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Agronomic and environmental impacts of pasture–crop rotations in temperate North and South America

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Abstract

Agriculture has become increasingly specialized in response to political, regulatory, sociological, and economic pressures to meet market demands of an ever-larger food and fiber processing sector. However, there is a growing concern with specialized agricultural systems, because of increasingly negative responses on the environment from declining soil quality to eutrophication of water bodies and enhanced greenhouse gas emissions. Literature from North and South America was reviewed that showed (i) strong positive production outcomes of crops grown following pastures, (ii) enhancement of soil organic matter with perennial pastures, particularly in the surface soil, (iii) improvement in water infiltration and water quality, and (iv) synergies between crop and livestock systems in system-wide evaluations of production and environmental quality. Therefore, agricultural soils would benefit from the re-introduction of perennial grasses and legumes into the landscape (i.e. temporally and/or spatially) by regaining soil organic matter and strengthening their capacity for long-term productivity and environmental resiliency.

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... Organic nutrient inputs either from livestock urine and faeces or from stubble provide environmental benefits to the pasture-crop system, such as increased soil fertility, C sequestration and improved physicochemical properties (Pravia et al., 2019;Bano et al., 2021;Pereyra-Goday et al., 2022). Grain-livestock systems are common in North and South America (Franzluebbers et al., 2014), Australia (Hochman et al., 2013) and Europe (Peyraud et al., 2014). In Uruguay, these systems represent 10% of the total livestock production area (excluding dairy cattle), occupying 2,159,000 ha (Rovira et al., 2020). ...
... Healthy soils are an important resource for agricultural production (Banerjee and van der Heijden, 2023). Even though it has been demonstrated that pasture-crop rotations improve soil health (Ernst Martin et al., 2020;Rubio et al., 2022;Santos Silva et al., 2022) and crop productivity (Nafziger and Dunker, 2011;Fontaneli et al., 2012;Franzluebbers et al., 2014;Pereyra-Goday et al., 2022) in comparison to intensive agriculture (i.e. CC), it remains unclear how these improvements relate to changes in the microbial community especially in terms of taxa beneficial for plant growth and health. ...
... Oat aerial biomass at flowering stage was measured as plant growth indicator and was found to be increased in pasture-crop rotations in comparison to CC. This is in line with several studies of pasture-crop rotations in the US (Posner et al., 2008;Grover et al., 2009;Nafziger andDunker, 2011), Brazil (Fontaneli et al., 2012) and Uruguay (Franzluebbers et al., 2014;Pereyra-Goday et al., 2022). Higher oat aerial biomass under pasture-crop rotations might be due to a combination of: (i) the improvement of soil structure and (ii) the increment in soil N fertility. ...
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Mixed systems of grain and livestock production based on pasture-crop rotations are a promising strategy to promote agriculture resilience and allow an ecological intensification of agriculture yet little is known about underlying processes in soil. To test the hypothesis that pasture-crop rotations preserve soil structure and select for beneficial soil and rhizosphere microbiota, supporting soil health and grain production, a long-term field experiment under no-tillage was studied. The experiment evaluated a gradient of land use intensities and vegetation diversities, from highly intensive continuous cropping to the least intensive system i.e. a nearby natural grassland, with two intermediate land use intensities i.e. short pasture-crop rotation and long pasture-crop rotation. Soil health was assessed based on soil physicochemical properties, microbial (Bacteria/Archaea and Fungi) community diversity and composition and oat performance. Pasture-crop rotations preserved soil bulk density and larger aggregates better than continuous cropping. High-throughput amplicon sequencing of 16S rRNA gene and ITS fragments revealed that the pasture-crop rotations fostered taxa that are associated with soil structure maintenance and selected potential plant-beneficial bacterial genera in the oat rhizosphere (i.e. Bosea, Devosia and Microbacterium), that may have contributed to the observed increase in N uptake, N accumulation and biomass in oat. In summary, this study shows that pasture-crop rotations are an ecologically sustainable alternative to continuous cropping in the Uruguayan Pampa biome.
... Three major types of grasslands can be distinguished within agricultural production systems: natural, semi-natural, and improved grasslands [49,50]. Then, Franzluebbers et al. [51] reviewed the agronomic and environmental impacts of pastures and crop rotations in South America, showing the benefits of pastures grown before crops, such as enhancement of soil organic matter in the soil surface with perennial pastures, improve-Diversity 2023, 15, 1006 4 of 32 ment in water infiltration and water quality, and synergies between crop and livestock systems. Thus, more studies are needed on the management of grasslands for fodder and meat production. ...
... The native grasslands have been under the effect of grazing for ca. 500 years since the European conquest of the continent, and in Pampa grasslands livestock production had its beginnings in 1536 and 1573, when the first horses and cows were introduced, respectively [51,141,142]. Additionally, in Andean regions, grazing by South American camelids is more ancient since the pastoral systems began earlier than the Spanish conquest of the territory [143]. It has been proposed that grassy ecosystems in Africa and North and South America have become resilient to grazing after being exposed to this disturbance for long periods of time [144], as could be the case for the grasslands and pastures studied. ...
... In South America, especially in Argentina, the natural grasslands are under pressure in a harsh process of desertification, and its vulnerability is strongly affected by the reduced areas for conservation [16,76,79,150]. Taking into account the ESs awarded by grasslands [32,48], together with the high productivity in meat and milk provided by these grassy ecosystems [51,146,151,152], involvement of AMF in grasslands and pastures management urgently call for sustainable use of these valuable and unique ecosystems. Recently, the capacity of amendments involving native AMF species in restoring grasslands in North America has been demonstrated [153]; in tall prairies, the invasive weed populations were reduced by means of low densities of native AMF inoculum application, and an AMF restoration effect also persisted over time, establishing a native AMF community in the grassland due to positive feedback from host plants (predominantly native grasses and legumes) and inoculated native AMF [153]. ...
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Mycorrhizal fungus diversity is an ecosystem health indicator, and thus, the appreciation of the aboveground as well as the belowground biota, such as fungi associated with natural and managed ecosystems, is essential to provide sustainable products and suggestions to farmers. Less is known about the totally arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and fungal endophytes useful to agroecology, which are environment friendly microbial biofertilizers to mitigate the complications of conventional farming. Specific AMF are found in most covers; grassy ecosystems are increasingly investigated through their exclusive fungal species that improve sustainable cultivation. Different grazed pastures, forages, and their diversity are important objects of study either in economic or ecological scope. Based on recent reports, the occurrence of AMF in grasslands and pastures is significant, supporting more diverse AMF than native forests. Therefore, we show current information on these topics. We conducted a Web of Science search of published articles on AMF, pastures, and grasslands and analyzed them. The results confirmed the important role of pH as the driver of AMF diversity distribution between the grassy ecosystems from Argentina and Brazil. In grasslands, the main family represented was Glomeraceae, while pastures maintain predominantly Acaulosporaceae. Brazilian grasslands and pastures presented four times the AMF richness of those from Argentina.
... Baseline soil organic C was very high for the cropland field due to its favorable landscape position in the deposition-enriched bottomland in Haywood County, whereas major shifts in baseline soil organic C were also found among landscape positions in Halifax County. In all three locations, root-zone enrichment of soil organic C was greater under grassland than under cropland, consistent with soil organic C changes with land use summarized in Franzluebbers et al. (2014). Root-zone enrichment of soil organic C was greater under woodland than under grassland only in Halifax County, and on average among sites, not different between these two land uses. ...
... Significant inertia in the specialized agricultural supply chain will likely prevent rapid changes, but modest changes could take place at the field level where ecosystem services can be realized and have important implications for the ecological functioning of agricultural landscapes (Lin et al., 2011). Linkages between ecosystem services and enhanced soil organic C with perennial pastures in rotation with annual crops should be encouraging (Franzluebbers, 2010;Franzluebbers et al., 2014), but many fine-tuned specific management issues remain to be explored, especially with more easily accessible diversification strategies with crop rotations and utilizing crop residues and cover crops as forages for ruminant livestock. With these issues in mind, much-needed research remains to be conducted to formulate pathways toward greater sustainability with the integration of crops and livestock production in the future. ...
Article
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Contemporary agricultural systems can be generalized as highly specialized operations that are fueled by mechanization; supplied with external nutrients to maximize production; crops protected by petrochemicals to fight against weed, disease, and insect pressures; and livestock protected by therapeutics to ward off virus and bacterial infections when managed in confinement. Such specialized systems have led to low levels of diversity, elevated environmental risks from contamination, loss of soil organic matter, ecological instability, and limited adaptability to climate change. More diversified farming systems are possible, but research required to characterize them in a holistic manner as an alternative to contemporary, specialized systems remains challenging to fund and sustain over time, primarily because they require more labor, management skills, and accessible markets to achieve additional ecological, environmental, and social goals. We share some perspectives as to (1) how specialized systems became the norm and (2) what changes could be made to reverse some ecological risks and environmental declines associated with specialization, acknowledging there is no panacea. Strong evidence exists for perennial forages to restore soil organic carbon (C) and nitrogen, but system‐level analyses of the net balance in greenhouse gas emissions remain to be characterized in the myriad of potential integrated crop–livestock systems that might be deployed across the diversity of edaphic, environmental, and socio‐economic conditions. We suggest there are abundant opportunities for more sustainable agricultural production to sequester soil organic C, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and develop more climate‐resilient agricultural systems that will be needed in a future dominated by climate change issues.
... Concerning soybean yields, the absence of significative difference between treatments is in line with the field experiment where yields were found to be similar between grazed and ungrazed paddocks. Yet, both the field experiment and our simulations suggest that soybean cultivated in ungrazed systems would lead to very slightly bigger yields than within the ICLS treatments (except for G40 in the field experiment), in agreement with Franzluebbers et al. (2014) and with Brazilian farmers perceptions that grazing is detrimental to soybean production (Kunrath et al., 2020). This could be associated with lower soil water content and slower soybean maturation that are observed with winter grazing (Peterson et al., 2019;Kunrath et al., 2020). ...
... The global increase in soil organic carbon for all treatments can be related to the absence of tillage and the incorporation of pasture into the rotation (Maia et al., 2010;Soussana et al., 2004). The oscillations in SOC that were predicted by the model, the SOC content increasing during the pasture phase and declining during the cropping phase, were also found in other pasture-crop rotations (Franzluebbers et al., 2014). ...
