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Global, regional, and country level need for data on wastewater generation, treatment, and use
... Globally, over 80% of wastewater is released into the environment untreated (WWAP, 2017). Figure 1 shows that 70% of municipal and industrial wastewater is treated in high-income countries; 38% in upper-middle income; 28% in lower-middle income; and only 8% is treated in low-income countries (Sato et al., 2013). Water quality is projected to worsen over the next decade (WWAP, 2017). ...
... Data on wastewater volumes, quality, collection and treatment is insufficient globally, particularly so in developing countries. Sato et al. (2013) studied data from 181 countries, on three aspects of wastewater: generation, treatment and use. They found that 55 countries (30%) had reliable data on all three aspects; 69 countries (38%) had data on one or two aspects, while the other 57 countries had no data (32%). ...
... Competing water users, as well as ongoing wastewater quality issues, compound struggles of water availability. (Sato et al., 2013). 'Recent' data is from 5 years before the publication. ...
Previous research in South Africa has identified gaps in wastewater quality characterisation and remediation. Wastewater quality indicators need to be known in order to reuse, recycle, and/or recover resources, but are poorly reported for wastewater streams. Formal and relational approaches were used to access wastewater quality information. Relational approaches included building relationships with industry partners through telephone calls, emails and meetings, while formal approaches included requests for public documents and legal applications using the Promotion of Access to Information Act. Published data were another source of information. The following industries were identified as major wastewater generating industries: pulp and paper, fish processing, power generation, mining and petroleum. Seven parameters were commonly used to indicate quality: pH, volume, electrical conductivity, nitrogen, sulphate, sodium and chemical oxygen demand. Calcium was not measured, even though discharge limits are required in environmental licenses. The accessed wastewater quality data ranged from qualitative to quantitative. The number of parameters used varied within and between industries. Although wastewater information is non-confidential, in practice it is not readily available. There are opportunities to improve wastewater management and resource recovery; however, this needs to happen in an environment of trust and transparency. This is currently lacking between industry, government, and research bodies.
... It was established that the current practices are cost intensive, and so it is imperative to develop approaches that will provide cheap and effective WWM through education and technology. Sato et al. (2013) reviewed the global, regional, and country-level need for data on WW generation, treatment, and use. It was established that stringent effluent discharge regulations and public preferences concerning environmental quality were the motivation for countries with adequate WWM practices. ...
... It was established that stringent effluent discharge regulations and public preferences concerning environmental quality were the motivation for countries with adequate WWM practices. It is expedient to develop what would motivate effective WWM in SSA ( Sato et al., 2013 ). Adewumi and Oguntuase (2016) studied the planning of the WW reuse program in Nigeria. ...
... The global WW production has been estimated to be ∼360 bm 3 /y, with an average of 60% being collected and ∼50% treated yearly, leaving the untreated WW to be discharged into waterways and thereby creating health issues, environmental and climate-related threats ( Jones et al., 2021 ). Sato et al. (2013) , in their study, presented a detailed report on the production, treatment, and reuse of WW for different countries and regions with North America having an estimated volume of WW of ∼85,000 m 3 /y, Middle East and North Africa with ∼22,300 m 3 /y but for many nations in DCs, including the SSA region, there is no adequate record of WW generation ( Sato et al., 2013 ). In Saudi Arabia, for example, the population was ∼25 million in 2007 and it rose to ∼33 million in 2018 with a regular growth rate of 3% per annum, consequently; the sewage effluent was predicted to reach ∼800 million m 3 /d by the end of 2019 with only little amount being treated ( Alkhudhiri et al., 2019 ). ...
The continuous growth in population and industrial development has prompted wastewater (WW) generation in enormous volume with resultant effects on the quality of water in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The generated WW flows into freshwater thereby depleting water quality in the region as the amount of WW treated before discharge into the environment is < 10%. There have been several studies that focused on the effect of water pollution and its related issues on public health and the environment. Undeniably, there is a substantial capacity for progress in wastewater management (WWM) with its numerous benefits to the public and the environment. The global community has been faced with a water quality crisis emanating from rapid population growth, poor wastewater treatment (WWT), etc. SSA comprises ~1 billion people with ~25% who are having access to quality drinking water, and < 30% having access to essential sanitation services. Thus, this study aims to offer a summary of challenges facing wastewater management in the SSA region, wastewater as a resource, wastewater treatment plants, and wastewater as a resource in a circular economy. This high point presents the summary of health challenges/effects of untreated wastewater on the environment and public health and their associated diseases/illnesses. And environmental and economic benefits of effective wastewater management. A significant examination was made of the statutory regulations, social acceptability, economic aspects, and solution to wastewater issues were all emphasized.
... The largest portion of waste producer is countries from high-level income group. The share of these countries is around 70 percent in wastewater treatment; dramatically it is 38 percent share of countries from upper-middle income, while there is 28 percent share in wastewater treatment by lower-middle income countries and the lowest share is from low-income countries, which is only 8 percent of generated wastewater by industrial sectors [33]. ...
... Other side of around 20 percent shares of countries is from Latin America, while 51 percent the largest share is in treatment by Middle East and North Africa as shown in Table 2. Due to lack of funds by African countries, it is very difficult to treat the industrial and municipal wastewater generated by industries and domestic. It is reported that no data of wastewater generation, discharge, and treatment of 32 countries out of 48 from African countries are available in government-or water-related agencies [33]. Wastewater is the biggest threat for toxic and polluted wastewater from different industries, textile, sugarcane, pharmaceuticals, paper, food and some other industries. ...
... About 10 percent of the population of world depends only on the food cultivated by polluted wastewater [40]. Around 26 percent productions of vegetables directly use wastewater in Pakistan; this situation prevails in all regions of the world [33]. Around 80 percent of total generated wastewater is directly discharged without fulfilling the requirements of regulatory bodies [41]. ...
Water is a blessing and reason for survival on earth for human beings. Without water, it is not difficult to live on earth, but it is impossible. Water fulfills domestic, drinking, agricultural, and industrial requirements and makes everything useful for us. Unfortunately, rapid increase in population, unplanned agriculture practices, and industrial sector have become a serious issues for environment and for future needs. Water will be a very important issue for next generations to face. Safe water access up to 50−100 liters per day for drinking and sanitation is a right of every human being, recognized by the United Nations General Assembly in July 2010. Approximately, six billion people may suffer from scarcity of clean water by 2050. The agriculture sector is the largest consumer of freshwater around 70% followed by industry and domestic of 19 and 11%, respectively. The global demand for water is gradually increasing by 1% per year. Global demand for water is predicted to increase by 55% between the years 2000 and 2050. Existing global water demand has been projected to about 4600 km 3 every year and estimation may increase up to 20−30%, in range of 5500−6000 km 3 every year by 2050.
... However, ∼80% of wastewater across the world is discharged into the environment without appropriate treatment [2]. Globally, high-income countries treat ∼70% of wastewater generated, while upper middle-income countries treat ∼38%, lower middle-income countries treat ∼28%, and low-income countries treat only 8% of industrial and municipal wastewater [3]. In general, ∼245 000 km 2 of marine ecosystem has been affected due to discharge of untreated wastewater into sea and oceans. ...
... It was reported that consumption of nitrate-contaminated water during early pregnancy may increase risk of specific congenital disabilities. It was testified that NO 3 − concentration in groundwater was around 50-100 mg/L in some Indian states, which exceeds the WHO standard for NO 3 − in drinking water [9]. ...
... Subsequently, Manjunath and Kumar [23] studied removal of PO 4 3− and NO 3 − using Prosopis juliflora activated carbon by increasing PO 4 3− and NO 3 − initial concentration from 1 to 100 mg/L. The researchers reported that adsorption capacity increased from 0.40 to 20.72 mg/g for PO 4 3− and 0.90 to 23.58 mg/g for NO 3 − . The increase in adsorbate concentration improves the possibility of collision between nutrient ions in adsorbate solution and adsorbent and that allows PO 4 3− and NO 3 − ions to overcome mass transfer resistance between liquid and solid phases, thereby improving adsorption capacity. ...
Adsorption using low-cost adsorbent seems to be a promising technique for nutrient recovery. For the sustainability of the ecosystem and environmental protection, removal and recovery of nutrients from wastewater along with regeneration and reuse of spent adsorbent are essential. Many investigations have been carried out for the removal of nutrients from single-component systems whereas very few investigations have examined and modeled the nutrients removal in multi-component adsorption systems. This chapter covers the basic principles and potential application of low-cost adsorbent for removal and recovery of nutrients (PO43- and NO3-) from single-component and multi-component adsorption systems. Furthermore, this chapter provides an overview of adsorption capability of different low-cost adsorbents for PO43- and NO3- removal, factors influencing adsorption, kinetic and equilibrium modeling, mechanism of nutrient adsorption and management of spent adsorbent. Finally, the application of modified Langmuir model for binary adsorption system (simultaneous removal of PO43- and NO3-) is discussed.
... According to the recent report 70% of the generated wastewater is treated in the high-income countries. On contrary, the portion of the treated wastewater was in the range between 38% and 8% for middle-income and low-income countries, respectively (Sato et al. 2013). The problems associated with the wastewater generation and treatment will intensify in the future due to the water scarcity and population growth. ...
... Therefore the swift actions must be made in order to create a wastewater treatment technique to produce a water of the certain quality. The treated wastewater could be used for irrigation, drinking, or for general use in human activities (Sato et al. 2013). The typical composition of the wastewater is complex and varies depending on the source of the wastewater. ...
Conventional wastewater treatment plants are mainly based on biological treatment technologies that do not suit for the removal of some organic pollutants in cold climate regions. Therefore, the research on complementary or post-treatment technologies such as advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) is important. AOPs are mainly based on the generation of hydroxyl and sulfate radicals for further oxidation of the pollutants. In this work, the sources of the sulfate radicals such as potassium persulfate (K2S2O8), sodium persulfate (Na2S2O8), and ammonium persulfate ((NH4)2S2O8) were compared in term of the total organic carbon (TOC) removal from the synthetic wastewater at low temperature. For this purpose, a three-level Box-Behnken design (BBD) in conjunction with the response surface methodology has been used. UV irradiation at 254 nm, the reaction time of 120 min, and Fe 2+ dosage at 10 mg/L were used as hold values. According to the analysis of variance (ANOVA), the BBD-RSM models for TOC removal showed significant regression coefficients (R 2 = 0.9753, adjusted-R 2 = 0.9309, and predicted-R 2 = 0.6221). Pareto chart indicated that the concentration of the ammonium persulfate was the most significant factor at 12 °C.
... The reality, however, is far from this goal. According to some estimations, only 32% of wastewater worldwide receives some type of treatment (Habitat and WHO 2021;Sato et al. 2013). ...
... 20% of discharges in Australia and New Zealand, Europe and Northern America, 35% in Eastern and Southeastern Asia, Northern Africa and Western Asia, 60% in Latin America and the Caribbean, and close to 75% in central and southern Asia and sub-Saharan Africa are not treated(UN 2021;Sato et al. 2013; Mateo-Sagasta et al. 2015). Also, according to the World Health Organization and World Bank, globally 20-40% of water sector finances, in the range of USD155 to 700 billion annually, are lost to dishonest and corrupt practices (UN 2021).Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. ...
