 values covered a large range: e.g.,t
1/2 for decyl acetate was 5 days and that for pentadecyl acetate was 1353 days. The expected linear relationship between Int
1/2 versus the number of carbon atoms was found for the six acetates fromn-decyl to pentadecyl, but thet
1/2 of hexadecyl acetate was only 478 days. This nonlinearity in the plot is attributed to the presence of polymer cross-links which create molecular size cages and produce an effect similar to that produced in gel permeation chromatography wherein large molecules elute faster than smaller ones. Thet
1/2 of 4 monounsaturated acetates were close to thet
1/2 for the corresponding saturated acetates, but this relationship may not be general. The half-life of one nonconjugated diunsaturated acetate was much less than that for the corresponding monounsaturated acetate, whereas the half-life of another nonconjugated diunsaturated acetate was similar to the half-life of the corresponding monounsaturated acetate. Thet
1/2 values determined for the pheromones may be used to estimate evaporation rates, the length of time the evaporation rates will be within a given range, and, with multicomponent pheromones, the ratio of components in the vapor.
(Z)-11-Hexadecen-1-ol acetate (Z11–16Ac) free of theE isomer ( Ac), and a hexadecen-1-ol [the (Z)-11 isomer based on the retention time on a Carbowax capillary column] were identified in extracts of the sex pheromone glands of adult virgin female armyworms,Pseudaletia unipuncta. Also, gas Chromatographic retention times on polar and nonpolar columns indicated the possible presence of (Z)-9-hexadecen-1-ol acetate (Z9–16Ac). The ratioZ11–16Ac/16Ac/Z11–16OH/Z9–16Ac was 10.150.130.02. Infield testsZ11–16 Ac was attractive alone, and the addition ofZ9–16Ac,Zll–16 OH, or 16 Ac singly or in combination in ratios found in the gland did not increase trap capture.
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