... Integrated Crop-Livestock Systems (ICLSs) use productive diversification as a strategy to cope with price fluctuations [2,3], improve land use efficiency [4], improve livestock and agriculture productivity [5] and are an interesting alternative to promote resilience and support the sustainable intensification of agriculture [6]. These systems are present in Australia [7], North and South America [8] and Europe [9]. In Uruguay, ICLSs occupy 13% of the total area used by livestock and they have gained relevance since the prevailing regulations on crop rotations set an upper limit to soil losses [10]. ...
... The main reasons to include pastures in crop systems are the low productivity of natural grasslands and increased crop yield after a pasture period [2]. These rotations with pastures have been shown to contain higher soil organic matter level, which is related to improving water infiltration, water quality, nutrient cycling and helps to mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions [8], when compared to lands that have continuous cropping. Rotations with pastures of 2 or 4 years of duration contain 5% more soil organic carbon (SOC) than continuous cropping [12]. ...
Article
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Integrated Crop Livestock Systems (ICLSs) use productive diversification as a strategy to improve productivity and land use efficiency. Pasture Crop Rotations are a part of ICLSs and imply a pasture phase included in the sequence of crops. The main reasons to include pastures in crop systems are low productivity of natural grasslands and increased crop yield after a pasture phase. Our objective was to analyze the productivity indicators and management of four ICLSs that combine crop and livestock production, with data collected over a 3 y period (2019–2022). The experimental site was The Palo a Pique (Treinta y Tres, Uruguay) long-term experiment installed in 1995, located in the subtropical climate zone and on Oxyaquic Argiudolls soils (3% average slope). Systems evaluated were CC (continuous cropping), SR (two years idem CC, two years of pastures), LR (two years idem CC, four years of pastures) and FR (continuous pasture with Tall Fescue). Liveweight (LW) production, grain production and dry matter (DM) production were evaluated. Liveweight production was higher in CC and SR (426 and 418 kg LW/ha) than in LR (369 kg LW/ha) and FR (310 kg LW/ha). DM production was higher in FR and SR (6867 and 5763 kg DM/ha/year) than in LR (5399 kg DM/ha/year) and CC (5206 kg DM/ha/year). Grain production was 10%, 16% and 9% lower in soybean, wheat and sorghum in CC.
... The deeper roots in ICLS and REF can explain the effect at 20-40 cm. These results agreed with those reviewed to pasture-crop rotations in Europe and America [35,36]. It has been shown that the type of vegetation root system affects the vertical distribution of SOC [37,38]. ...
... It has been shown that the type of vegetation root system affects the vertical distribution of SOC [37,38]. agreed with those reviewed to pasture-crop rotations in Europe and America [35,36]. It has been shown that the type of vegetation root system affects the vertical distribution of SOC [37,38]. ...
Article
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Integrated crop-livestock system (ICLS) is a useful practice to enhance soil organic carbon (SOC) compared to continuous cropping systems (CC). However, robust data from different regions around the world remain to be collected. So, our objectives were to (i) compare SOC and its physical fractions in ICLS and CC, and (ii) evaluate the use of δ13C to identify the source of C of SOC in these systems in the Pampas region of Argentina. For that, we compared two farms, an ICLS and a CC having the same soil type and landscape position. The ICLS farm produces alfalfa grazed alternatively with soybean and corn, and the CC farm produces the latter two crops in a continuous sequence. Soil samples (0–5, 5–20, 20–40, and 40–60 cm) were collected and analyzed for SOC, its physical fractions, and their isotopic signature (δ13C). Soils under ICLS showed an increment of 50% of SOC stock compared to CC in the first 60 cm. This increase was related to 100–2000 µm fractions of SOC. The shift in δ13C signature is more in ICLS than in CC, suggesting that rotation with C3 legumes contributed to C sequestration and, therefore, climate-smart agriculture. The combination of on-farm research and isotopic technique can help to study deeply the effect of real farm practices on soil carbon derived from pasture.
... Here this is reported for a broader set of physical, biological, and chemical properties (Figs. 2-4) and reinforces the value of crop polycultures (Kremen and Merenlender, 2018;Bowles et al., 2020;Guzman et al., 2021;Heggens-taller et al., 2008), cover crops (Pinto et al., 2017;Sekaran et al., 2021;Villarino et al., 2021) and rotation with perennial forage crops (Carvalho et al., 2021;Franzluebbers et al., 2014). ...
... SH indicators had a similar response to SII among the different experiments (Figs. 2-4), despite potential additional SH benefits of perennial pastures through reduction in tillage frequency, increased C inputs from roots and rhizodeposits, and the incorporation of legumes (Baethgen et al., 2021;Franzluebbers et al., 2014;Franzluebbers and Gastal, 2018;Six et al., 2000). Overall, these results highlight the importance of crop sequence intensification on the benefits of conservation practices in SH. ...
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The expansion of annual cropping systems and associated land cover changes may induce soil degradation, compromising the soil's ability to function and provide ecosystem services, also referred to as soil health (SH). Conservation practices may reduce SH decline, yet their benefits are uncertain. The main objectives of this paper were to apply a comprehensive SH assessment framework to evaluate (i) SH differences in natural grasslands and cropping areas, and (ii) how conservation practices lessen SH deterioration. Soils under natural grasslands were compared to cropped soils from three long-term experiments with treatments evaluating the effects of cover crops and/or pastures incorporation; no-tillage; and crop fertilization for Uruguayan Mollisols. Soil chemical (pH, cation exchange capacity, macro, and micro-nutrients), physical (wet aggregate stability, available water holding capacity, penetration resistance), and biological (organic carbon, active carbon, protein, respiration) indicators were measured. SH was significantly lower across all indicators under cropped areas than under natural grasslands, especially when soil fertility is not adequately maintained in cropping systems. Conservation practices lessened SH degradation, particularly soil biological properties, but had confounding benefits. Overall, gains in SH were linked to adequate soil fertility maintenance and longer active plant growth periods associated with including pastures and cover crops in annual cropping systems.
... Here this is reported for a broader set of physical, biological, and chemical properties (Figs. 2-4) and reinforces the value of crop polycultures (Kremen and Merenlender, 2018;Bowles et al., 2020;Guzman et al., 2021;Heggens-taller et al., 2008), cover crops (Pinto et al., 2017;Sekaran et al., 2021;Villarino et al., 2021) and rotation with perennial forage crops (Carvalho et al., 2021;Franzluebbers et al., 2014). ...
... SH indicators had a similar response to SII among the different experiments (Figs. 2-4), despite potential additional SH benefits of perennial pastures through reduction in tillage frequency, increased C inputs from roots and rhizodeposits, and the incorporation of legumes (Baethgen et al., 2021;Franzluebbers et al., 2014;Franzluebbers and Gastal, 2018;Six et al., 2000). V. Rubio et al. ...
Article
Full-text available
The expansion of annual cropping systems and associated land cover changes may induce soil degradation, compromising the soil's ability to function and provide ecosystem services, also referred to as soil health (SH). Conservation practices may reduce SH decline, yet their benefits are uncertain. The main objectives of this paper were to apply a comprehensive SH assessment framework to evaluate (i) SH differences in natural grasslands and cropping areas, and (ii) how conservation practices lessen SH deterioration. Soils under natural grasslands were compared to cropped soils from three long-term experiments with treatments evaluating the effects of cover crops and/or pastures incorporation; no-tillage; and crop fertilization for Uruguayan Mollisols. Soil chemical (pH, cation exchange capacity, macro, and micro-nutrients), physical (wet aggregate stability, available water holding capacity, penetration resistance), and biological (organic carbon, active carbon, protein, respiration) indicators were measured. SH was significantly lower across all indicators under cropped areas than under natural grasslands, especially when soil fertility is not adequately maintained in cropping systems. Conservation practices lessened SH degradation, particularly soil biological properties, but had confounding benefits. Overall, gains in SH were linked to adequate soil fertility maintenance and longer active plant growth periods associated with including pastures and cover crops in annual cropping systems.
... greater intensity) increased the contribution of aboveground and belowground (roots and rhizodeposition) inputs from the crops to the soil in many cropped systems (Novelli et al. 2011(Novelli et al. , 2013(Novelli et al. , 2017Hirte et al. 2018). A greater and more continuous root and a higher microbial C use efficiency are promoted compared to systems with longer fallow periods without crops (Acosta-Martínez et al. 2007;Franzluebbers et al. 2014;Tao et al. 2023). In some cropped systems a greater cropping intensity increased total SOC contents. ...
Article
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Context Under continuous long-term no-till farming, many silty soils develop platey and massive compacted structures in topsoil, ascribed to low crop diversification and intense agricultural traffic. Aims We hypothesise that agricultural scenarios of greater diversification and cropping intensity should increase carbon (C) inputs and total and particulate organic C, resulting in the disappearance of these platey and massive compacted structures and soil compaction. Methods The hypothesis was tested in 55 selected production fields (lots or macro-plots of trials with a cultivated area greater than 15 ha) and five non-cultivated sites across the Rolling Pampas of Argentina. The whole area was covered by fine, illitic, thermal, silty loams (Typic Argiudolls, US Soil Taxonomy; Typic Phaeozems, FAO Soil Map). Based on estimations of the crop intensity index (CII; proportion of days in the year with active crop growth) and recent agricultural history of crop sequences, sampled fields were grouped into five categories: soybean (Glycine max) monoculture (CII < 0.45; mean CII = 0.39); low intensity cropping sequence (CII = 0.45–0.60; mean CII = 0.50); high intensity cropping sequence (CII = 0.60–0.80; mean CII = 0.66); pastures for hay bale production (CII = 1.0); and quasi-pristine situations (areas with non-implanted and non-grazed grass vegetation or with negligible stocking rate, CII = 1.0). Key results Total C inputs to soil varied within ~1400–7800 kg C ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ and were significantly and positively related to crop intensity index (P < 0.0001, r = 0.83). The highest (P < 0.05) soil organic C levels were observed in the first 0.05 m of soil and quasi-pristine conditions (even higher than under pasture), and the lowest (P < 0.05) under soybean monoculture. In the 0.05–0.20 m soil layer, quasi-pristine conditions had significantly (P < 0.05) higher soil organic C levels; the other situations did not differ. Soil organic C and particulate organic C levels (0–0.05 m layer) were related to both CII and annual C input. Platey structures and clods >0.1 m (0–0.2 m layer) were negatively related to CII (r = −0.59 and −0.45, respectively; P < 0.0001) and C inputs from crops (r = −0.60 and −0.29, respectively; P < 0.01). Nevertheless, this did not result in soil compaction alleviation, as shown by soil bulk density, maximum penetration resistance and water infiltration variations. About 92% of the samples with soil bulk density above the threshold (1.35 Mg m⁻³), and about 32% of the total records, presented levels of maximum penetration resistance, aeration porosity and/or water infiltration beyond the values suggested as critical. Conclusions Although soil organic C in topsoil varied as hypothesised, the studied soil physical properties did not. This partially rejects our hypothesis. Implications This study underscores the intricate interplay between crop intensity, SOC enhancement, soil structure improvement and the persistent challenge of subsoil compaction.