In this article, we offer an analysis of point-source water pollution governance in the European agri-food sector. Specifically, we tackle the case study of the wine industry in Aragon (Spain) through the lenses of the networks of action situations approach. We unveil key strategic decisions of wine producers in relation to compliance with water discharge regulations and explore the feasibility and effectiveness of potential solutions. According to our quantitative and qualitative analyses, the problem of peak load discharges in the sector can be explained by the strategic behavior of wine producers in the context of enforcement deficits, as well as by particularities of the wine production process, and controversies around the construction and management of public treatment plants. Coordination among wine producers and public treatment plant managers to invest in in-house treatment infrastructure or to smooth discharges out so they fit the capacity of treatment plants would be a promising solution; however, economic incentives and tightened enforcement of discharge regulations would also be necessary.
Graphical abstract
... Although the living standards of human society have improved significantly in the past few decades, technological advances and urban, industrial, and agricultural activities inevitably pollute the water environment with toxic chemicals. Of the estimated 3928 km 3 of annual freshwater that is withdrawn by human society, 56% is released into the environment, including approximately 330 km 3 of urban wastewater, approximately 660 km 3 of industrial wastewater, and approximately 1260 km 3 of agricultural wastewater [1,2]. Globally, 80% of urban wastewater is released into the environment without treatment, and industrial activities dump millions of tons of harmful substances annually into water bodies [3,4]. ...
... Of the estimated 3928 km 3 of annual freshwater that is withdrawn by human society, 56% is released into the environment, including approximately 330 km 3 of urban wastewater, approximately 660 km 3 of industrial wastewater, and approximately 1260 km 3 of agricultural wastewater [1,2]. Globally, 80% of urban wastewater is released into the environment without treatment, and industrial activities dump millions of tons of harmful substances annually into water bodies [3,4]. Currently, 844 million people do not have access to clean water [5]. ...
Nowadays, the development of real-time water quality monitoring sensors is critical. However, traditional water monitoring technologies, such as enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), liquid chromatography, mass spectroscopy, luminescence screening, surface plasma resonance (SPR), and analysis of living bioindicators, are either time consuming or require expensive equipment and special laboratories. Because of the low cost, self-sustainability, direct current output and real-time response, microbial fuel cells (MFCs) have been implemented as biosensors for water toxicity monitoring. In this paper, we report a microscale MFC biosensor to study the dose–response curve of exoelectrogen to toxic compounds in water. The microscale MFC biosensor has an anode chamber volume of 200 μL, which requires less sample consumption for water toxicity monitoring compared with macroscale or mesoscale MFC biosensors. For the first time, the MFC biosensor is exposed to a large formaldehyde concentration range of more than 3 orders of magnitudes, from a low concentration of 1 × 10−6 g/L to a high concentration of 3 × 10−3 g/L in water, while prior studies investigated limited formaldehyde concentration ranges, such as a small concentration range of 1 × 10−4 g/L to 2 × 10−3 g/L or only one high concentration of 0.1 g/L. As a result, for the first time, a sigmoid dose–response relationship of normalized dose–response versus formaldehyde concentration in water is observed, in agreement with traditional toxicology dose–response curve obtained by other measurement techniques. The biosensor has potential applications in determining dose–response curves for toxic compounds and detecting toxic compounds in water.
... About 30% of the generated wastewater is from municipal wastewater, whereas over 60% comes from industries, such as coal mines [2]. The disposal of wastewater remains the main challenge, especially in thirdworld countries where roughly 8% of wastewater is treated prior to being discharged [3]. Water pollution imposes a threat to environment and human and animal health [4]. ...
... Table 3 illustrates the pH stability of the flocculant. The biopolymer was active within an extensive pH range (3)(4)(5)(6)(7)(8)(9)(10)(11)(12), giving flocculating efficiencies above or equal to 89% ( Table 3). The pH of solutions tends to alter the charge status of biopolymers and the structural profiles of colloids, consequently affecting flocculation rate [52]. ...
Attention has been paid to bioflocculants production because of their effectiveness, innocuousness and environmental friendliness. This study aimed to characterise a bioflocculant from Bacillus megaterium BMBF and apply it in wastewater treatment. The proteins, carbohydrates and uronic acid were calculated using the Bradford, phenol–sulphuric acid and carbazole assays, respectively. An energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) and infrared spectrometry were employed for the identification of the elemental composition and effective units, respectively. Cytotoxicity was carried out against Vero (African green monkey kidney) and bovine dermis cells using a colorimetric cytotoxicity assay. The reduction in chemical oxygen demand (COD) and biological oxygen demand (BOD) in domestic and coal mine wastewater was studied using the Jar test. The flocculant was composed of 12% protein, 27% carbohydrates and 61% uronic acid. Infrared spectrometry indicated hydroxyl, carboxyl and amino groups. EDX indicated C (61%) and O (17.5%) as the main elements. The bioflocculant revealed the mean inhibition concentration of 59 ug/mL against bovine dermis and 240 µg/mL on Vero cells. Maximum COD and BOD removal percentages of 97% and 99.3% were recorded on coal mine wastewater treatment and about 99.2% (COD) and 93% (BOD) on domestic wastewater. In conclusion, the bioflocculant from B. megaterium has potential industrial utility.
... Looking at the significant of wastewater management at local and global level, the updated wastewater treatment, use and management is needed. Toshio et al. (2013) using data for 181 countries reported that 55 countries have no information on wastewater production, treatment and use, 69 countries have partial information while 55 countries have complete information on wastewater generation, management and utilization. Exall et al. (2008) found that 85km 3 of wastewater were generated in North America of which 61km 3 are treated. ...
... Russian Federation generates 14km 3 /year of treated wastewater. About 28% of the waste is processed according to regulations, while the rest is discharged into aquatic bodies in an untreated state (Toshio, 2013). Only 51% of the sewage produced in the Middle East and North Africa gets treated, according to Qadir et al. (2010). ...
Globally, the problem of pollution is considered to be one of the main cause of water scarcity, as it is common to waste dumped in streams and rivers. This problem has resulted in high levels of toxic chemicals such as pesticides, micro-pollutants and heavy metals being found in water bodies. The unwavering natural surroundings of worldwide rareness of water is the topographical and sequential discrepancy between the demands for clean fresh water and the obtainability of it.
However, new and diverse technologies have been developed in order to achieve sustainable clean fresh water resources. The revolution in the development of novel technologies and materials such as nanomaterials is considered one of the most motivating and potential novel technologies for wastewater treatment. This review outlines the advancements of separation processes in treating polluted wastewater. Technologies such as phytoremediation, nanotechnologies and photo-catalysis were discussed.
... Furthermore, it is time-and location-based, allowing for daily to seasonal storage and local and international delivery. In addition, its use is not limited to energy generation [12,13]. ...
Abstract
Hydrogen is a fuel with enormous potential to meet the need for ecologically friendly energy sources. Hydrogen from renewable sources can reroute renewable sources out of landfills and other expensive treatments. Despite this, several renewables-to-hydrogen methods are generally in their infancy and need substantial work to be recognised as a crucial aspect of the approach to sustainability. This analysis reviews renewables-to-hydrogen technologies extensively from technical, economic, ecological, and social perspectives. Five technologies current states were summarised, emphasising developing developments in published literature. Several information gaps, research directions, opportunities, and potential improvements were also found with efficiency, greenhouse gas emissions, manufacturing costs, hydrogen-based mobility, and public acceptability. Incorporating renewable energy into processes, reducing production costs, and addressing the absence of techno-economic and ecological analyses of renewables-to-hydrogen pathways are the most urgent research requirements identified in this study. The results of this study will help make it easier to use hydrogen in extensive energy facilities in a safe way.
... A large amount of those wastewaters is still released, untreated, into the environment. Information reported only a few years ago suggested that high-income countries treat about 70% of their wastewaters, while this drops to 38% in upper-middle-income countries, 28% in lower-middleincome countries, and hardly 8% in low-income countries (Sato et al., 2013). ...
... The area of Mediterranean basin contains lower, upper middle-, and high-income countries is leading to variation in demographic and populations, industrialization and economic growth, disposal and reuses of wastewater, water and wastewater treatment processes [261]. As a result, there is a variation in water management and policies for each country differ than others as follow: (a) high income/developed countries such as France and Italy treat about 70 % of produced wastewater, (b) upper middle-income countries such as Turkey, Croatia, and Algeria treat about 38 % of wastewater, and (c) lower middle-income countries e.g., Tunisia, Morocco, and Syria treat about 28 % of wastewater [262,263]. The Mediterranean basin covering European countries classified in the top of 10 producers and exporters of medicines in Europe in 2016 such as Spain, Italy, and France (4, 5, and 10 % respectively) [264]. ...
Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) residues are known to occur widely in the aquatic environments of industrialized and developing countries. Considerable progress has been made regarding to study of their exposure and distribution in aquatic environment. The spatial distribution and transformation of PPCPs have been investigated in the aquatic systems of different countries covering the five UN regions. As a result, the objectives of this review are focused on: (a) the global occurrence of PPCPs residues in aquatic systems, particularly in drinking/tap water, surface water, groundwater, and wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), (b) widely prescribed pharmaceutical classes such as antibiotics, antidepressants, β-blockers, lipid regulators, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), etc. due to their potential adverse influences on the aquatic ecosystems and human health, (c) the spatial distribution of PPCPs in water bodies based on recently published data, (d) different regions in the world (e.g., USA, China, and Mediterranean basin) as case studies of contaminated areas, (e) the relation of occurrences with specific characteristics of frequently detected compounds, (f) the legislation and regulations implemented by countries/states governments were summarized and discussed, and finally, (g) future perspectives for research on PPCPs in the aquatic environment, which are explained regarded to the research gaps in current knowledge. The findings of this review indicate that the concentrations of PPCPs in the influents and effluents of WWTPs of the selected regions are much higher than in other water matrices. Additionally, there are significant variations in PPCPs concentrations between different countries and regions due to certain reasons.
... El centro urbano del cantón Jipijapa tiene una población de aproximadamente 48216 habitantes, De acuerdo a los datos proporcionados la Empresa Soluciones de Ingeniería Civil Eficaces S.A, (2021).El manejo de los sistemas de agua potable, aguas servidas y aguas lluvias, se encuentran a cargo de la Empresa Pública Municipal de Agua Potable y Alcantarillado del Cantón Jipijapa, EPMAPAS-J, su objetivo fundamental es la gestión de los servicios de agua potable, alcantarillado sanitario y pluvial, control de inundaciones y desechos sólidos, mediante la aplicación de conceptos gerenciales con principios de prestación de servicios eficientes y eficaces. Se estima que en Ecuador, se realiza el tratamiento de entre el 10 y 25% de las aguas residuales que se descargan a cuerpos de agua (Sato et al., 2013). La solución planteada para afrontar este problema en las principales ciudades del país, fue la construcción de sistemas de lagunas de oxidación o estabilización, como en el caso de las ciudades de Cuenca, Guayaquil y Portoviejo, debido a aspectos como el bajo costo en la implementación, facilidad al construirlas y su operatividad (Ho et al., 2017). ...
El presente trabajo de investigación se enfocó en evaluar la planta de tratamiento de agua residual del cantón Jipijapa mediante tres fases: check list para el evaluó de la infraestructura, análisis de cinco muestras de agua en cada etapa del sistema, para comprobar la eficiencia del tratamiento y una evaluación de aspectos e impactos ambientales que se presentan en el establecimiento; como desarrollo de la investigación se empleó el método de campo para identificar el estado de la infraestructura, se empleó el método de análisis para poder tomar seis muestras de aguas que posteriormente fueron analizadas, las muestras fueron tomadas en el ingreso del afluente, salida de reactores, salida de la laguna de estabilización, salida de la laguna de maduración, efluente de la planta de tratamiento y a 50 metros cuenca abajo del punto de descarga y la utilización de la matriz de identificación de aspectos y valoración de impactos ambientales para valorar y verificar el cumplimiento legal y determinar el nivel o estado del aspecto e impacto. Los resultados obtenidos constato que las rejillas del debaste, el hormigón de los reactores anaeróbicos, los reactores anaeróbicos de flujos ascendentes, la laguna facultativa y maduración, la geomembrana y el área de lechos de secado, encontrándose todas estas áreas en un estado ineficiente o moderado dentro de sus funciones, disminuyendo la eficiencia del tratamiento de agua residual, comprobándose en los resultados de los análisis de agua realizados, donde los parámetros de DBO5 y DQO incumplen con los límites permisibles presentes en la tabla 10 del acuerdo ministerial 097-A. De los siete aspectos ambientales identificados todos incumplen con el marco legal y cinco de los identificados se encuentra en un nivel de impacto significativo. En conclusión, se logró obtener información del estado actual de la planta de tratamiento de aguas residuales del cantón Jipijapa para la toma de decisiones de repotenciar y brindar el debido mantenimiento para obtener una eficiencia del tratado.
... Each year, at least 1.8 million children under the age of fve die due to water-related diseases, accounting for roughly 17% of all deaths in this age group [2]. Tis suggests that the situation in developing countries is getting worse [2,14]. Hence, these pollutants should be removed before greywater is reused or released into the environment in order to protect the environment and public health. ...
Most countries around the world have experienced water scarcity in recent decades as fresh water consumption has increased. However, untreated wastewater is routinely discharged into the environment, particularly in developing countries, where it causes widespread environmental and public health problems. The majority of wastewater treatment method publications are heavily focused on high-income country applications and, in most cases, cannot be transferred to low and middle-income countries. An experimental study was conducted to evaluate the performance efficiency of pilot-scale physicochemical and biological treatment methods for the treatment of household greywater in Jimma, Ethiopia. During the experiment, grab samples of greywater were taken from the combined treatment system’s influent and effluent every 7 days for 5 weeks and analyzed within 24–48 hours. Temperature, DO, EC, turbidity, TDS, and pH were measured on-site, while BOD, COD, TSS, TP, TN PO4−3-P, NO3-N, NH4-N, Cl−, and FC were determined in the laboratory. During the five-week pilot-scale combined treatment system monitoring period, the combined experimental and control system’s mean percentage reduction efficiencies were as follows: turbidity (97.2%, 92%), TSS (99.2%, 97.2%), BOD5 (94%, 57.4%), COD (91.6%, 54.7%), chloride (61%, 35%), TN (68.24, 42.7%), TP (71.6%, 38.7%), and FC (90%, 71.1%), respectively. Similarly, the combined experimental and control systems reduced PO4−3-P (12.5 ± 3 mg/L), NO3-N (4.5 ± 3 mg/L), and NH4-N (10.19 ± 2.6 mg/L) to PO4−3-P (3.5 ± 2.6 mg/L, 7.5 ± 1.6 mg/L), NO3-N (0.8 ± 0.5, 3.6 ± 2.3 mg/L), and NH4-N (7 ± 2.9 mg/L, 15.9 ± 3.9 mg/L), respectively. From the biofiltration and horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetland combined systems, the experimental combined technology emerged as the best performing greywater treatment system, exhibiting remarkably higher pollutant removal efficiencies. In conclusion, the combined biofiltration and horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetland treatment system can be the technology of choice in low-income countries, particularly those with tropical climates.
... Large amounts of urban waste all around the world, which has been produced by human activities, have raised serious threats to healthcare and environmental-friendly organizations. Correspondingly, treatment of wastewater has become a matter of cocern of developed countries, such that high-income countries treated 70% of the generated wastewater on average according to the last available data [8]. The significance of the treatment process is highlighted since the governmental and regional policies have been developed for wastewater treatment in various applications such as agriculture, industry, and aquaculture [9]. ...
Biomass management in terms of energy consumption optimization has become a recent challenge for developed countries. Nevertheless, the multiplicity of materials and operating parameters controlling energy consumption in wastewater treatment plants necessitates the need for sophisticated well-organized disciplines in order to minimize energy consumption and dissipation. Sewage sludge (SS) disposal management is the key stage of this process, such that incineration due to the high costs of drying remains a matter of concern. Thus, a combination of experimental investigations and data analysis is required for an efficient plant design. Herein, we propose an intelligent tool based on Machine Learning (ML) algorithms (A: Parallel, B: Artificial Neural Network (ANN), and C: Chained, ML models) by employing SciKit-Learn library in Python, followed by hyper-parameter tuning and the k-fold cross-validation implementation. The optimizer receives simulation data from ASPEN PLUS software, and imitates the behavior of system outputs (namely, Yi : fluidized bed temperature, steam heat transfer rate, and dryer residence time in the SS) to yield optimal changing variables (namely, Xi : feed temperature, air temperature, fume temperature, steam flow rate, moisture content in the feedstock, and steam inlet temperature to dryer). The authenticity and precision of our intelligent optimizer was validated in terms of optimum heat transfer amount (the higher the better) and dryer residence time (the lower the better) by data collected from wastewater treatment plant in Gdynia (Poland), demonstrating excellent predictability of the algorithm. The R2 values for A, B, and C ML models were 0.85, 0.94, and 0.91, respectively. The B model, though slightly revealed better prediction than the C model, estimated the outputs in much lower time than the former. Thus, C model was selected as the computational tool for the optimization purpose. Overall, we claim that the methodology developed herein takes the advantage of ca. 6% saving in the total amount of energy required for incineration unit of SS disposal plant, which is well justified considering the energy crisis raised by the geopolitical issues in the
area and also the high cost of energy worldwide.
... More than 90% of domestic waste in developing countries is disposed directly into the environment without undergoing treatment, which poses a potential hazard to the environment and the people who are directly connected to the wastewater (Sato et al., 2013). Recently, many wastewater treatment techniques have been developed, including the contact flocculation filtration technique, which uses a filter with a floating medium. ...
... Therefore, for sustainable water management, As and waste nutrients should be efficiently removed from the municipal wastewater before being released into the environment or further exploited. Bioremediation is an effective biological treatment technology characterized by low consumption, high efficiency, and being environmentally safe [8,9]. Particularly, macroalgaebased wastewater treatment has received considerable attention for more than half a century due to its high biomass productivities and high rates of nutrient and heavy metal uptake [10]. ...
Macroalgae bioremediation is a potential way to deal with the escalating problem of arsenic contamination. The results of this study show that arsenic content in wastewater treated by Oedogonium intermedium decreases by 32% from 1.13 ±0.01 to 0.77 ±0.03 ppb. Then, supercritical carbon dioxide (SC‐CO2) extraction was employed to isolate lipids from O. intermedium. Response surface methodology based on the Box‐Behnken design was carried out to optimize the SC‐CO2 extraction conditions of pressure (200–400 bar), temperature (30–50 °C), and extraction time (30–90 min). The optimal condition from the model is predicted at 301.95 bar, 41.3 °C, and 30.53 min with 3.24% lipid yield, 61.30% PUFA ratio, and 0.106 µg g−1 of arsenic content, respectively.
... Most consumed water becomes wastewater and requires safe disposal [2]. The demand for water supply and consequently the amount of wastewater generated are rising due to growth in population, rise in demand per capita, and expansion in economic activities [3,4]. It is estimated that about 85 billion m 3 of wastewater is generated annually in North America alone [5]. ...
Spin casting is the oldest method of manufacturing precast concrete pipes among all existing methods. While improved concrete mixtures incorporating fibers for other methods of concrete pipe manufacturing, such as the vibration method and roller compaction method, have been developed, no such concrete mixture has yet been developed for spun-cast concrete pipes. This study was designed to explore the possibility of incorporating locally manufactured steel fibers and commercially available polypropylene fibers to develop an improved concrete mixture for use in the manufacturing of full-scale spun-cast concrete pipes. The used steel fibers were of two types, i.e., straight and bundled steel fibers, manufactured by cutting locally available long straight and bundled steel wires, respectively. Various dosages of steel fibers (i.e., 20, 30, 40, and 50 kg/m3) and polypropylene fibers (i.e., 5, 10, 15, and 20 kg/m3) were used in mono and hybrid (steel and polypropylene) forms. The properties in the fresh state and mechanical properties of the test mixtures were investigated. Full-scale spun-cast concrete pipes having a 450 mm internal diameter were manufactured and tested using the three-edge bearing test. The compressive strength of the mixtures was largely insensitive to the dosage of the fibers. The splitting tensile strength of all fiber-reinforced concrete mixtures was higher than that of the reference mixture without fibers, with a 24% increase recorded for the concrete mixture incorporating 50 kg/m3 of bundled steel fibers relative to the reference mixture with no fibers. The flexural performance of the fiber-reinforced concrete mixtures was superior to that of the reference mixture without fibers in terms of flexural strength, toughness, residual strength, and crack control, with up to 28% higher flexural strength relative to the reference mixture without fibers. The three-edge bearing tests on full-scale spun-cast pipes incorporating steel fibers showed that the use of fibers is a promising alternative to the traditional steel cage in spun-cast concrete pipes.
... t. al., 2013). The percentages of untreated wastewater in 2015 and aspirations for 2030 of countries with different income levels are given in Figure 1 (WWAP, 2017). Considering the levels of wastewater treatment overall, it can be said that significant investments may be required to improve the existing capacity for wastewater treatment and reuse (Sato et. al., 2013). Natural wastewater treatment is a system that requires no or little electrical energy. It has low maintenance and operating costs, low energy consumption, and technology, so it can be ideal for sustainable and recyclable services, especially in developing countries (Mahmood et. al., 2013). ...
... Surface water pollution in the Asia-Pacific region is quite alarming, with about 80-90% of the wastewater released without treatment, which pollutes the ground and surface water resources, as well as, coastal ecosystems [5]. Additionally in low-income countries, only about 8% of industrial and municipal wastewater is treated for reuse or safe disposal [6]. Management of wastewater is becoming a serious issue in developing countries, due to the lack of appropriate legislation, limited technical capacity, and minimum financial resources [7]. ...
This chapter discusses the impact of disposing untreated vehicle wash wastewater into the rivers of Bhutan. Vehicle washing is a highly water consuming process that involves the use of chemicals and generates potentially toxic wastewater containing a wide range of contaminants such as petroleum hydrocarbon wastes, nutrients, surfactants, solids, organic matter, and heavy metals. Disposal of such contaminated wastewater into natural ecosystems such as streams and rivers can adversely affect water quality, aquatic habitat, and biotic communities. Surface water pollution due to the disposal of untreated vehicle wash wastewater is a topical issue in Bhutan. Owing to the presence of a high level of contaminants, vehicle wash wastewater should be treated with the available technology before its disposal into the rivers. Further, the impact of vehicle wash wastewater on Bhutan's water resources and aquatic biodiversity could be monitored using bioindicators such as benthic macroinvertebrates owing to its efficiency, reliability, and cost-effectiveness.