... As an alternative, the inclusion of perennial stands in rotation with annual crops can improve soil physical properties (Eynard et al. 2004;Franzluebbers et al. 2014;Singh et al. 2009), increase the soil mineralizable N pool (Deng and Tabatabai 2000), and enhance agricultural resilience (Bowles et al. 2020) and overall biodiversity (Öckinger and Smith 2007). These perennial stands can be grown as a single species, although in general mixed species stands produce more and higher quality fodder than single species stands Papadopoulos et al. 2012;Simili da Silva et al. 2014;Sturludóttir et al. 2014). ...
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Aims Perennial forages in rotation with annual crops can improve agricultural resilience by increasing soil organic carbon. However, how nitrogen (N) sources interact with rotation diversity to influence soil nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions is not well understood. Methods During three snow-free seasons, N2O emissions, crop yields, and ancillary variables were measured at three experimental sites with contrasting soil textures (silty clay and sandy loam) in eastern Canada. Using a split-plot design, we compared a corn (Zea mays L.)-soybean (Glycine max [L.] Merr.)-corn rotation and a mixed perennial grass sward receiving N via: i) mineral fertilizer (MIN), ii) liquid dairy manure (LDM), and iii) inclusion of alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) to the perennial forages with no additional N (LEG). Results When summed across sites over all three years, cumulative N2O emissions were greater for LDM than MIN in annual crops (8.75 ± 1.63 and 5.15 ± 0.96 kg N2O-N ha–1, respectively), but not in perennial grasses (2.95 ± 0.55 and 3.76 ± 0.70 kg N2O-N ha–1, respectively). When comparing N sources within each crop type over the three years, MIN generated greater yields than LDM in annual and perennial crops, but lower yield-scaled N2O emissions than LDM in annual crops only. During forages post-seeding years, area- and yield-scaled N2O emissions induced by LDM and LEG were lower than MIN. Conclusion Our results suggest that for a cool humid climate using LDM or LEG in perennial forages and MIN on annual crops can reduce overall N2O emissions, while generating similar or lower yield-scaled emissions.
... In annual rotations with excessive soil tillage, which leads to soil degradation, perennial grasses can be used to regenerate soil health and restore agroecosystem functions before the next period of annual grain crops as a part of the rotation or as cover crops [12,13]. The roots of perennial grasses are rich in organic matter and can improve agricultural soil quality through C sequestration, water, and nutrient cycling, as well as supporting biodiversity [14]. However, this process is slow, and the results are not always visible, so choosing plant species and their mixtures that best fulfill the needs and climatic conditions is essential [15][16][17]. ...
Article
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Growing perennial grasses is often cited as one of the possible and most affordable solutions for mitigating climate change. This practice is also recommended for sustainable soil management in agriculture. Our experiment involved timothy grass (Phleum pratense L.), red clover (Trifolium pratense L.), and their mixture; tall oat grass (Arrhenatherum elatius L.), alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.), and their mixture, with the aim of diversifying the annual rotation; and periodical, twice-per-season cultivated plots in the same area (the bare soil fallow). Soil samples were collected in late October after plant vegetation’s first, second, and third growth years from three field replicates at the soil layers 0–0.1 m, 0.1–0.2 m, and 0.2–0.3 m and plant roots—at the beginning of November in the second cultivation year. After three years, the SOC content increased in all the study areas occupied by plants, regardless of their species composition, while it decreased in fallow plots. Grass roots were characterized by the highest C/N ratio (38.2 and 45.5). The roots of the red clover–timothy grass mixture also reached a C/N ratio greater than 30. Based on our research, choosing a combination of at least two plants, such as legumes and grasses, is possibly more effective for enriching the soil with carbon compounds in a short period.
... which is a consequence of the higher rates of groundwater recharge under annual crops (Gimenez et al., 2016;Nosetto et al., 2015). Conversely, the observed increase in quick flow may be attributed to an increase in runoff under agricultural land use compared to perennial vegetation (Franzluebbers et al., 2014;Rodriguez et al., 2020). It is interesting to note that even in no-till systems, a common practice in the region (Trigo et al., 2009), runoff can be a significant component of the water balance. ...
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The characterization of long-term streamflow in regions undergoing climatic change and agricultural expansion is relevant for achieving sustainable development goals and for assessing the vulnerability of water-dependent populations and agricultural activities. The objective of this work was to characterize the temporal patterns of water yield in the plain basin of the Carcarañá River (33,063 km 2), located in central Argentina and to analyse its relationship with a fast expansion of rainfed cultivation and climate change. The streamflow data for the period 1980-2020 were analysed in conjunction with climatic data (rainfall, reference evapotranspiration), satellite data (NDVI) and cropping statistics (sown area of summer crops) data. The annual water yield averaged $10% of the rainfall and showed a clear upward trend throughout the study period, both in absolute terms and relative to rainfall (i.e., runoff coefficient), which was not explained by rainfall or reference evapotranspiration temporal patterns. Conversely, we found that the trend in water yield was positively associated with the agricultural area (p < 0.05), which more than doubled during the study period (from 29% to 66%). Likewise, the mean NDVI of the basin, a proxy for primary productivity and vegetation transpiration, has decreased steadily over the last 20 years (p < 0.05). The separation between base flow and quick flow suggested that both flows increased during the analysed period (p < 0.05), though the latter would have been more relevant in explaining the trend observed in total flow. Taken together, our results suggest that agricultural expansion, rather than climate change, is the dominant factor explaining the hydrological changes observed in the study basin. Understanding the key role of land use in shaping the hydrology of a landscape is critical to developing policies and practices for more efficient and sustainable use of environmental resources.
... To maximize productivity, these practices can have detrimental effects on the environment, particularly when livestock congregate and continuously traffic portions of the landscape that can be denuded (Sanderson et al., 2010). However, wellmanaged pastures are considered an excellent land use to store surface-soil organic C and N, which can lead to improvement in water infiltration and water quality (Franzluebbers et al., 2014). Water quality is of great concern in Virginia, as 60% of the state is within the Chesapeake Bay watershed. ...
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Grazed pastures supporting ruminant livestock have not been well characterized for soil health condition. However, growing interest in holistic management of compromised watersheds suggests that grazing lands deserve more attention for their capacity to provide ecosystem services. Relatively little is known about how grazing management affects soil aggregation and other surface‐soil properties on private lands in the eastern United States. This study investigated the effects of land use (conventional‐till cropland, no‐till cropland, grassland, and woodland) and pasture management characteristics on soil aggregation, bulk density, sieved soil density, total soil N, and soil‐test biological activity on 31 private farms distributed across the western half of Virginia. Soil stability index followed the order (p < 0.05): conventional‐till cropland (0.60 mm mm⁻¹) < no‐till cropland (0.78 mm mm⁻¹) < woodland (0.85 mm mm⁻¹) = grassland (0.89 mm mm⁻¹). Surface soil characteristics improved with pasture age due to organic matter recycling from residual forage mass and animal excreta. Increases in total soil N and soil‐test biological activity helped create water‐stable aggregation and reduce soil bulk density. Soil stability index was optimized with moderate stocking rate of 0.5–1.1 Mg live weight ha⁻¹. Stocking method did not affect soil aggregation or bulk density. Soil stability index declined with increasing N fertilization rate. Soil aggregation characteristics were generally not affected by organic amendment, quantity of hay fed on farm, or occasional hay harvest from pastures, likely because aggregation was high across management variables. Well‐managed grazed pastures in Virginia are creating desirable conservation agricultural land uses to protect watershed quality.
... Intercropping with a legume in a cereal-based system is critical for achieving the benefits of improved dominant crop yield and enhanced soil chemical properties. Legume intercropping can benefit significantly through improved nutrient and water cycling efficiency, enhanced climate regulation, wildlife habitat, and increased aesthetic, educational, and recreational value opportunities (Franzluebbers et al. 2014). Many changes associated with soil properties under perennial crops are mainly driven by limited Plant Soil soil disturbance and increased organic matter inputs from roots and rhizodeposits compared to annual crops (Franzluebbers 2015). ...
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Background Evidence suggests that manipulating intercropping timing and stand density within intercropping systems could enhance crop yields. However, our current understanding of the effects of intercropping a cover crop on soil chemical properties and moisture still needs to be improved. This study investigates the effects of intercropping sunn hemp with maize at different timings and stand densities on selected soil properties and crop yield. Materials and methods A split-plot experiment was conducted under the in-field rainwater harvesting (IRWH) tillage. The trial had three intercropping times (simultaneously with maize planting, at V15 maize growth stage, and R1 maize growth stage) as the main plot factors and three stand densities (16, 32, and 48 plants m⁻²) as the subplot factors, with three replicates for both the 2019/20 and 2020/21 seasons. Changes in soil properties were assessed within the uppermost layer (0-30 cm). Soil moisture content was continuously monitored throughout the growing season and specific soil chemical properties were analyzed at harvest. Results The results showed that the interaction of sunn hemp intercropping period and stand densities did not significantly influence most of the measured soil properties. The early planting of sunn hemp had significantly 32.4% higher soil organic matter (SOM) than the last planting date at low stand density. After two growing seasons SOM, nitrogen, potassium, and manganese were significantly enhanced by 39.7%, 19.0%, 21% and 60.6% respectively. However, during the same period calcium, sodium and iron were significantly reduced by 13.4%, 46.1% and 78.0% respectively. The management of sunn hemp crop had significant effect on maize grain yield across the two seasons. The maize yields in the medium and high stand densities in the first season were significantly 15.3% and 34.3% higher than in the second season, respectively. Conclusion Due to the intercropping treatments, the retention of sunn hemp residues with varying quantities and qualities may have influenced the soil nutrient dynamics in the short-term. Significant changes in soil chemical properties and yield may need more time, and future research should be conducted out in agricultural regions with different soil mineral matrices.