... El centro urbano del cantón Jipijapa tiene una población de aproximadamente 48216 habitantes, De acuerdo a los datos proporcionados la Empresa Soluciones de Ingeniería Civil Eficaces S.A, (2021).El manejo de los sistemas de agua potable, aguas servidas y aguas lluvias, se encuentran a cargo de la Empresa Pública Municipal de Agua Potable y Alcantarillado del Cantón Jipijapa, EPMAPAS-J, su objetivo fundamental es la gestión de los servicios de agua potable, alcantarillado sanitario y pluvial, control de inundaciones y desechos sólidos, mediante la aplicación de conceptos gerenciales con principios de prestación de servicios eficientes y eficaces. Se estima que en Ecuador, se realiza el tratamiento de entre el 10 y 25% de las aguas residuales que se descargan a cuerpos de agua (Sato et al., 2013). La solución planteada para afrontar este problema en las principales ciudades del país, fue la construcción de sistemas de lagunas de oxidación o estabilización, como en el caso de las ciudades de Cuenca, Guayaquil y Portoviejo, debido a aspectos como el bajo costo en la implementación, facilidad al construirlas y su operatividad (Ho et al., 2017). ...
The present research work focused on evaluating the wastewater treatment plant of the Jipijapa canton through three phases: check list for the evaluation of the infrastructure, analysis of five water samples in each stage of the system, to verify the efficiency of the treatment. and an evaluation of environmental aspects and impacts that occur in the establishment; As a development of the investigation, the field method was used to identify the state of the infrastructure, the analysis method was used to take six water samples that were later analyzed, the samples were taken at the entrance of the tributary, exit of reactors , outlet from the stabilization lagoon, outlet from the maturation lagoon, effluent from the treatment plant and 50 meters downstream from the point of discharge and the use of the matrix for the identification of aspects and assessment of environmental impacts to assess and verify the legal compliance and determine the level or status of the aspect and impact. The results obtained confirm that the grinding grids, the concrete of the anaerobic reactors, the ascending flow anaerobic reactors, the facultative and maturation lagoon, the geomembrane and the drying bed area, all of these areas being in an inefficient or moderate state. within its functions, decreasing the efficiency of wastewater treatment, being verified in the results of the water analyzes carried out, where the BOD5 and COD parameters do not comply with the permissible limits present in table 10 of ministerial agreement 097-A. Of the seven environmental aspects identified, all fail to comply with the legal framework and five of those identified have a significant impact level. In conclusion, it was possible to obtain information on the current state of the wastewater treatment plant in the Jipijapa canton for decision-making to repower and provide due maintenance to obtain an efficiency of the treaty.
... The complexity of the current situation demands that there is a sufficient supply of reliable information regarding the issues surrounding wastewater management (i.e., generation, collection, treatment, and reuse). This is necessary as it allows the construction of up-to-date wastewater sector databases that can allow policymakers to monitor the present situation while also highlighting any required actions that may yet be needed (Sato et al., 2013). The basic inventory of wastewater management is comprised of the generation of wastewater, its collection, and the amount of it that can be treated. ...
There have been many important milestones on humanity's long journey towards achieving environmental sanitation. In particular, the development of the activated sludge system can be claimed to be one of the most groundbreaking advances in the protection of both public health and the wider ecosystem. The first wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) were developed over a century ago and were soon configured for use with activated sludge. However, despite their long history and service, conventional activated sludge (CAS) plants have become an unsustainable method of wastewater treatment. In addition, conventional WWTPs are intensive energy-consumers and at best allow only very limited material recovery. A paradigm shift to convert existing WWTPs into more sustainable facilities must therefore be considered necessary and to this end the wastewater biorefinery (WWBR) concept may be considered a solution that maximizes both energy and material recovery, in line with the circular economy approach.
... Active sludge was preferably used in larger and medium-sized cities such as Casablanca (2.95 million inhabitants), Tangier (1.97 million), Rabat (0.32 million), Tétouan (0.32 million), and even Nador (0.16 million). Lagooning was predominant in small and medium-sized cities such as Meknès (0.63 million), Berrechid (0.14 million), Taourit (0.10 Some developing countries with similar climatic and socio-economic contexts have reported similar issues and incomplete solutions [13,14,[73][74][75]. Other emerging countries such as Jordan [9] and Tunisia [14] have proposed decentralization, choosing the optimal treatment technology (including lagoon/wetland and anaerobic digester) and using zerodischarge technologies as the keys to short-term success, while awaiting mature policies aimed at implementing systematic tertiary treatments. ...
Morocco is a water-scarce developing country with a growing marketable agro-food industry, where untreated or insufficiently treated wastewater represents less than 1% of the irrigation water and treated wastewater reuse is virtually nil. The Government of Morocco is planning to increase the volume of treated wastewater reuse for irrigation agriculture under the current permissive regulation to alleviate the pressure on conventional water sources. However, the reuse of insufficiently treated wastewater implies environmental and human health risks besides the degradation of land and renewable natural resources. This paper shows the feasibility of increasing wastewater reuse for irrigation agriculture in Morocco and how the existing permissive regulation must be improved to force more efficient technologies aimed at ensuring the export of agricultural goods to the most restrictive international markets. The results show how the quality standards of Moroccan regulation are below that of their equivalents in developed countries, as well as in most of the consulted developing countries. After verifying that tertiary treatment is financially feasible, the updated regulation must also consider climatic water scarcity and the locally low cultural perception of environmental and human health risks in order to design optimal solutions.
... An estimated 56% (2212 km 3 per year) of global freshwater withdrawal is released into the environment as wastewater from agricultural drainage (32%), industrial (16%), and municipal (8%) sources (WWAP 2017). Wastewater treatment varies among the different income countries, with 70% for high-income countries, 28-38% for middle-income countries, and only 8% for low-come countries (Sato et al. 2013). Table 1 shows the volume of municipal wastewater generated, collected, and treated in some African and Asian Table 1 Municipal wastewater generated, collected, and treated 2018 countries in 2018. ...
The water and soil salinization, economic and vital importance of water, and nutritional value of nitrogen fertilization make it expedient to establish this work which investigated the interaction between nitrogen fertilization and saline water irrigation. The experiment was undertaken in an arid region to compare the performance of four contrasting barley genotypes and select the most efficient one that can be irrigated by brackish water. Barley genotypes were irrigated with two water salinity levels (1.8 and 9.2 dS/m), and four N fertilizer levels were applied (0, 50, 100,150 KgN/ha). Results highlighted the corrective effect of nitrogen on saline water. Data showed a significant reduction (P < 0.05)—caused by saline water—in the number of fertile tillers (38%) and leaves (10%), chlorophyll content (10%), and biomass production (12%); leading to a decrease in grain yield by 6.3 Qx/ha. These reductions were observed in all genotypes with variable rates. On the other hand, nitrogen application showed a significant increase (P < 0.05) in the number of fertile tillers (28%) and leaves (5%), chlorophyll content (8,3%), and biomass production (NDVI value) by 40%. Data showed that the improvements caused by N addition were more evident under salt stress. Our results showed that the inhibitory action of saline water has been significantly reduced by nitrogen fertilization. This makes it possible to predict the corrective effect of nitrogen on the vegetative development and grain yield under saline conditions with an adjusted nitrogen level.
... An estimated 56% (2212 km 3 per year) of global freshwater withdrawal is released into the environment as wastewater from agricultural drainage (32%), industrial (16%), and municipal (8%) sources (WWAP 2017). Wastewater treatment varies among the different income countries, with 70% for high-income countries, 28-38% for middle-income countries, and only 8% for low-come countries (Sato et al. 2013). Table 1 shows the volume of municipal wastewater generated, collected, and treated in some African and Asian Table 1 Municipal wastewater generated, collected, and treated 2018 countries in 2018. ...
Green-based materials are currently considered as one of the most vital areas of sustainable development. In the present study, a water-soluble chitosan-based electrospun nanofiber membrane was prepared as a green nanocatalyst for water purification. It was noticed that the water-soluble chitosan nanofiber’s diameter was smaller and more hydrophilic (water contact angle) compared to the water-insoluble nanofiber membrane. The results show that more than 80% of methylene blue dye could be removed by the water-soluble chitosan nanofiber membrane, while only 60% of methylene blue was removed by a water-insoluble nanofiber membrane. It can be assumed that the present work will inspire the development of green nanofiber membranes to combat water pollution.
... High-income countries usually provide treatment to approximately 70% of the wastewater generated, while upper-and lower middle-income countries treat around 40% and 30% of the wastewater generated, respectively. On the other hand, low-income countries treat less than 10% of total volume of wastewater generated, the rest being disposed of directly untreated into water bodies, such as rivers, lakes, and the ocean [5,6]. The effect that wastewater discharges have on watercourses and human and animal health depends on the volume of the discharge. ...
In face of the absence of epidemiological data regarding the circulation of human adenoviruses (HAdV) in Portugal, this study aimed at the evaluation of their molecular diversity in waste and environmental waters in the Lisbon Metropolitan Area (LMA). Using samples collected between 2018 and 2021, the HAdV hexon protein-coding sequence was partially amplified using three nested touch-down PCR protocols. The amplification products obtained were analyzed in parallel by two approaches: molecular cloning followed by Sanger sequencing and Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) using Illumina® sequencing. The analysis of NGS-generated data allowed the identification of a higher diversity of HAdV-A (19%), -B (1%), -C (3%), -D (24%), and -F (25%) viral types, along with murine adenovirus (MAdV-2; 30%) in the wastewater treatment plant samples. On the other hand, HAdV-A (19%), -D (32%), and -F (36%) were identified in environmental samples, and possibly MAdV-2 (14%). These results demonstrate the presence of fecal contamination in environmental waters and the assessment of the diversity of this virus provides important information regarding the distribution of HAdV in LMA, including the detection of HAdV-F41, the most frequently reported in water worldwide.
... It is estimated that 60% of Sub-Saharan Africa's urban population lives in shanty towns, where sanitation facilities are weak, insufficient, and unreliable [5]. It was reported that 32 of the 48 Sub-Saharan African countries lacked statistics on wastewater generation and treatment [6]. ...
Pollution of water sources is a global issue that primarily affects rural communities that rely on these water sources for domestic purposes on a daily basis. The study’s goal was to determine if the effluent from the Bushbuckridge Municipality’s Waste Water Treatment Works (WWTWs) contributes to the pollution of the Sand River Catchment. The investigation was conducted at two WWTWs, Dwarsloop and Thulamahashe. A questionnaire was used to collect information from participants. Water samples were collected monthly from the treatment plant and Sand River for the determination of physico-chemical parameters and coliform counts. The study found that the WWTWs were the main sources of the pollution of the Sand River Catchment. The WWTWs are confronting unprecedented mechanical and technical challenges. The WWTWs have experienced numerous system failures due to aging systems and pressure on deteriorating facilities, resulting in raw wastewater discharges into catchments. Furthermore, the study revealed that factors such as population growth, poor operation and maintenance of WWTWs, poor budgeting, and a lack of well-trained personnel contributed to WWTW failure. The effluent quality in both WWTWs met the National Water Act of South Africa’s effluent discharge standards for pH (ranged from 6.90 to 9.30), EC (ranged from 20.80 to 87.50 mS/m), ammonia (ranged from 7.22 to 86.80 mg/L as N), nitrate/nitrite (ranged from 0.10 to 0.73 mg/L as N), and ortho-phosphate (ranged from 0.01 to 6.50 mg/L as P). While COD levels in both WWTWs (ranging from 25.00 to 149.00 mg/L) were over the limit during some months of the study period. The study also discovered that E. coli counts were low upstream but high in both the WWTWs point of discharge and downstream for both catchments. The study, therefore, established a connection between wastewater treatment plants and water quality parameters as well as poor water quality linked to the condition of the WWTWs. The study recommends that effective measures be implemented to address the challenges.
... Low-income countries treat 8% of generated wastewater whereas high-income countries treat 70% of generated wastewater. 93 In the developing world, where septic tanks and anaerobic lagoons tend to be the dominant methods of wastewater treatment, covering lagoons and properly maintaining septic tanks are the most readily available options for reducing wastewater-associated CH 4 emissions. 94 Future work toward developing centralized wastewater treatment systems will be costly but can be accomplished via various international funding efforts. ...
Strategies targeting methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions are critical to meeting global climate targets. Existing literature estimates the emissions of these gases from specific sectors, but this knowledge must be synthesized to prioritize and incentivize CH4 and N2O mitigation. Accordingly, we review emissions sources and mitigation strategies in all key sectors (fuel extraction and combustion, landfilling, agriculture, wastewater treatment, and chemical industry) and the role of carbon markets in reducing emissions. The most accessible reduction opportunities are in the hydrocarbon extraction and waste sectors, where half (>3 Gt-CO2e/year) of the emissions in these sectors could be mitigated at no net cost. In total, 60% of CH4 emissions can be mitigated at less than $50/t-CO2. Expanding the scope of carbon markets to include these emissions could provide cost-effective decarbonization through 2050. We provide recommendations for carbon markets to improve emissions reductions and set prices to appropriately incentivize mitigation.
... Se estima que, a nivel global, más del 80 % de las aguas residuales se descargan a los arroyos, ríos, lagos y lagunas sin un tratamiento adecuado (PNUMA, 2016). Especialmente en los países menos desarrollados, la gestión inadecuada de las aguas residuales de origen industrial y municipal, constituye una importante fuente de contaminación del recurso, pues sólo el 8 % del volumen de estas aguas es sometido a algún tipo de tratamiento (Sato et al., 2013). tipo de contaminación puede tener impactos negativos en los peces de agua dulce, lo cual afecta los medios de subsistencia y la seguridad alimentaria de las comunidades rurales pobres que viven de la pesca de agua dulce (PNUMA, 2016). ...
... Therefore, proper treatment should be carried out before the water enters wetlands. It was shown by [35] that the treatment of industrial and municipal wastewater in countries has a positive correlation with the country's income. On average, 70% of wastewater is treated in high-income countries, followed by 38% in upper-middle-income countries, while lower-middle-income countries treat about 28% of their wastewater, and only 8% of wastewater is treated in low-income countries. ...
This study presents a comprehensive data analysis using univariate and multivariate statistical techniques as a tool to establish a baseline for the assessment of water quality parameters in environmental compartments. The Al Wasit Nature Reserve is a hypersaline wetland in the UAE with a spatial fluctuation in water parameters as water flows above ground as well as ponds forming in deeper areas and over the year due to the arid climate and seasonality. Water samples were collected at fifteen sites along the hypersaline wetland over three periods during the months of February to March 2021 as temperatures started to rise with the oncoming summer. Water quality parameters, including the temperature, pH, turbidity, dissolved oxygen (DO), oxidation-reduction potential (ORP), electrical conductivity (EC), chemical oxygen demand (COD), chloride, ammonia, and nitrates, were measured. The results of the data analysis were used to group the sites, which were divided into three groups with similar water quality characteristics. Correlation assessments between all studied parameters revealed significant differences in the values of eight of the evaluated parameters between the three identified clusters, with only the nitrate concentrations and dissolved oxygen parameters not being significant. It was found that one of the three clusters (cluster 1) performed better than the other two for most of the studied parameters. The results of this study demonstrate the applicability and the potential time and cost savings of the usage of data analysis tools for long-term data monitoring in the wetland and other environmental systems worldwide.
... Global estimates say over 80% of wastewater is released into the environment without proper treatment; on average, high-income countries treat about 70% of the municipal waste and industrial wastewater they generate, about 38% treatment in upper-middle-income countries, 28% in lower-middle-income countries, and only 8% undergoes treatment of any kind in low-income countries (WWAP, 2017). Specifically, 20% of the generated industrial and municipal wastewater in Latin America countries is treated, 51% undergoes treatment in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) while 32 countries out of 48 had no data available on wastewater generation and treatment in sub-Saharan African countries (Sato et al. 2013). The ineffective treatment especially in underdeveloped and developing countries may be attributed to a lack of financial resources for the development of sophisticated treatment facilities and techniques (WWAP 2017). ...
In the light of considerable pressure on scarce freshwater sources due to various competing demands, different techniques and materials have been used and still in use to treat and use wastewaters which have been considered as healthy alternatives to minimize the pressure. Bamboo-based (Bambusa vulgaris) activated carbon, produced using carbonization and activation processes was used to treat wastewater obtained from the aquaculture research farm of the Federal University of Technology, Akure. Initial and final characterization of the wastewater samples were performed for 17 physicochemical, 7 heavy metals, and 2 microbiological parameters amongst which were electrical conductivity (EC), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), alkalinity, and acidity. Others are total dissolved solids (TDS), nitrate (Na), nitrite (Ni), and dissolved oxygen (DO). Heavy metals tested were chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), zinc (Zn), and nickel (Ni) while total coliform and total viable counts of bacteria, yeast, and fungi were also analyzed. These analyses were performed following the American Public Health Association (APHA 2005), and the results obtained were subjected to statistical analyses using relevant tools such as SPSS 16 version, Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Duncan Multiple Range Test at a 95% level of significance. Removal efficiencies between the initial and final characterization of the physicochemical parameters with the adsorbents were marginal except for Ca and acidity having 61% and 62%, respectively, in carbonated charcoal. Furthermore, acidity, nitrate, and sulphate have 62%, 58%, and 57% removal efficiencies in HNO3 AC, respectively, while 60% and 75% were recorded with acidity and nitrite, respectively, in KOH’s AC. All the heavy metals experienced considerable removal efficiency ranging from 71 to 100% in KOH’s AC. The efficacy of HNO3 and KOH’s AC, when compared with carbonated charcoal in wastewater treatment, was highlighted. However, KOH’s AC was confirmed to be more effective in heavy metal removal due to its widespread pore spaces and deeper cavities depicting a very good surface for adsorption capacity.
... The wastewater reuse management cycle (Figure 7) is indeed gaining more acceptance on the African continent as a result of increased period of drought. However, Sato et al. (2013) reported that information on wastewater treatment and reuse is a major problem common to Africa where only three countries (Senegal, and South Africa Seychelles) out of the 48 Sub-Saharan African countries have complete but old data. Hence, there is need for research work on wastewater treatment to provide reliable data for sustainability. ...
... Se estima que, a nivel global, más del 80 % de las aguas residuales se descargan a los arroyos, ríos, lagos y lagunas sin un tratamiento adecuado (PNUMA, 2016). Especialmente en los países menos desarrollados, la gestión inadecuada de las aguas residuales de origen industrial y municipal, constituye una importante fuente de contaminación del recurso, pues sólo el 8 % del volumen de estas aguas es sometido a algún tipo de tratamiento (Sato et al., 2013). tipo de contaminación puede tener impactos negativos en los peces de agua dulce, lo cual afecta los medios de subsistencia y la seguridad alimentaria de las comunidades rurales pobres que viven de la pesca de agua dulce (PNUMA, 2016). ...
El agua, elemento indispensable para la vida, se encuentra íntimamente relacionada, entre otros aspectos, con: el desarrollo civilizatorio, el ejercicio del poder, la gobernabilidad, la economía, y los derechos humanos.
... In northern Europe, 51 % of the recovered water is used for environmental applications (augmentation of existing water sources, wetland creation etc.), while in southern Europe, it is mainly (44 %) used for irrigation (Sato et al., 2013). Spain, Italy, Cyprus, and Greece are pioneers in reclaimed water use in agriculture (Voulvoulis, 2018). ...
Water is crucial for economic development since it interacts with the agricultural, production, and energy sectors. However, the increasing demand and climate change put pressure on water sources. This paper argued the necessity of using reclaimed water for irrigation within the scope of a circular economy. The barriers (i.e., technological and economic, institutional/regulatory, and social) to water reuse practices were revealed. Lessons on how to overcome the barriers were learned from good practices. The roadmaps adopted in the European Union for the transition towards the circular economy were reviewed. It has been observed that these roadmaps are generally on the circularity of solid wastes. However, water is too important for the economy to be ignored in the transition towards circular economy. Research needs and perspective for a comprehensive roadmap to widen water-smart solutions such as water reuse were drawn.
... It has been reported that in Middle East and North Africa, the sewage generation is approximately 22.3 km 3 per year whereas in North America it is 85 km 3 per year. China alone has a 58.9 km 3 sewage generation capacity among Asian countries in according to reporting year 2009 [2]. In India, sewage generation in all Class I cities and Class II towns is 0.04 km 3 out of which only 30% is connected to treatment capacity [3]. ...
The purpose of current investigation was to explore the scope of integrating an anaerobic digester in a decentralized municipal wastewater treatment plant for in-situ treatment of household waste. The present work intends to identify the potential of sewage sludge and food waste for biogas generation. The study was conducted in lab scale continuous stirred tank reactor having a working volume of 6.5 L at mesophilic temperature. The paper mill sludge was used as inoculum and was stabilised using food waste substrate for initial 50 days in batch mode. Co-digestion of food waste (FW) and bio-flocculated sewage sludge (BFS) was performed using continuous feeding for maintaining OLR of 2.5 gVSL⁻¹D⁻¹at HRT of 4 days for 120 days. 2% FW and 98% BFS (by volume) was feeded in the reactor throughout the experimental duration. The highest VFA accumulation of 1902 mg L⁻¹ were observed and maximum bio-methane yield was found to be 127.05 mLCH4 g⁻¹ VSadded. The pH with current feeding ratio was found stable during the reactor operation without adding external alkalinity source.
... Infrastructure construction-led wetland conversion and industrial waste disposal in the wetlands were identified as important proximate causes of global wetland degradation (Van Asselen et al. 2013;Gardner and Finlayson 2018), particularly in developing countries. Over 80% of untreated wastewater is released into wetlands globally (WWAP 2012;UN-Water 2015) with lower middle-class countries treating 28% and low-income countries treating 8% of their wetlands (Sato et al. 2013). Although wetland loss in developing countries was historically lower than developed countries, the future rates of loss is projected to be much higher in the former, particularly in Asia, with a predicted increase of urban population by 1.4 billion by 2050 (United Nations 2008;Hettiarachchi et al. 2015), thereby leading to increased risk of environmental disasters and livelihood loss (Ghosh and Sen 1987;Azarath et al. 1988;Smardon 2009). ...