... Conservative production systems that integrate crops and livestock reemerge as a consolidated strategy for intensifying food production [1]. The ecosystem services promoted by Integrated Crop-Livestock System (ICLS) have been reported in several studies [2][3][4][5]. The use of forage species increases the nutrient cycling, reducing the need for chemical fertilization in the next crops [6][7][8]. ...
... Integrating crop and livestock systems at the farm, landscape, or regional level will optimize food production and contribute to the diversification of a cropping system while simultaneously creating the opportunity to exchange feed and manure and mitigate external inputs, such as synthetic fertilizers and feed. This way, plant-bound nutrients are converted into animal-source food, and readily mineralizable substrates are returned to the soil (Karlsson and Röös, 2019;Franzluebbers et al., 2014). This can help close the nutrient loop and contribute to a circular food system (Boer and Ittersum, 2018), particularly in the face of legislative restrictions on the use of artificial N fertilizers in some regions (Vellinga, 2006). ...
Chapter
The global demand for animal-sourced foods has led to an expansion and intensification of livestock production, resulting in complex environmental and ecological challenges. In the 1960s and 1970s, leys played a crucial role in cropping systems. However, the pursuit of increased production to meet the needs of a growing global population has driven specialization in agriculture. This shift has involved widespread use of inputs like fertilizers and herbicides, narrowing agricultural focus in high-income regions. Consequently, it has reduced agro-diversity and fragmented once-diverse landscapes, leading to biodiversity loss, diminished pollinator habitats, and increased susceptibility to pests and diseases, all threatening global food security. Despite advancements in breeding for crops like maize, translating these gains into practical agriculture has been limited. This has resulted in too few crops cultivated under high-intensity conditions, leaving current food systems ill-prepared for climate change. A paradigm shift towards resilient food systems, prioritizing increased yields and ecological efficiency, is essential to align with the EU’s farm-to-fork strategy. This chapter explores agricultural challenges and underscores the need for sustainable solutions. It delves into the integration of crop and livestock systems, an innovative approach that optimizes food production while reducing reliance on synthetic inputs. This approach not only improves the conversion of plant-bound nutrients into animal-source food but also nurtures soil vitality. The discussion extends to grasslands and multispecies leys, highlighting their role in promoting biodiversity, enhancing soil health, and offering carbon sequestration opportunities. A compelling case study illustrates the benefits of a grass-clover ley-based integrated crop-livestock system (ICLS), impacting water and air quality conservation, climate change mitigation, agro-biodiversity enhancement, and land use efficiency. Despite evidence that innovative farming practices can enhance environmental benefits, farmers often receive inadequate compensation due to the lack of proper valuation. Additionally, the chapter provides estimates of avoided environmental costs associated with a typical ICLS compared to a conventional dairy system. In conclusion, a transformative shift in agricultural practices, which prioritizes sustainability, regional circularity, and the preservation of natural and social capital, is advocated.
... Changes in SOC content following the deployment of novel soil management practices have been determined in long-term experiments [27,[30][31][32]. Oscillations in SOC have been observed during crop rotation phases where certain phases accumulate, and others diminish, SOC [33]. It has also been found that equilibrium SOC values may change over time due to the continuously changing climate [26]. ...
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A successful crop rotation choice is key to the profitability and sustainability of farm management and may simultaneously have an impact on soil organic carbon (SOC) content. In this study, we estimated how changes in crop rotations affected SOC balance in Finland between 2009 and 2018, using geospatial data and Bayesian modeling. The area designated for perennial-dominated and diverse cereal rotations increased over the study period. Perennial grassland rotation was found to have a positive impact on SOC balance, while rotations dominated by annual crops did not differ in their impacts on SOC content. At the national scale, changes in Finnish crop rotations resulted in an estimated annual mitigation of the loss of SOC content by 1336 Mg C year⁻¹ in mineral soils and reduced the carbon dioxide emissions of organic soils by 10,475 Mg C year⁻¹. The combined effect of these two contributions is 11,811 Mg C year⁻¹, with an 80% probability interval of (−6600; 30,300) Mg C year⁻¹. While the overall impact of changes in crop rotations on SOC is relatively small, a continued change to more diverse and perennial-dominated crop rotations may have other agronomic and environmental benefits, e.g. on resilience and biodiversity.
... We found that perennial leys in the crop rotation combined with organic fertilisers increased soil moisture (Figure A.2.2), potentially creating favourable habitat and microclimatic conditions for soil mesofauna (Franzluebbers et al., 2014;Yazdanpanah et al., 2013). Especially soft bodied organisms, such as Collembola and juvenile Oribatida and Mesostigmata, are prone to desiccation and dependent on sufficient soil moisture for reproduction and growth (Tsiafouli et al., 2005;Wang et al., 2022). ...
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Cropping practices alter the occurrence and abundance of species, and their interactions, in agricultural fields. Such alterations can impede the delivery of ecosystem functions by disrupting processes that would otherwise nourish and protect the crops. I examine how single and combined diversification practices of lowering tillage intensity or including perennial leys in crop rotations with or without amendment of organic fertiliser affect predatory ground beetles, herbivores, and soil fauna within and across crop growing seasons. I examined the effects of changes in coupled above- and belowground communities on predator-prey interactions, focusing on consequences for biological pest regulation. Molecular gut content analysis of what predators had eaten demonstrated that species rich predator communities strengthen pest regulation through predators’ trophic redundancy. Increased tillage intensity decreased the abundance of soil mesofauna, resulting in resource discontinuity for predators relying on soil fauna as alternative prey early in the crop growing season. I discovered that communities of above- and belowground arthropods are inextricably linked in time, and that arthropods benefit from habitat continuity and increased structural complexity of arable habitats. However, the recovery and recolonisation after disturbance was only marginally linked to predator overwintering within arable fields. Although results vary across diversification practices and temporal scales examined in this thesis, I identified habitat and resource continuity across the growing season as a key property of diversified management that bolsters predatory and soil arthropods. Variable effects found across taxa emphasise the need to focus on species ecology, and to put effort into identifying ecological linkages across species. By this approach, we can understand the impact of management on ecosystem functions derived from these communities.
... Our results corroborate some previous ICL research findings, where increases in SOC have been reported under crop-livestock integration across a spectrum of crop production systems (Acosta-Martínez et al., 2010Bansal et al., 2022;Da Silva et al., 2014;de Faccio Carvalho et al., 2010;Franzluebbers et al., 2014;Fultz et al., 2013;Maughan et al., 2009). Given the variability in ICL grazing intensity (density and duration) and its interactions with climatic, edaphic, and comanagement components across agricultural systems, other studies across diverse ICL systems have also found negligible (Fernández et al., 2011;Liebig et al., 2020;Tian et al., 2010) and even negative (Tobin et al., 2020) SOC storage benefits associated with cropland grazing. ...
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The strategic use of ruminant grazing in perennial cropland is steadily increasing throughout Mediterranean perennial agroecosystems. Integrated sheep-vineyard (ISV) management, where small ruminant livestock graze on understory vegetation, is viewed by some practitioners as a feasible transition opportunity to facilitate less petrochemically intensive vineyard understory management. However, our knowledge of soil carbon dynamics associated with grazing in perennial integrated crop-livestock (ICL) agroecosystems is notably limited, especially within Mediterranean climate contexts. Here, we use a series of on-farm paired surveys to assess soil ecosystem habitat and resource conditions related to SOC flux and storage in vineyards utilizing sheep-integration (ISV) and conventional understory management techniques (CONV). Our results show that long-term grazing increased the quantity of active, labile, and soluble carbon (C) within ISV soils, with much higher quantities of microbial biomass carbon (MBC). Vineyard soils with sheep grazing also showed increases in phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) biomarkers, particularly amongst core functional groups related to decomposition. Soil microbial communities under ISV had higher C mineralization rates as well as higher carbon use-efficiency, as indicated by less CO2-C respired relative to the size of the MBC pool. Whereas inorganic soil nitrogen (N) and phosphorous (P) were also higher under ISV, microbial communities showed distinct metabolic investment strategies related to nutrient acquisition, with lower P-cycling enzyme activity and higher N-cycling enzyme activity. Additionally, ISV resulted in an increase in subsoil SOC storage, including higher quantities of physicochemical stabilization in the mineral-associated organic carbon (MAOC) pool of the deepest measured subsoil layer (30–45 cm). We observed no differences in soil structure indicators between treatments nor differences in the carbon fractions associated with four distinct aggregate size categories. We propose a framework to explain observed shifts in SOC dynamics of perennial ICL systems that include i) deposition of C and nutrient inputs with higher lability and solubility; ii) ruminant-induced decoupling of C from N and P, resulting in increased nutrient bioavailability; and iii) altered soil microbial metabolic strategies with more efficient biomass accumulation. These findings show strong potential of strategically applied ICL grazing to enhance soil functioning and increase SOC storage in Mediterranean perennial agroecosystems.
... They found that a more balanced environmental and economic performance is associated with reducing the area assigned to full-season soybeans and increasing land use diversification. This study and others (Franzluebbers et al., 2014;Peyraud et al., 2014) highlighted the advantages of integrated field crops/grass-based livestock production systems in the Argentine Pampas region based on their agronomic and environmental impacts. Pacín & Oesterheld (2014) found that, in southwestern Buenos Aires, including livestock and increasing land use diversification are powerful risk reduction strategies. ...