‘Wise use’ of wetland ecosystem services has implications for achieving sustainable development goals. Globally, almost 87% of wetlands have been lost since 1700’s with losses projected to be much higher by 2050 in developing economies due to urbanisation. Little is known about how this loss might impact people’s wetland dependency at local scales in the peri-urban landscapes. To understand people’s perception about ecosystem services from the peri-urban Dankuni wetland in Eastern India and associated ecosystem changes, we conducted thirty-seven semi-structured interviews in a single village. Wetland-dependent people identified 18 ecosystem services of Dankuni wetland. The ecosystem services included 12 provisioning services and two each of regulatory, cultural and supporting services. Farming and use of wetland products including molluscs, fuelwood, fodder, fibre and fish was found to subsidize living costs and provide diverse livelihood options to local residents. However, encroachment of wetlands by factories and blockage of its riverine connection were reported as the main factors degrading the wetland.. As a result, life and livelihood of people, especially of landless widows and older residents were severely impacted. Respondents believed that it was possible to rejuvenate the wetland by restoring its riverine connections but stressed on vested interests in supporting its degradation. Their perceptions strongly impress upon the need for greater government accountability in wetland protection and integration of local knowledge along with locally suited political action in wetland restoration programmes. In this context, we strongly advocate for the implementation of laws that allow for wetland protection under a socio-ecological framework.
... Achieving a sustainable future for water resources relies on the integration of water availability and water governance (Tundisi et al., 2015). Water managers, planners, and policymakers need access to updated, trustworthy, and reliable water data to make scientifically informed decisions (Sato et al., 2013;Cisneros, 2013). ...
Water resources management and policy making require access to reliable scientific data. However, water managers may need to overcome various obstacles to accessing data. For example, insufficient technological infrastructures, low data literacy, and data format complexities often inhibit data user access. Thus, it is imperative to include stakeholders in the design of data delivery systems. The U.S. Geological Survey’s Water Resources Mission Area is currently developing Integrated Water Availability Assessments (IWAAs) --multi-extent, stakeholder driven, near real-time water availability census and prediction for human and ecological uses. To provide appropriate user accessibility to data delivery systems developed for IWAAs, a user-centered design process including stakeholder focus groups was used to determine potential water data user needs and preferences. Focus groups identified five types of potential users: Public sector water resources managers, Public sector water resources manager data analysts, Industry and private companies, Tribal Nations, and Nonprofit organizations. Different water data user types depended on diverse spatial and temporal scale data. Public sector water resources managers benefitted most from data synthesized into user-friendly platforms and Public sector water resources data analysts preferred easy access to raw data. These findings can support the development of a water data delivery platform that meets a variety of user needs.
... Whereas in temperate climate zones, reclaimed wastewater is minimally used for crop irrigation, in arid and semiarid climatic regions, reclaimed wastewater is often used (AQUASTAT, 1999). In California and China, about 46% and 33% of the produced effluents, respectively, are applied to agricultural lands (Sato et al., 2013;Wang et al., 2017). In Israel, about 85% of the wastewater effluents are reclaimed and used for crop irrigation, accounting for 50% of the total water used by the agriculture sector (Fu et al., 2019;Goldstein et al., 2014). ...
Irrigation with reclaimed wastewater is a growing practice aimed at conserving freshwater sources, especially in arid and semiarid regions. Despite the apparent advantages to water management, the practice of irrigation with reclaimed wastewater exposes the agroenvironment to contaminants of emerging concern (CECs). In this report, we estimated the unintentional dietary exposure of the Israeli population (2808 participants) to CECs from consumption of produce irrigated with reclaimed wastewater using data from detailed dietary data obtained from a National Health and Nutrition Survey (Rav Mabat adults; 2014-2016). Human health risk analyses were conducted based on acceptable daily intake (ADI) and threshold of toxicological concern (TTC). The highest unintentional exposure to wastewater-borne CECs was found to occur through the consumption of leafy vegetables. All analyzed CECs exhibited hazard quotients of <1 for the mean- and high-exposure scenarios, indicating no human health concerns. However, for the extreme exposure scenario, the anticonvulsant agents lamotrigine and carbamazepine, and the carbamazepine metabolite epoxide-carbamazepine exhibited the highest exposure levels of 29,100, 27,200, and 19,500 ng/person (70 kg) per day, respectively. These exposure levels exceeded the TTC of lamotrigine and the metabolite epoxide-carbamazepine, and the ADI level of carbamazepine, resulting in hazard quotients of 2.8, 1.1, and 1.9, respectively. According to the extreme estimated scenario, consumption of produce irrigated using reclaimed wastewater, (leafy vegetables in particular) may pose a threat to human health. Minimizing irrigation of leafy vegetables using reclaimed wastewater and/or improving the quality of the reclaimed wastewater using an advanced treatment would significantly reduce human dietary exposure to CECs.
... The nutrients in TMW reduce the need for synthetic fertilisers (Cirelli et al., 2012). However, the application of wastewater onto productive agricultural land is not appropriate where insufficient treatment poses a public health risk (Sato et al., 2013). Additionally, public and industry perceptions can hinder the use of TMW for agricultural production (Lowe, 2009;Simcock et al., 2019). ...
Potentially, the restoration of native ecosystems could be combined with the land application of treated municipal wastewater (TMW), reducing TMW discharge into waterbodies. High levels of nutrients, pathogens, and other contaminants from TMW can degrade water quality. The land application of TMW onto native vegetation reduces the nutrient load in water bodies and may create zones of ecological value. However, establishing native plants may be challenging if the species are not adapted to highly fertile environments, such as those resulting from TMW irrigation. There is a critical knowledge gap about the response of native plant species to irrigation with TMW. We aimed to determine the distribution and speciation of nutrients in the soil-plant system following application of TMW onto 11 species of native plants in a long-term field trial on Banks Peninsula, New Zealand (NZ). TMW was irrigated at a rate of 1000 mm per annum, equivalent to N, and P loading rates of 194 and 110 kg ha yr⁻¹, respectively. We determined physicochemical properties from soil profiles (0–65 cm) under selected species as well as the growth and chemical composition of the plants. Despite the site receiving 950 kg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ of Na, there was no evidence of impaired soil structure following TMW irrigation. Nitrogen did not accumulate in the soil, and it is likely to have been taken up by plants or lost through denitrification and nitrate leaching. The accumulation rate of P indicated that soil P concentrations will remain within the range found in NZ agricultural soils for at least 50 years. TMW irrigation increased plant height by 10% compared to the control after 3.5 years of growth. Plant species significantly affected the concentrations of total C, total N, nitrate (NO3⁻), and Na in the soil. TMW application had negligible effects on the elemental composition of plant foliage. NZ native vegetation can facilitate the land application of TMW. Future work should elucidate the maximum rates that can be applied as well as the effect of TMW on the soil microbiota.
... In all these industrial operations, large amounts of water are required for various unit operations and production processes, as well as for the disposal of generated wastes, which are either partially treated or not treated at all, into the environment. In most cases, untreated industrial wastewater is discharged into a nearby waterbody, with its consequent negative impact on the ecosystem due to lack of wastewater treatment facilities [4,5]. ...
Industrialization in Nigeria has resulted in the production of diverse products by various industries engaged in the production of pharmaceuticals, personal care products, pesticides, textiles, paints and varnishes, soaps and detergents, foods and beverages, agro-chemicals and textiles. Effluents from these industries are the most probable sources of emerging contaminants in the Nigerian environment. However, despite the awareness of the existence and effects of conventional pollutants associated with industrial wastewater discharge, there is low level of awareness of the harmful effects of emerging contaminants (ECs) in industrial wastewaters discharged into the environment in Nigeria. In order to raise the level of awareness and elicit appropriate discharge compliance by industries, this review of industrial effluents generation and disposal by some selected industries who produce ECs was carried out. An outcome of the review is the dearth of current information on the volume of wastewater generated by industries in Nigeria and the non-existence of environmental policies or laws on ECs. Recommendations were made on the future research areas on ECs in Nigeria.
... The water will be scarce and polluted and there will be serious problems with sanitation , Almost one-fourth of the world population does not have access to safe clean drinking water according to World Health Organization (Dong, 2013); (Mueller, 2012). Different freshwater resources are distributed unevenly in the world (Sato, 2013). More than 4 billion people live in regions where the scarcity of freshwater is threatening the biodiversity of the ecosystem and the security of humans (Kılıç, 2020). ...
Purpose of the study: This study aims to evaluate smart lifestyles, especially in the context of washroom planning, to attain water conservation for sustainable development. Water is one of the essentials of life as we can not imagine our lives without water, so it is the primary need of the day to conserve as much water as we can. It is the harsh reality that water is being wasted without realizing its significance. This study aims to challenge the conventional ways of consuming water in our day-to-day life and aims to bring changes in how we can conserve and preserves this important natural resource. Methodology: To get a clear insight into water conservation as well as its preservation, a survey was conducted at the 45 housing units of Apex Residency PCSIR II Lahore Pakistan which represents the middle class of our society. Interviewed were conducted from different age groups of each family. Water consumed per day by each member was estimated and further compared with water consumption to get a fair idea if they had been using smart lifestyles or not. This study has made an attempt to consider modifications in three basic things; brushing, taking shower and washing hands and face. The data analysis was performed using SPSS ver.22. Main Findings: It was found that 156 liters of water per person is being used in just three activities in a day out of which 46 litres of water per person can be saved daily. However, it is very important to make a plan as to how to preserve it. Applications of the study: local administration of Lahore should devise a local plan for viable water frugality. Smart washroom fixtures are a must while planning smart washrooms. The novelty of the study: This study assessed and evaluated our local population at large and eventually facilitated us with local results, which truly represent how we deal with this important natural resource. We as a Nation need to discuss and analyse all these points in detail and should try to modernize our lifestyles to preserve as much water as we can in our day-to-day life.
In this work, a novel alkali lignin-based adsorption material, alkali lignin-based poly(tetraethylene pentamine-pyrogallol) (AL-PTAP), was prepared using a Mannich reaction and catechol-amine reaction for removal of Cr(vi). It was characterized by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The effects of tetraethylene pentamine (TEPA) dosage, pyrogallol (PL) dosage, contact time, pH, temperature and other factors on the adsorption behavior of the adsorbent were systematically investigated. These experimental data show that the adsorption behavior conforms to the pseudo-second-order kinetic model and the Langmuir isotherm model. The maximum adsorption capacity is 769.2 mg g-1 at 303 K, which is much higher than that of alkali lignin (AL). AL-PTAP can achieve a removal rate of almost 100% for Cr(vi) solutions with a concentration of less than 90 mg L-1 at 1 min. Furthermore, the toxic Cr(vi) is partly reduced to nontoxic Cr(iii) during the adsorption process. Therefore, AL-PTAP is a fast and efficient alkali lignin-based adsorbent, which is expected to improve the utilization value of alkali lignin in Cr(vi) wastewater treatment.
Dwindling freshwater resources and increasing demand have made continuous water supply a constant challenge for many countries. This problem is even worse for developing countries where the population is growing at an alarming rate and cities are becoming more and more urbanized. An overall water demand corresponds to the high quantity of wastewater produced, and its pollution are continuously increasing. Wastewater treatment and reuse have been recognized as important steps in ensuring sustainable supply of water resources. The dispersed body of literature casts shadow on the performance of developing countries on wastewater treatment and reuse. This paper reviewed water withdrawal and wastewater production, treatment, and reuse trends in developing countries focusing on Africa and Asia. Analysis of different water withdrawal and wastewater production reveals an increasing trend across developing countries. However, the treatment and reuse rate is very shady due to the unavailability of consistent data. There is an urgent need for developing countries to double their efforts to match production with treatment and reuse.
Thailand constantly faces the problem of water scarcity, resulting from an imbalance between available water supply and increasing water demand for economic and community expansion, as well as climate change. To address this shortage, wastewater reclamation is being planned and implemented throughout the country, along with a 20-year, long-term integrated water resource management plan. Significant opportunities from municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are dependent on the following factors: the establishment of a reuse water framework and a tangible target for treated wastewater set by local government authorities; widespread recognition and adaptation of wastewater reuse measures in the agriculture, industry, tourism and service sectors regarding climate change and water stress; and the implementation of joint investment water reuse projects between private and government agencies. However, wastewater reclamation faces some significant challenges, specifically: the limitations of regulation and monitoring for specific reuse purposes; a lack of public confidence in the water quality; the limited commercial development of reclaimed wastewater research; and difficulties in self-sustaining business models through adapting circular economy principles. This study aims to provide an overview of the wastewater reclamation, present research trends, currently operating WWTPs as well as opportunities and challenges to speed up water reuse activities in Thailand.
HIGHLIGHTS
Thailand's long-term integrated water resource management plan is presented and analyzed.;
There are significant opportunities for wastewater reuse and application.;
Challenges to success of the plan are detailed.;
Constructed wetlands (CWs) are an important barrier to prevent nanoplastics (NPs) and microplastics (MPs) from entering receiving streams. However, little is known about how the accumulation of NPs affects the growth, photosynthesis, oxidative stress responses, and metabolism of plants, especially submerged plants that are widely used in CWs for water purification. Herein, we adopted Utricularia vulgaris (U. vulgaris), a typical submerged macrophyte as the model plant to address the above knowledge gaps under exposure to polystyrene NPs (PS-NPs, 500 nm, 0∼10 mg·L⁻¹). Results showed that PS-NPs were absorbed by insect traps and further transported to stems and leaves of U. vulgaris, which limited plant height (6.8∼72.9%), relative growth rate (7.4∼17.2%), and photosynthesis (3.7∼28.2%). U. vulgaris suffered from oxidative stresses, as evidenced by the increase in malondialdehyde, antioxidant enzymes (catalase, peroxidase, and superoxide dismutase), and H2O2, especially under 1 and 10 mg·L⁻¹. Abundances of 548 metabolites were quantified, and 291 metabolites were detected with altered levels after exposure, in which 25∼34% metabolites were up-regulated, and 32∼40% metabolites were down-regulated in metabolite expression. Metabolic pathways of the tricarboxylic acid cycle and amino acid were disrupted, in which citric acid, threonine, and adenine decreased, while amino acids (like serine, phenylalanine, histidine, etc.) increased first and then decreased with increasing PS-NPs concentrations. Moreover, PS-NPs reduced the removal efficiency of total nitrogen and phosphorus from water by U. vulgaris, bringing potential risks to aquatic ecosystems. These findings have greatly enhanced our understanding of the metabolic mechanisms and interactions of aquatic macrophytes that are heavily used in CWs in response to NPs stress, as well as the impact of NPs on CWs functioning.
Water management has become a grave concern in recent years across the globe with high population growth and increasing urbanization. Water accessibility and availability are primary essential constraining aspects for crop production in agriculture. Water quality is deteriorating on regular basis due to anthropogenic activities, accumulation of heavy metals, urban flooding, coliform, water pollution, and water scarcity issues and violated the permissible limits of Provincial Water Quality Standards (PEQs). This chapter aims to critically discuss key challenges of urban water resource management and sustainable solutions to overcome water-related issues. Moreover, the current scenario of water management in Pakistan is also highlighted in a detailed manner for improving water use efficiency, water resource volume, proper guidelines, practical implications, and institutional framework. In this study, possible solutions are also provided in light of the current trend. In addition, various policies, action-oriented measures, and valuable strategies are attributed to combat urban water management issues, which will pave the way toward sustainable cities and green development.
The multifaceted challenges in wastewater management, especially the presence of recalcitrant contaminants, restrict the applicability of conventional system–based centralized wastewater treatment plant. In this context, the modular treatment unit is gaining immense attention due to pollutant-specific application of modules, ease of operation, and lesser footprint. The present review critically highlights this paradigm shift of technology and its applicability in different scenarios. The recent research works, patented technologies, and field-scale applications of modular units are extensively reviewed. The challenges in existing wastewater management of developing countries and applicability of the modular unit based on the advanced biosystem are critically addressed. The present review may serve as a comprehensive document in the emerging area of modular wastewater treatment system, which may be instrumental in research and field-based engineering solutions.
Microalgal-bacterial granular sludge (MBGS) process has a gorgeous prospect for municipal wastewater treatment, but the research on the treatment of complex organic wastewater by MBGS process with CO2 addition under outdoor conditions is not enough. Therefore, this paper evaluated the feasibility of CO2-added MBGS process for complex organic wastewater disposal under natural day-night cycles. The results showed that the addition of CO2 overall improved the removal efficiency of pollutants. Typically, the removal efficiency of total phosphorus increased averagely from 88.5 % to 95.0 % in 12-h day cycle and from 26.2 % to 45.3 % in 12-h night cycle. The addition of CO2 increased the size of MBGS from 1.0 mm to 16.5 mm within 30 days due to extracellular polymeric substances secretion and the dominant filamentous microalgae on granules. The decrease of catalase activity and malondialdehyde content indicated that CO2 reduced oxidative damage and maintained the normal growth of MBGS. Further estimates of the collected gas showed that CO2-added MBGS process could reduce global CO2 emissions by one hundred million tons per year. This study is expected to contribute to the goal of carbon neutrality in the area of wastewater treatment by MBGS process.
Overview Millions of small-scale farmers around the world irrigate with marginal-quality water, often because they have no alternative. There are two major types of marginal-quality water: waste-water from urban and peri-urban areas, and saline and sodic agricultural drainage water and groundwater. Around cities in developing countries, farmers use wastewater from residential, commercial, and industrial sources, sometimes diluted but often without treatment. Sometimes farmers in deltaic areas and tailend sections of large-scale irrigation schemes irrigate with a blend of canal water, saline drainage water, and wastewater. Still others irrigate with saline or sodic groundwater, either exclusively or in conjunction with higher quality surface water. Many of those farmers cannot control the volume or quality of water they receive. Wastewater often contains a variety of pollutants: salts, metals, metalloids, pathogens, residual drugs, organic compounds, endocrine disruptor compounds, and active residues of personal care products. Any of these components can harm human health and the environment. Farmers can suffer harmful health effects from contact with wastewater, while consumers are at risk from eating vegetables and cereals irrigated with wastewater. Application of wastewater has to be carefully managed for effective use. In contrast to wastewater, saline and sodic water contains salts that can impair plant growth but rarely contains metals or pathogens. However, it can lead to soil salinization and waterlogging, which impair productivity on millions of hectares of agricultural land. Irrigating successfully with saline or sodic water requires careful management to prevent near-term reductions in crop yield and long-term reductions in productivity.
The volume of wastewater generated by domestic, industrial and commercial sources has increased with population, urbanization, improved living conditions, and economic development. The productive use of wastewater has also increased, as millions of small-scale farmers in urban and peri-urban areas of developing countries depend on wastewater or wastewater polluted water sources to irrigate high-value edible crops for urban markets, often as they have no alternative sources of irrigation water. Undesirable constituents in wastewater can harm human health and the environment. Hence, wastewater irrigation is an issue of concern to public agencies responsible for maintaining public health and environmental quality. For diverse reasons, many developing countries are still unable to implement comprehensive wastewater treatment programs. Therefore in the near term, risk management and interim solutions are needed to prevent adverse impacts from wastewater irrigation. A combination of source control, and farm-level and post-harvest measures can be used to protect farm workers and consumers. The WHO guidelines revised in 2006 for wastewater use suggest measures beyond the traditional recommendations of producing only industrial or non-edible crops, as in many situations it is impossible to enforce a change in the current cash crop pattern, or provide alternative vegetable supply to urban markets.
Water reclamation implementation and management practices at municipal wastewater treatment plants throughout the world are reviewed and some implementation and operational issues are defined. The information is based on a conventional literature survey, on an in depth survey study of European, Israeli and Australian medium and large-scale water reclamation utilities and on the findings of a dedicated international workshop.
The review identified over 3,300 water reclamation projects and designed the map of the main process technologies and their fields of product water application. The main conclusion of the enquiry is that the technological risks no longer represent a major concern for the development of water reclamation projects, rather issues such as the financing, failure management and social acceptance have become more critical.
Mongolia began a transition to a market economy in the early 1990s, but old challenges continue to exacerbate issues of poverty and environmental degradation, and new problems have developed. As a result, much of the population is shifting steadily and permanently toward the capital city. Can a country with traditionally nomadic roots respond to such challenges in a sustainable way?
This report presents the results of the survey carried out in the 53 countries of Africa during 2004-2005, and it analyses the changes that have occurred in the ten years since the first survey. Following the AQUASTAT methodology, the survey relied as much as possible on country-based statistics and information. A general summary presents a synopsis on water resources development, irrigation and drainage in the region. The CD-ROM accompanying the hard copy of the report contains detailed profiles on the situation in each country, while they are included in this digital version.
Water Reuse: An International Survey of current practice, issues and needs examines water reuse practices around the world from different perspectives. The objective is to show how differently wastewater reuse is conceived and practised around the world as well as to present the varied needs and possibilities for reusing wastewater.
In the first section water reuse practices around the world are described for regions having common water availability, reuse needs and social aspects. The second section refers to the "stakeholders" point of view. Each reuse purpose demands different water quality, not only to protect health and the environment but also to fulfil the requirements of the specific reuse. Reuses considered are agricultural, urban agriculture as a special case of the former, municipal and industrial. Alongside these uses, the indirect reuse for human consumption through aquifer recharge is also discussed. The third section deals with emerging and controversial topics. Ethical and economical dilemmas in the field are presented as a subject not frequently addressed in this field. The role of governments in respect of public policy in reuse is discussed as well as the different international criteria and standards for reusing wastewater. The importance of public acceptance and the way to properly handle it is also considered.
The fourth section of the book presents contrasting case studies; typical situations in the developed world (Japan and Germany) are compared to those in developing countries (Pakistan and Brazil) for agricultural and industrial reuse. Indirect planned reuse for human consumption (Germany) is compared with an unplanned one (Mexico). The
Windhoek, Namibia case study is presented to emphasize why if the direct reuse of wastewater for human consumption has been performed with success for more than 35 years it is still the only example of this type around the world. To illustrate the difficulties of having a common framework for regulating water reuse in several countries, the Mediterranean situation is described. Other case studies presented refer to the reuse situation in Israel, Spain, Cameroon, Nepal and Vietnam, these latter countries being located in water rich areas.
This book will be an invaluable information source for all those concerned with water reuse including water utility managers, wastewater policy makers and water resources planners as well as researchers and students in environmental engineering, water resources planning and sanitary engineering.
This title belongs to Scientific and Technical Report Series
ISBN: 9781780401881 (eBook)
ISBN: 9781843390893 (Print)
The Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region is the driest region of the world with only 1% of the world’s freshwater resources.
The increasing competition for good-quality water has cut into agriculture’s water share but since the use of freshwater for
domestic, industrial and municipal activities generates wastewater, the volume of wastewater used in agriculture has increased.