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In recent decades, the rural landscape of the Argentine Pampas has undergone a process of simplification due to the increased land allocated to crops, replacing pastures and grasslands, with a substantial increase in soybean area. In 2016-2017, a survey was conducted to analyze changes in cultural ecosystem services in this region. Pergamino citizens relate landscape improvement in terms of aesthetic and recreational values to increasing its complexity since they prefer more winter crops, grazing areas, native vegetation, trees, and birds. The significant relationship between sociodemographic variables and preferences for landscape attributes is consistent with the notion that aesthetic perception is constructed from personal experiences and background.
... As a crucial region of high biodiversity in the southern region of China, Guangxi has undergone significant transformations in its land use patterns during previous decades, transitioning from conventional agricultural practices to the cultivation of specialized tropical and subtropical fruit crops [73]. This trend has resulted in a multitude of adverse ecological consequences, notably a reduction in agrobiodiversity and a subsequent risk to livelihood sustainability [74]. The econometric results suggest that crop diversification may be an effective strategy for coping with such livelihood risks. ...
Article
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Specialization may lead to higher income for small-scale farmers but comes with increased risks, while diversification can mitigate risks and foster agricultural sustainability. Considering the influences of complex risks and farmers’ subjective risk aversion, the decision for small-scale farmers to specialize in citrus cultivation or diversify with multiple crops remains uncertain. There is currently limited understanding of this issue among citrus smallholders in rural China. This study aims to fill this empirical gap by examining the impact of smallholder farmers’ subjective risk aversion on their choice between citrus monoculture and crop diversification. It utilizes a subjective risk assessment approach that incorporates farmers’ risk perceptions and risk attitudes towards citrus farming. Farm crop diversification is assessed through the utilization of both the count index and Shannon index. The empirical analysis employs survey data obtained from citrus growers in Guangxi, China, and applies an instrumental variable regression method with endogeneity consideration using the IV-Probit model and 2SLS model estimation. The results reveal that both risk perceptions and risk attitudes play important roles in citrus smallholders’ land allocation decisions. Specifically, citrus farmers who perceive higher risks and adopt risk-averse attitudes are statistically more inclined to engage in land use diversification practices, including the practice of growing citrus as well as other crops, which contributes to reducing the risks of citrus farming and promoting local environmental conservation. These results contribute to a better scholarly comprehension of the relationship between risk perceptions, risk attitudes, and crop diversification among small-scale citrus farmers. They provide valuable insights for enhancing the sustainability of land use systems with citrus farming while also emphasizing the importance of maintaining essential diversification in small-scale farming throughout the process of agricultural modernization.
... 2 The projected growing demands for crop production, richer diets, and biofuel use 3,4 will intensify the trade-offs between crop production and climate mitigation. In the meantime, increasing soil organic carbon (SOC) storage through sustainable cropland management can mitigate GHG emissions, [5][6][7][8][9][10] as advocated by the 4p1000 initiative. 11 Therefore, agricultural systems have to be reoriented to climate-smart agriculture that supports food security, food system sustainability, and climate change adaptation and mitigation simultaneously. ...
Article
Farming activities are a major source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in China. Altering cropping practices is considered a potential emissions reduction route, but the extent to which GHG emissions can be mitigated without compromising other important aspects of food production (e.g., productivity, economic profits, water use, nutrition) remains unclear. Here we fill this knowledge gap using a state-of-art optimization model to quantify the net GHG emissions (NGEs) reduction potential of 17 cropping systems at the prefecture and province levels in China during 2014–2018. We find that increasing planting areas of soybean and winter wheat-summer maize and also decreasing those of single rice and single winter wheat across China could reduce the total NGEs by 7.4%–16.0% without compromising food security, farmers’ income, plant protein, or freshwater use. Our findings illustrate the importance of strategic cropping, e.g., altering crop distribution patterns and areas, in optimizing multiple objectives for lowcarbon agriculture systems in China
... We found that perennial leys in the crop rotation combined with organic fertilisers increased soil moisture (Figure A.2.2), potentially creating favourable habitat and microclimatic conditions for soil mesofauna (Franzluebbers et al., 2014;Yazdanpanah et al., 2013). Especially soft bodied organisms, such as Collembola and juvenile Oribatida and Mesostigmata, are prone to desiccation and dependent on sufficient soil moisture for reproduction and growth (Tsiafouli et al., 2005;Wang et al., 2022). ...
Article
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Single and combined diversification practices in crop fields and their effects on arthropod predators, de-composers and herbivores have mainly been assessed in small plot and cage experiments. In particular, effects of diversification on arthropod predators and their food resources, such as soil fauna, weed seeds and herbivorous prey in entire crop fields across the growing season, remain unclear. We explored how organic fertilisers, with or without the legacy of perennial ley in the crop rotation, and mineral fertiliser without the legacy of perennial ley, affected below-and aboveground communities in 19 spring cereal crop fields. In each field, we determined the abundance of the soil mesofauna, communities of arthropod prey aboveground and of the predator guilds ca-rabids, staphylinids and spiders. We sampled at three crop stages: tillering, heading and ripening. Weed cover and soil characteristics, such as carbon and nitrogen content, were assessed. For most soil mesofauna groups, the combination of organic fertiliser with the legacy of ley gave highest, organic fertiliser with annual crop rotations intermediate, and mineral fertiliser with annual crop rotations the lowest total abundance. Aboveground arthropod prey abundances were similar across treatments. The legacy of ley increased richness of all above-ground arthropod predators. Staphylinid communities' abundance increased additively as diversification treatments were combined during tillering of the crop. Increasing organic amendments, alongside the reduced disturbances through inclusion of perennial ley in the rotation, led to more abundant communities below-and aboveground as well as more richness in aboveground predator communities.
... In view of this scenario, conservative production systems that integrate crops and livestock reemerge as a consolidated strategy for intensifying food production in harmony with environmental concerns (Buller et al., 2015). The ecosystem services promoted by Integrated Crop-Livestock System (ICLS) have been reported in several studies (Anghinoni et al., 2013;Franzluebbers et al., 2014;Assmann et al., 2015;Bonetti et al., 2019) highlighting greater grain production, better water quality, higher soil water infiltration rates and, consequently, reduced erosion risks, and the maintenance of soil fertility through greater nutrient cycling. ...
Article
The nutrient use efficiency in integrated crop-livestock systems under system fertilization may be related to soil structural variations caused by grazing. These hypothetical cause-effect relationships are not known, which reflects a limited understanding of the underlying processes. This study evaluated the association between soil structural quality and system fertilization efficiency of phosphorus and potassium in an integrated crop-livestock system and a pure crop system. The treatments were two fertilization strategies (system fertilization and crop fertilization) in a factorial scheme with two production systems (an integrated crop-livestock system and a pure crop system) distributed in a randomized block design with four replicates. In the pure crop system, soybean was grown followed by Italian ryegrass as a non-grazed cover crop. In the integrated crop-livestock system, the ryegrass was grazed by sheep. In the crop fertilization strategy, phosphorus and potassium were applied at the soybean planting, and nitrogen in the ryegrass establishment. In the system fertilization strategy, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium were applied during the establishment of ryegrass. Soil physical quality indices were calculated for the beginning, middle, and end of the pasture phase (2020) and at the soybean harvest (2021). Forage and soybean production were also evaluated. Based on the soil physical quality index, the soil's ability to perform its physical functions decreased from 94% under an integrated crop-livestock system to 89% under a pure crop system. The results indicated higher total forage production (36%) and soybean yield (13%) in the system fertilization strategy as compared to the crop fertilization strategy. Moreover, the integrated crop-livestock system produced more forage (31%) and soybean grains (15%) than the pure crop system. The study provides the first evidence that higher structural quality of soils in an integrated crop-livestock system favors crop yields at all stages of production. However, the nutrient use efficiency in system fertilization is only partially explained by the soil's physical quality.
... This occurred due to their more shallow rooting [65]. Additionally, given its composition marked by grasses and forbs, this class is influenced by soil background effects [66,67]. ...
Article
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Land use and land cover (LULC) mapping initiatives are essential to support decision making related to the implementation of different policies. There is a need for timely and accurate LULC maps. However, building them is challenging. LULC changes affect natural areas and local biodiversity. When they cause landscape fragmentation, the mapping and monitoring of changes are affected. Due to this situation, improving the efforts for LULC mapping and monitoring in fragmented biomes and ecosystems is crucial, and the adequate separability of classes is a key factor in this process. We believe that combining multidimensional Earth observation (EO) data cubes and spectral vegetation indices (VIs) derived from the red edge, near-infrared, and shortwave infrared bands provided by the Sentinel-2/MultiSpectral Instrument (S2/MSI) mission reduces uncertainties in area estimation, leading toward more automated mappings. Here, we present a low-cost semiautomated classification scheme created to identify croplands, pasturelands, natural grasslands, and shrublands from EO data cubes and the Surface Reflectance to Vegetation Indexes (sr2vgi) tool to automate spectral index calculation, with both produced in the scope of the Brazil Data Cube (BDC) project. We used this combination of data and tools to improve LULC mapping in the Brazilian Cerrado biome during the 2018–2019 crop season. The overall accuracy (OA) of our results is 88%, indicating the potential of the proposed approach to provide timely and accurate LULC mapping from the detection of different vegetation patterns in time series.
... Intercropping with a legume in a cereal-based system is critical to achieving the bene ts of improved dominant crop yield and enhanced soil health. Legume intercropping can provide signi cant bene ts through improvements of nutrient and water cycling e ciency, enhanced climate regulation, wildlife habitat and increased aesthetic, educational and recreational value opportunities (Franzluebbers et al. 2014). Many changes associated with soil properties under perennial crops are driven mainly by limited soil disturbance and increased organic matter inputs from roots and rhizodeposits compared to annual crops (Franzluebbers 2015). ...
Preprint
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Intercropping is a promising strategy of improving soil fertility in no-till rainwater harvesting practices. However, the effect of intercropping forage legumes at various planting times and densities on soil fertility response under the in-field rainwater harvesting (IRWH) technique remains unknown in South Africa. The objective of this study was to determine the seasonal effect of sunn hemp ( Crotalaria juncea L.) intercropping at different planting periods and densities into maize ( Zea mays L.) after two growing seasons on selected soil fertility of a Plinthic Cambisol in Free State, South Africa. The experiment was a randomized complete block design with a factorial combination replicated thrice. The factorial combination consisted of three sunn hemp plantings dates viz., at maize planting, planting at V15 maize growth stage, and R1 maize growth stage, and three sunn hemp planting densities viz., 16.1 plants m − 2 , 32.1 plants m − 2 , and 48.1 plants m − 2 . The results showed that the interaction of sunn hemp planting date and density was significant ( p < 0.05) on soil organic matter (SOM) and Zinc (Zn). The growing season had a significant impact on changes in SOM, nitrogen (N), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), sodium (Na), manganese (Mn), and iron (Fe). Due to the intercropping periods and planting densities, the retention of sunn hemp residues with varying quantities and qualities may have influenced the soil nutrient dynamics in the short-term. Significant changes in soil fertility may take longer, and future research should be carried out in agricultural regions with different soil mineral matrices.
... The pressure on agricultural intensification in Brazil led to an increase in machinery traffic, exacerbating soil compaction. In the Cerrado and Pampa biomes, the main sources of shallow soil compaction and poor structural conditions of the topsoil are also associated with soybean monoculture and long fallow periods during winter [114,115]. This practice does not comply with guidelines of the conservation agriculture. ...
Chapter
In the last 50 years, Brazil changed its position of food importer to become one of the main global players in food, fiber, and renewable energy productions. This shift was only possible because of the country’s favorable climate condition, soil types, relief, and environmental diversity, together with agricultural technological advances such as the use of no-till, level terraces, development of adapted seeds, intensification of mechanized agriculture, and currently smart agriculture. However, the country still faces problems with agricultural land degradation, such as soil erosion (water and wind), slash-and-burn agriculture, soil compaction and overgrazing, salinity, the abusive use of agrochemicals, and microplastics. In this chapter, we discuss some of these issues on the agricultural land degradation in Brazil, showing the main challenges, advances, and perspectives on this topic.KeywordsFood securityNo-tillRotational grazing systemsSoil erosionSoybeans
... Following these regional trends, the annual cropped area in Uruguay increased from 400000 to 3.055 million ha, with soybean and wheat as main crops (2) . This increase in cropped area occurred mainly by shifting cropping systems from crop-pasture rotations to continuous annual cropping under no-till (3) . ...
Article
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Current nitrogen (N) fertilization schedule for spring wheat was developed under a dominant crop-pasture rotation. After the year 2002, this cropping system was converted to continuous annual cropping systems under no-till, reducing soil N supply capacity progressively. Additionally, highest grain yield of new varieties increased N demand. The required additional N fertilizer can be adjusted by monitoring nutritional status of the crop. Our objectives were: i) to determine optimal N status at different phenological stages; ii) to quantify the wheat yield gap explained by N supply deficit, and iii) to assess the critical nitrogen nutrition index (NNI) value as a predictor of response to N fertilizer applied at GS 3.3. We adjusted the nitrogen dilution curve (Nc=4.17DM-031), deriving a critical NNI at GS 3.3 (NNI=1.24). Depending on soil N supply capacity and NNI at GS 3.3, wheat yield gap attributed to N supply deficit varied from 0 to 2.74 Mg ha-1, averaging 0.76 Mg ha-1. The critical NNI proposed at GS 3.3 was effective to diagnose the N crop demand to reach the attainable yield under different scenarios.
... Worldwide, ~60% of the grassland biome has been modified by human interventions, leading to important changes in soil processes and, in particular, biogeochemical cycling. In general, grassland soils store more SOC than arable croplands, and they tend to have more closed biogeochemical cycles resulting in fewer opportunities to lose C, N and P to surface and ground waters, but they may emit more N 2 O if intensively managed (Soussana and Lemaire, 2014;Franzluebbers et al., 2014;Crème et al., 2018). Due to their permanent cover, they also positively affect the energy balance as compared to continuous cropping systems, which include periods with bare soil (Martin et al., 2020). ...
Chapter
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In this chapter, we will discuss the effect of different grassland management practices on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and soil organic carbon (SOC) sequestration. This includes comparison of grasslands with arable croplands, the role of N fertilization, and grazing strategies. Special emphasis will be given to grasslands in rotation with cropping systems and integration with timber systems to improve sustainable management and SOC sequestration.
... Estudos conduzidos por Franzluebbers et al. (2014) sobre os impactos agronômicos e ambientais dos sistemas integrados agrícolas e de pastagens na América do Norte e do Sul, indicaram que a agricultura se tornou cada vez mais especializada em resposta às pressões políticas, reguladoras, sociológicas e econômicas, buscando atender às demandas de um mercado cada vez maior do setor de processamento de alimentos e fibras. No entanto, há uma preocupação crescente com sistemas agrícolas especializados, devido aos impactos potencialmente negativos ao ambiente, à redução da qualidade do solo, à eutrofização dos corpos d'água, ao aumento das emissões de gases de efeito estufa e às perdas de solo, água, nutrientes e carbono orgânico. ...
Chapter
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O homem é frequentemente responsável por causar danos ao ambiente, notadamente, no solo e na água. Quando se realiza uma atividade agronômica, deve-se estar ciente de que ela pode trazer impactos negativos ao ambiente, sendo necessárias medidas de prevenção, monitoramento, controle e/ou recuperação. O solo é responsável pela ciclagem de elementos químicos, haja vista que sequestra carbono, regula o ciclo hidrológico e é um suporte da biodiversidade da fauna e da flora, entre outras funções ambientais. O recurso natural solo está em constante interação com a litosfera, hidrosfera, biosfera e atmosfera. Em decorrência destas relações, a degradação do solo é um dos componentes de risco para a manutenção da vida no planeta. Os processos de degradação, entretanto, precisam ser diagnosticados a tempo de serem interrompidos e recuperados. Deste modo, em sistemas integrados de produção, as técnicas inovadoras de monitoramento e de diagnóstico da degradação e conservação do solo e da água são de grande importância para a sustentabilidade dos solos agrícolas. No mundo, a agricultura se tornou cada vez mais especializada, com benefícios voltados à produção e acessibilidade de alimentos. Ao mesmo tempo, a produção agrícola especializada e a monocultura têm levantado preocupações com relação ao bem-estar animal, à degradação ambiental e perda da biodiversidade. Uma alternativa à agricultura convencional é a integração de culturas e animais no contexto agropecuário. A agricultura integrada de lavouras, florestas e pecuária pode melhorar à qualidade do solo, aumentar a produção sustentável, produzir uma diversidade maior de alimentos, melhorando a eficiência do uso da terra (FAO, 2010). Capítulo 9 266 No entanto, a agricultura e a agropecuária nunca estão isentas de desafios, haja vista que os produtores frequentemente necessitam de informações especializadas em agricultura, criação de animais, diversidade genética, infraestrutura de processamento de produtos de origem animal etc. Estes aspectos foram abordados por Hilimire (2011) em sua revisão sobre sistemas integrados de produção nos EUA. Estudos conduzidos por Franzluebbers et al. (2014) sobre os impactos agronômicos e ambientais dos sistemas integrados agrícolas e de pastagens na América do Norte e do Sul, indicaram que a agricultura se tornou cada vez mais especializada em resposta às pressões políticas, reguladoras, sociológicas e econômicas, buscando atender às demandas de um mercado cada vez maior do setor de processamento de alimentos e fibras. No entanto, há uma preocupação crescente com sistemas agrícolas especializados, devido aos impactos potencialmente negativos ao ambiente, à redução da qualidade do solo, à eutrofização dos corpos d’água, ao aumento das emissões de gases de efeito estufa e às perdas de solo, água, nutrientes e carbono orgânico. Os mesmos autores realizaram uma revisão sobre os sistemas integrados de produção na América do Norte e do Sul e realçaram os seguintes aspectos: (1) substanciais ganhos na produtividade de culturas agrícolas quando cultivadas após pastagens; (2) aumento do teor de matéria orgânica do solo relacionado às pastagens perenes; (3) melhoria na infiltração de água no solo com consequente redução na perda de solo e água; e (4) ganhos sinérgicos, entre os sistemas de cultivo e pecuária, no tocante à produtividade sustentável e ao ambiente. Trabalhos conduzidos, envolvendo sistemas integrados de produção agropecuária sustentável sob sequeiro e irrigação por Blanco-Canqui et al. (2016) nos EUA, apontaram efeito benéfico dos resíduos de milho (Zea mays L.) nas pastagens subsequentes e na redução das perdas de solo. Na China, estudos desenvolvidos por Dai et al. (2018) indicaram que a expansão das áreas de plantios agrícolas, em todo o mundo, tem levantado preocupações sobre sua capacidade de oferecer suporte a vários serviços ecossistêmicos. Foram avaliados cinco tipos de ecossistemas e serviços (produção de madeira, provisão de água, armazenamento de carbono, conservação do solo e retenção de água) fornecidos por florestas plantadas e naturais. Os resultados mostraram que os benefícios gerais dos serviços ecossistêmicos foram mais altos em cultivos mistos, seguidos por plantações de coníferas e de folhas largas. Além disso, a proteção das florestas naturais foi realçada. Estudos semelhantes conduzidos por Saad et al. (2018), utilizando os modelos Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) e InVEST, evidenciaram que trabalhos futuros devem considerar as estratégias de restauração da vegetação nas áreas de recarga de água, os sistemas de manejo conservacionista e a biodiversidade na agropecuária. O monitoramento, diagnóstico, dimensionamento e a simulação de cenários dos processos de degradação do solo são fundamentais na gestão agropecuária moderna. O Capítulo 9 267 principal enfoque nesta linha, refere-se à melhoria da eficiência desses procedimentos, aprimorando sua acurácia e agilidade, através de conceitos e tecnologias inovadores, notadamente nos sistemas integrados de produção agrícola. Ao longo dos anos, a versatilidade, a acurácia e a facilidade de acesso oferecidas pelos softwares e pelos sistemas gerenciados por eles, têm conduzido a uma aceitação crescente pela comunidade científica e técnica. Novos sistemas baseados em sensores próximos, robótica, modelagem, inteligência artificial, transmissão de dados via internet e outras tecnologias têm se mostrado capazes de reduzir a dependência atual da agricultura à produtos químicos, melhorar sua sustentabilidade, reduzir o impacto ambiental e otimizar seu gerenciamento (Saiz-Rubio e Rovina-Más, 2020). Para isso, os profissionais envolvidos devem trabalhar em grupos de pesquisa multidisciplinares e acompanhar a rápida evolução destas tecnologias (Lopes e Steidle Neto, 2011). Portanto, pretende-se neste capítulo abordar o potencial das inovações tecnológicas de monitoramento e diagnóstico da degradação e conservação do solo e da água nos sistemas integrados de produção agropecuária.