About 43% of wastewater generated in the MENA region is treated; a relatively high percentage compared to other developing-country
dominated regions. This is because of the perceived importance of wastewater as a water resource and several oil-rich countries
with the resources to treat wastewater. The MENA region has an opportunity for beneficial reuse of wastewater but few countries
in the region have been able to implement substantial wastewater treatment and reuse programs. The major constraints leading
to seemingly slow and uneven reuse of wastewater are: inadequate information on the status of reuse or disposal of wastewater
and associated environmental and health impacts; incomplete economic analysis of the wastewater treatment and reuse options,
usually restricted to financial feasibility analysis; high costs and low returns of developing wastewater collection networks
and wastewater treatment plants; lack of wastewater treatment and reuse cost-recovery mechanisms and lack of commitment to
support comprehensive wastewater treatment programs; mismatch between water pricing and regional water scarcity; preference
for freshwater over wastewater; and inefficient irrigation and water management schemes undermining the potential of wastewater
reuse. However, some countries such as Tunisia, Jordan, and Israel have policies in place that address wastewater treatment
through a range of instruments. Policymakers in these countries consider use of treated wastewater to be an essential aspect
of strategic water and wastewater planning and management. With flexible policy frameworks addressing rapid demographic changes
and increasing water scarcity in the MENA region, water reuse has great potential if integrated with resource planning, environmental
management and financing arrangements.
KeywordsWater reuse-Wastewater reclamation-MENA region-Water scarcity-Water quality
In Europe the last two decades has witnessed growing water stress, both in terms of water scarcity and quality deterioration, which has prompted many municipalities to look for a more efficient use of water resources, including a more widespread acceptance of water reuse practices. This paper reviews European water reuse practices and sets out the map of the water reclamation technologies and reuse applications. The data are based on a conventional literature survey, on the preliminary evaluation of an in-depth survey of a large number of European water reuse projects and on the findings of a dedicated international workshop. The preliminary evaluation indicates that for an increased utilisation of reclaimed wastewater, clearer institutional arrangements, more dedicated economic instruments and the set-up of water reuse guidelines are needed. Technological innovation and the establishment of a best practice framework will help, but even more, a change is needed in the underlying stakeholders' perception of the water cycle.
This article was published in the journal, Irrigation and Drainage Systems [© Springer Science+Business Media B.V.] and the definitive version is available at: http://www.springerlink.com/content/e749744553628469/fulltext.html The relationships between urban development, water resources management and wastewater use for irrigation have been studied in the cities of Accra in Ghana, Addis Ababa in Ethiopia and Hyderabad in India. Large volumes of water are extracted from water sources often increasingly far away from the city, while investments in wastewater management are often lagging behind. The resulting environmental degradation within and downstream of cities has multiple consequences for public health, in particular through the use of untreated wastewater in irrigated agriculture. Despite significant efforts to increase wastewater treatment, options for safeguarding public health via conventional wastewater treatment alone remain limited to smaller inner-urban watersheds. The new WHO guidelines for wastewater irrigation recognize this situation and emphasize the potential of post- or non-treatment options. Controlling potential health risks will allow urban water managers in all three cities to build on the benefits from the already existing (but largely informal) wastewater reuse, those being the contribution to food security and reduction of fresh water demands. Accepted for publication
This book contains 16 chapters aiming to better understand urban waste water use in agriculture in developing countries (Africa, the Middle East, Latin America and Asia), and detailed case study documentation of what works and what does not. It makes pragmatic recommendations aimed at protecting both the public health and farmers' income. This volume will be of significant interest to those working in hydrology, soil science, agricultural engineering, development economics, public health, development studies, urban and peri-urban agriculture and water resource policies.
This book contains 16 chapters aiming to better understand urban waste water use in agriculture in developing countries (Africa, the Middle East, Latin America and Asia), and detailed case study documentation of what works and what does not. It makes pragmatic recommendations aimed at protecting both the public health and farmers' income. This volume will be of significant interest to those working in hydrology, soil science, agricultural engineering, development economics, public health, development studies, urban and peri-urban agriculture and water resource policies.
This book contains 16 chapters aiming to better understand urban waste water use in agriculture in developing countries (Africa, the Middle East, Latin America and Asia), and detailed case study documentation of what works and what does not. It makes pragmatic recommendations aimed at protecting both the public health and farmers' income. This volume will be of significant interest to those working in hydrology, soil science, agricultural engineering, development economics, public health, development studies, urban and peri-urban agriculture and water resource policies.
This book contains 16 chapters aiming to better understand urban waste water use in agriculture in developing countries (Africa, the Middle East, Latin America and Asia), and detailed case study documentation of what works and what does not. It makes pragmatic recommendations aimed at protecting both the public health and farmers' income. This volume will be of significant interest to those working in hydrology, soil science, agricultural engineering, development economics, public health, development studies, urban and peri-urban agriculture and water resource policies.
This book contains 16 chapters aiming to better understand urban waste water use in agriculture in developing countries (Africa, the Middle East, Latin America and Asia), and detailed case study documentation of what works and what does not. It makes pragmatic recommendations aimed at protecting both the public health and farmers' income. This volume will be of significant interest to those working in hydrology, soil science, agricultural engineering, development economics, public health, development studies, urban and peri-urban agriculture and water resource policies.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the U.S. Agency for International Development are cosponsoring preparation of water reuse guidelines. The guidelines are being developed to encourage and facilitate the orderly planning, design, and implementation of water reclamation and reuse projects in the U.S. and abroad. The guidelines, currently under development, will address many aspects of reuse, including technical criteria, legal, regulatory, and institutional issues, and economics.
A nationwide assessment in Pakistan showed that the direct use of untreated wastewater for agriculture, particularly vegetable production, was common in most cities. The main reasons for this use were the absence of alternative water sources, the reliability of the wastewater supply, the nutrient value and the proximity to urban markets. It was estimated that 26% of the total domestic vegetable production of Pakistan was cultivated with wastewater. The importance of the wastewater was reflected in high water and land fees. Policy makers have to take the importance for local livelihoods and food security into account when making decisions regarding direct wastewater use.
This paper presents findings from studies done in the urban and periurban areas of Kumasi, Ghana. Different methods and methodologies were used which included more than 500 interviews mostly with farmers, personal observations, water-quality monitoring and literature reviews. Water from domestic use is the main source of wastewater in Kumasi. Less than 8% of the population has access to sewerage systems connected to treatment plants. Moreover, the existing treatment plants are mostly non-operational. Consequently, most wastewater is discharged into drains and nearby streams, which are used for irrigation despite high levels of faecal coliforms of up to 1010/100 ml. Until now, related health risks for farmers and consumers are only addressed through rudimentary institutional and policy frameworks with relevant by-laws rarely being enforced and still inappropriate in the larger livelihoods context
Owing to its enormous construction and maintenance costs, the management of wastewater in many urban centres of developing countries via a centralised wastewater management approach is very difficult. Often, untreated wastewater is directly discharged into adjacent natural water courses, causing a grave threat to both public health and the aquatic environment. A decentralised wastewater management approach is a prospective solution to overcome this adverse situation because of its low cost, simple operation and revenue return. To identify the potential of a decentralised wastewater management system in developing countries, the wastewater management policies, institutional frameworks, reuse practices and sanitation situations in selected Asian countries were reviewed and recommendations for effective wastewater management are proposed.
Water withdrawals in the United States during 1985 were estimated to average 399 000 million gallons per day (Mgal/d) of freshwater and saline water for offstream uses - 10% less than the 1980 estimate. Average per capita use for all offstream uses was 1650 gallons per day (gal/d) of freshwater and saline water combined and 1400 gal/d of freshwater alone. The 1985 estimates of total water withdrawals and consumptive use were less than the 1980 estimates; this apparently further confirms a general trend indicated by a slackening in the rate of increase of total withdrawals from 1970 to 1975 and again from 1975 to 1980. Public-supply withdrawals during 1985 were 7% more than during 1980, self-supplied domestic withdrawals were 4% less, irrigation withdrawals were 6% less, livestock withdrawals were 108% more, and thermoelectrie power withdrawals were 13% less. The combined total for self-supplied industrial, commercial, and mining withdrawals (excluding thermoelectric power) was 30 500 Mgal/d during 1985, or 33% less than withdrawals listed for "other' industries during 1980, which also included commercial and mining uses. -from Authors
Eureau is the Union of most National Associations of Water Suppliers and Wastewater Services in Europe. Most northern Eureau countries have abundant water resources. There, the need for extra supply through the reuse of treated wastewater is not a priority, but the protection of the receiving environment is considered important. The situation is different in the southern Eureau countries, where the additional resources brought by wastewater reuse can bring significant advantages to agriculture (e.g. crop irrigation) and tourism (e.g. golf course irrigation). There, wastewater is reused but under very diverse regulatory environments. Therefore, considering its various potential benefits (protection of water resources, prevention of coastal pollution, recovery of nutrients for agriculture, augmentation of river flow, savings in wastewater treatment, groundwater recharge, and sustainability of water resource management, etc.), wastewater reclamation and reuse can be applied to the advantage of both northern and southern Eureau countries. In order to take advantage of its full potential, Eureau would like to become involved in setting up international best practices and guidelines related to the reuse of treated wastewater. Such criteria and/or guidelines should contribute to a better management of water resources, a better protection of public health and of the environment and to a more sustainable development. Reclaimed wastewater is a reliable source of water that must be taken into account in formulating a sustainable water policy. To encourage wastewater reclamation and reuse in all Eureau countries and to establish its safe practice, European guidelines for most applications must be developed.
Cities in developing countries are experiencing unparalleled growth and rapidly increasing water supply and sanitation coverage that will continue to release growing volumes of wastewater. In many developing countries, untreated or partially treated wastewater is used to irrigate the cities' own food, fodder, and green spaces. Farmers have been using untreated wastewater for centuries, but greater numbers now depend on it for their livelihoods and this demand has ushered in a range of new wastewater use practices. The diversity of conditions is perhaps matched only by the complexity of managing the risks to human health and the environment that are posed by this practice. An integrated stepwise management approach is called for, one that is pragmatic in the short- and medium terms, and that recognises the fundamental economic niche and users' perceptions of the comparative advantages of wastewater irrigation that drive its expansion in urban and peri-urban areas. Comprehensive management approaches in the longer term will need to encompass treatment, regulation, farmer user groups, forward market linkages that ensure food and consumer safety, and effective public awareness campaigns. In order to propose realistic, effective, and sustainable manage- ment approaches, it is crucial to understand the context-specific tradeoffs between the health of producers and consumers of wastewater-irrigated produce as well as the quality of soils and water, on the one hand, and wastewater irrigation benefits, farmers' perceptions, and institutional arrangements on the other. This introductory chapter to the current volume on wastewater use in agriculture highlights a series of tradeoffs associated with continued use of untreated wastewater in agriculture. Empirical results from the case studies presented in the volume shed light on devising workable solutions.
The current world population is 6 billion people. Even if we adopted a worldwide policy resulting in only 2.1 children born per couple, more than 60 years would pass before the world population stabilized at approximately 12 billion. The reason stabilization would take more than 60 years is the population momentum – the young age distribution – of the world population. Natural resources are already severely limited, and there is emerging evidence that natural forces already starting to control human population numbers through malnutrition and other severe diseases. At present, more than 3 billion people worldwide are malnourished; grain production per capita has been declining since 1983; irrigation per capita has declined 12% during the past decade; cropland per capita has declined 20% during the past decade; fish production per capita has declined 7% during the past decade; per capita fertilizer supplies essential for food production have declined 23% during the past decade; loss of food to pests has not decreased below 50% since 1990; and pollution of water, air, and land has increased, resulting in a rapid increase in the number of humans suffering from serious, pollution-related diseases. Clearly, human numbers cannot continue to increase.