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era of complementary medicine, probiotics and prebiotics are gaining attention as therapeutic food ingredients because of their supportive therapeutic role in treating various ailments, including lowering lactose intolerance symptoms, enhancing intestinal health and nutrient bioavailability, and lessening susceptibility to the prevalence of allergies. The present chapter provides an overview of the role of various prebiotic and probiotic organisms or combinations of probiotics and prebiotics in alleviating various disorders and their underlying mechanisms of action along with the clinical studies.
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CONTEXT European farms and regions follow the trend of agricultural specialisation, which results in a disconnection between crop and livestock production. High-input specialised farming systems are continuing to be developed even though they generate negative environmental impacts. Despite these trends, a few pioneering farmers have intentionally reintegrated livestock onto crop farms in several regions. To date, research has rarely examined farmers' motivations to develop such systems. OBJECTIVE We aimed to identify French farmers' motivations for reintegrating livestock onto specialised crop farms and into crop-producing regions. METHODS Following innovation-tracking principles, we identified 18 crop farmers who had reintegrated livestock in two regions where crop farming predominates: Occitanie and the Parisian Basin. The farmers' profiles varied in production mode, farm size, the crops and livestock produced, and the type and duration of livestock reintegration. Semi-directed interviews focused on the farmers' motivations for having reintegrated livestock. At the end of the interviews, we asked them to select and rank 10 of 36 cards that represented their main agronomic, economic, social and environmental motivations for crop-livestock farming. We transcribed the interviews and performed inductive content analysis, which was then triangulated with the farmers' rankings of the cards. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS Seven categories of motivations for reintegrating livestock emerged from the interviews: following personal ethical and moral values, increasing and stabilising income, promoting ecosystem services, increasing self-sufficiency and traceability, connecting to the local community, decreasing pollution and keeping the landscape open. In both discourse analysis and motivation card rankings, agronomic motivations (including promoting ecosystem services) were predominant, especially improving soil life and fertility. Farmers ranked economic and social categories nearly equally. Improving and stabilising income was cited by 17/18 farmers in their discourse, consistently with the two most-selected economic motivation cards. Strengthening social connections was the most-selected social motivation in card rankings and was mentioned by 14/18 farmers in their discourse, particularly for connections among farmers. Environmental motivation cards were selected less often, except for environmental stewardship, which was consistent with the desire to build an environmentally friendly farming system to follow personal ethical and moral values mentioned by 10 farmers in their discourse. SIGNIFICANCE This study is the first to provide a ranked summary of crop farmers' motivations for reintegrating livestock. Understanding this diversity is an initial step in incentivising, promoting and/or supporting the development of this innovative sustainable practice under favourable conditions and can encourage public actions that promote it.
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Crop-livestock is a form of land use system whereby livestock husbandry and cropping are practiced in association. The production system safeguards ecosystem balance and assures sustainable production; besides, the production system does not impact on the environment negatively. The burgeoning human population globally has increased the spate of food insecurity and malnutrition especially in the developing countries. There is therefore an urgent need for a better, efficient and sustainable production system capable of providing both crop and animal products for the teeming human population. Crop-livestock integrated production system seems to provide opportunity for the production and supply of food of both crop and animal origin without detrimental impact on the fragile environment. In this integrated system, crop and livestock interact to create synergy that allows ecosystem balance and sustainable production intensification. In this chapter, comprehensive documentation of the concept, principles, and practices of crop – livestock production system have been made. Also, the importance of this integrated production system on ecosystem balance and sustainable crop and livestock production have been presented.
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Pasture-crop rotation has been considered as an efficient agronomical practice to improve soil and water conservation, develop livestock production, and promote food security. However, the characteristics of soil water restoration and performances of crop yield and water use efficiency (WUE) after conversion of long-term leguminous pasture into croplands still remain unclear. A field experiment was conducted in China’s Loess Plateau to investigate soil water restoration and wheat yields in crop rotation with Italian ryegrass (Festuca perennis Lam.) and winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) converted from three 9-year-old leguminous pastures, viz. milk vetch (Astragalus adsurgens Pall.), alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) and bush clover (Lespedeza davurica S.), and unplanted control (fallow). Soil water in the alfalfa treatment gradually recovered from up to down compared to the fallow treatment (control) during cultivation phase. After one year of rotation, the recovery levels of soil water in the three pasture-crop rotation systems at 0–500 cm soil depth were 97.1%, 95.5% and 94.2%, respectively, compared to the fallow treatment. The legume treatments significantly enhanced the crop yield (35.6%−64.5%), aboveground biomass (28.7%−59.4%) and WUE (60%−68.3%) of winter wheat compared with fallow. These results imply that the concerns about soil desiccation from long-term alfalfa was resolvable after long-term alfalfa converted into cropland in the rainfed farming area of Loess Plateau. The results also suggest that legume pasture-crop rotation can facilitate achieving a sustainable development of rainfed farming.
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Following the Paris agreement in 2015, the European Union (EU) set a carbon neutrality objective by 2050, and so did France. The French agricultural sector can contribute as a carbon sink through carbon storage in biomass and soil, in addition to reducing GHG emissions. The objective of this study is to quantitatively assess the additional storage potential and cost of a set of eight carbon-storing practices. The impacts of these agricultural practices on soil organic carbon storage and crop production are assessed at a very fine spatial scale, using crop and grassland models. The associated area base, GHG budget, and implementation costs are assessed and aggregated at the region level. The economic model BANCO uses this information to derive the marginal abatement cost curve for France and identify the combination of carbon storing practices that minimizes the total cost of achieving a given national net GHG mitigation target. We find that a substantial amount of carbon, 36.2 to 52.9 MtCO2e yr⁻¹, can be stored in soil and biomass for reasonable carbon prices of 55 and 250 € tCO2e⁻¹, respectively (corresponding to current and 2030 French carbon value for climate action), mainly by developing agroforestry and hedges, generalising cover crops, and introducing or extending temporary grasslands in crop sequences. This finding questions the 3–5 times lower target of 10 MtCO2e.yr⁻¹ retained for the agricultural carbon sink by the French climate neutrality strategy. Overall, this would decrease total French GHG emissions by 9.2–13.8%, respectively (reference year 2019).
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The science of agroecology has evolved to embrace practices and campaigns toward sustainable agriculture and food systems. The pathway seeks to enhance operational and resource use efficiency, to substitute ecologically-detrimental inputs and practices with eco-friendly options and design sustainable agro-ecosystems, and scale these systems through transformative development of alternative food networks leading to sustainable global food system based on participation, locality, fairness and justice. This chapter limits its scope to the scale of farm and agroecosystem in discussing the sustainable agricultural practices. The sustainable crop management and agro-ecosystem design components are categorized into eight set of practices, referred here to as 8-S elements. These elements include: (1) spatial bioengineering, (2) species diversification, (3) seed management, (4) seasonal synchrony, (5) soil management, (6) stress management, (7) systems integration, and (8) socio-economic objectivity. Drawing on the results of long-term studies, meta-analysis and narrative review, the eco-friendly, productive options generating ecosystems services and profitability are discussed under each category. The spatial bioengineering involves adaptive modification of physical and vegetal landscape tailored to the constraints presented by climatic, geographic and soil conditions. The niches thus created can be further diversified with crop species in spatial and temporal patterns. While seed sovereignty allows guided evolution of cultivars on-farm, various eco-friendly seed enhancement measures increase productivity and resource use efficiency. Research findings evidenced how seasonal synchrony of production practices can enhance crop adaptability to stochastic environment. The soil management covers the agro-ecological merits and tradeoffs of conservation tillage and soil productivity enhancement measures. The study findings proved the efficacy of various eco-friendly crop stress management options. Systems integration and socio-economic objectivity are touched upon with the perspective of further on-farm diversification, and policy support and fairness for the adoption of sustainable eco-friendly practices.
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Agriculture has undergone dramatic technological and cultural changes over the past century. Many would argue that the changes have been unquestionably positive with huge gains in productivity, reduced labour requirements, and alleviation of food insecurity for most people. However, the adoption of increasingly specialized and separated crop and livestock enterprises has also had widespread negative consequences resulting in (a) decline in biodiversity, (b) degradation of groundwater and surface waters with agrochemical pollutants, (c) poor soil health with monoculture crop production and frequent soil disturbance, (d) intensive greenhouse gas emissions from both specialized cropping systems relying on external inputs and concentrated animal feeding operations that accumulate wastes, and (e) general lack of ecological integrity among components of these specialized systems. Diversified agricultural systems using annual and perennial forages offer opportunities to elevate ecological synergies when crop and livestock operations are integrated. Integrated crop-livestock systems can internalize nutrient cycling, provide cultural control of weeds, insects and diseases , and share resources in a circular-based agroecosystem. Cover crops could be transitioned into nutritious annual forages for livestock grazing on currently specialized crop production farms with appropriate local incentives. Perennial forages in ley farming or in pasture-crop rotations have historical relevance and are a proven practice for conserving nutrients, improving soil health and enhancing biodiversity. Redesigning contemporary agriculture with mixed-use farming techniques could greatly reduce soil erosion, improve water quality, and invigorate soil health. We suggest that incorporating different types of forages across a diverse landscape can enhance agricultural sustainability and ecological integrity.
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O objetivo do presente estudo foi avaliar o desempenho de trigo em sistemas de produção com integração lavoura-pecuária (ILP), sob plantio direto. Os tratamentos foram constituídos de cinco sistemas de produção: sistema I (trigo/soja, ervilhaca/ milho e aveia branca/soja); sistema II (trigo/soja, pastagem de aveia preta + ervilhaca/milho e aveia branca/soja); sistema III [pastagens perenes da estação fria – PPF (festuca + trevo branco + trevo vermelho + cornichão)]; sistema IV [pastagens perenes da estação quente PPQ (pensacola + aveia preta + azevém + trevo branco + trevo vermelho + cornichão)] e sistema V (alfafa). O delineamento experimental foi em blocos ao acaso, com quatro repetições. O trigo cultivado após pastagens perenes de estação quente/milho, mostrou rendimento de grãos mais elevado do que após ervilhaca/milho. O trigo cultivado após pastagem de aveia preta + ervilhaca/milho, após PPF/milho e após alfafa/milho, situou-se numa posição intermediária para rendimento de grãos. Não houve diferença na massa do hectolitro, na massa de 1.000 grãos, no número de espigueta por planta, no número de grãos por planta nem na massa de grãos por planta entre os trigos cultivados para os ILP.
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Texas High Plains agriculture, largely dependent on water from the Ogallala aquifer for irrigation, exemplifies semiarid agricultural regions where irrigation is used at nonsustainable rates of extraction. Integrating crop and livestock systems has been suggested to conserve water and to achieve other environmental and economic goals compared with monoculture systems. From 1998 to 2008, two large-scale systems, with three blocks in a randomized block design, compared irrigation water, productivity, chemical inputs, and specific pests of (i) a cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) monoculture, and (ii) an integrated three-paddock system that included cotton in a two-paddock rotation with grazed wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and rye (Secale cereale L.) and the perennial variety WW-B. Dahl old world bluestem (OWB) [Bothriochloa bladhii (Retz) S.T. Blake] in a third paddock for grazing and seed production. All paddocks were irrigated by subsurface drip. Angus crossbred beef steers (Bos taurus; initial BW 229 kg; SD = 33 kg) grazed 185 d from January to mid-July each year. During the 10 yr following the establishment year, cotton lint yield was similar and averaged 1370 kg ha(-1) for both systems. Bluestem seed yield averaged 25 kg pure live seed (PLS) ha(-1). Steers gained 139 kg on pasture and 0.79 kg d(-1). Per hectare, the integrated system used 25% less (P < 0.001) irrigation water, 36% less N fertilizer, and fewer other chemical inputs than monoculture cotton. Integrated production systems that are less dependent on irrigation and chemical inputs appear possible while achieving goals of sustainability, fiber production, and food security.
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Over the past century, agricultural landscapes worldwide have increasingly been managed for the primary purpose of producing food, while other diverse ecosystem services potentially available from these landscapes have often been undervalued and diminished. The incorporation of relatively small amounts of perennial vegetation in strategic locations within agricultural landscapes dominated by annual crops—or perennialization—creates an opportunity for enhancing the provision of a wide range of goods and services to society, such as water purification, hydrologic regulation, pollination services, control of pest and pathogen populations, diverse food and fuel products, and greater resilience to climate change and extreme disturbances, while at the same time improving the sustainability of food production. This paper synthesizes the current scientific theory and evidence for the role of perennial plants in balancing conservation with agricultural production, focusing on the Midwestern USA as a model system, while also drawing comparisons with other climatically diverse regions of the world. Particular emphasis is given to identifying promising opportunities for advancement and critical gaps in our knowledge related to purposefully integrating perennial vegetation into agroecosystems as a management tool for maximizing multiple benefits to society.
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The soils of the Pampas region have suffered different processes of degradation and erosion. Several of the causes of this degradation are commonly found throughout the world; other causes are more particular to the Pampas, such as established policies that affected the nutrient balance of the Pampas soils. At present, we face new challenges to maintain nutrient levels and soil productivity of this key world agroecosystem. With continued global population growth, the Pampas region will be an important world resource for grain production. The inherent soil fertility of the region has made this region a major exporter of grains and nutrients until now; however, new nutrient fertility programs will be needed to ensure that the region yield productivity is maintained and/or maximized. Soil and water conservation is a critical component of ensuring the productivity of this world resource, particularly now that carbon sequestration can be used to potentially mitigate anthropogenic emissions of carbon. New policies concerning nutrient management and soil and water conservation will be needed to help maintain the Pampas region as a key world agroecosystem and to provide farmers with viable agroecosystems that maximize productivity and sustainability.
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A regional study was conducted in the northern Pampas of Argentina in order to compare soil quality at proximal cropland sites that are managed under either continuous cropping (CC) (n = 11) or integrated crop–livestock (ICL) (n = 11) systems under zero tillage. In the ICL system, samples were taken in the middle of the agricultural period. Although soil total and resistant organic carbon (TOC, ROC) were significantly higher in silt loam soils than in loam/sandy loam soils, variations in carbon concentration were not associated with differences in soil management. Soil relative compaction was the only property that was significantly (P < 0.05) affected by the soil type × management interaction. Soil relative compaction values were significantly lower with ICL in loam/sandy loam soils, but there were no significant differences in silt loam soils. Structural instability index showed little change from CC to ICL sites, indicating that there was no soil structural damage. Soil penetration resistance was significantly higher in ICL soils within the first 0.075 m of soil depth, slightly exceeding the critical threshold (2000 kPa). However, firmer topsoil under ICL was not due to shallow compaction, as evidenced by no increase in soil bulk density.
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Sustainability is influenced in many production systems by the variation of soil organic C (SOC) content and dynamics, and crop rotations. We hypothesized that arable layer SOC under conventional tillage can be managed through the amount of residue C (RC) returned to the soil as affected by tillage and fertilization. Soil organic C dynamics of a complex of Typic Argiudoll and Petrocalcic Paleudoll soils under conventional tillage between 1984 and 1995 at Balcarce, Argentina was studied for 16 crop sequences. Crops included were spring wheat ( Triticum aestivum L.), soybean [ Glycine max (L.) Merr.], sunflower ( Helianthus annuus L.), and corn ( Zea mays L.). Eleven years of conventional tillage decreased SOC 4.1 to 8.8 g kg ⁻¹ without supplemental N and 2.8 to 7.2 g kg ⁻¹ when N fertilizer was applied. Soil organic C loss increased when soybean (1.2 Mg RC ha ⁻¹ yr ⁻¹ ) was present in the sequence and decreased when corn (3.0 Mg RC ha ⁻¹ yr ⁻¹ ) was present. The amount of RC returned by the sequences correlated with SOC in 1995 and with SOC at equilibrium , but the sequences with two summer crops (soybean, sunflower, or corn) every 3 yr showed lower SOC in 1995 (28.9–33.8 g kg ⁻¹ ) and at equilibrium (24.0–34.4 g kg ⁻¹ ) than sequences with none or one summer crop (29.7–35.0 g kg ⁻¹ either in 1995 or at equilibrium) for the same range of RC (1.4–2.6 Mg RC ha ⁻¹ yr ⁻¹ ). The difference between sequences in the relationship between RC and SOC were attributed to tillage timing. Under conventional tillage, arable layer SOC can be managed through the selection of the crops in the rotation and N fertilization, but the timing and intensity of tillage have to be taken into account.
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Most long-term studies evaluate only average crop yields and overlook year-to-year yield variability, which could be highly significant. Our objectives were to evaluate the impact of long-term cropping systems and fertility management on corn (Zea mays L.) yield and yield stability. Cropping systems were (i) CC, continuous corn; (ii) CS, corn-soybean [Glycine max (L) Merr.]; (iii) 4C4A, 4 yr corn-4 yr alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.); and (iv) COW2RT, corn-oat (Avena sativa L.)/winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)-2 yr red clover (Trifolium pratense L.)/timothy (Phleum pratense L.). Fertility regimes were inorganic, or manure based on crop N or P requirements. Averaged across fertility regimes, mean corn yields in 4C4A and COW2RT were 10 to 12% higher than CC, and 7% higher in 4C4A than CS. Yield trends were similar (0.28 Mg ha−1 yr−1) among all cropping systems. Coefficient of variation (CV) analysis indicated that yield variability was highest in CC (CV = 28%) and lowest in 4C4A (CV = 21%) across fertility regimes. Regression analysis indicated that response of corn yield to the environment mean did not differ among the cropping systems within inorganic and P-based manure fertility and corn yielded lower in CC than in 4C4A and COW2RT systems. Under N-based manure fertility, yield was lower in CC than in other systems in the poorest-yielding year, but similar in the highest-yielding year. Results suggest that, on average, rotations are likely to produce higher yields than CC across fertility regimes. In high-yielding years with N-based manure fertility, however, corn yield in monoculture may be similar to that in rotations.
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Agricultural production systems in North America have become increasingly specialized. The lack of diversification has had negative economic, biological, and environmental consequences. One alternative approach to diversify agricultural production is to integrate cash grain cropping with ruminant livestock production. Our objective was to review research applicable to development of diversified crop-livestock systems in the U.S. Corn Belt and discuss research priorities and constraints to adoption of those systems. One form of integration becoming more common in the U.S. Corn Belt occurs through contractual arrangements between spatially separated, specialized crop and livestock production farms. Less common is the spatial and temporal integration of crops and livestock on the same land base, which can occur via rotations of grain crops with perennial pastures, short rotations of grain crops with annual or short-season pastures, and utilization of grain crop residues for livestock grazing. We feel this latter model is truer to the concept of diversification. Based on published research and preliminary results from an integrated crop-livestock system project in Illinois, we suggest that integration of crops and livestock on the same land base offers tremendous potential to diversify farm ecosystems in the U.S. Corn Belt while being economically competitive and more environmentally compatible than prevailing specialized production systems. Although studies have addressed or are applicable to components of crop-livestock systems in humid-cool environments, there remains a need for systems level research and funding opportunities for addressing the complex environment-plant-animal-economic-social interactions associated with integrated crop-livestock systems.
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Soil degradation associated with tillage is a major problem in Uruguayan agriculture. Either rotation of crops with pastures (ROT) or no-till (NT) cropping have been proposed as alternatives to minimize the impact of agriculture on soil quality. The combined impact on soil properties of ROT and NT has not been evaluated. In this study, we report results of the first 12 years of a long-term experiment established on a clay loam soil in western Uruguay. The objective was to determine the influence of conventional tillage (CT) and NT on systems under continuous cropping (CC, two crops per year) or ROT (3.5-year annual crops/2.5-year pastures). Soil samples taken at the beginning of the experiment in 1994 and in 2004 were analyzed for organic carbon (SOC), total organic carbon (TSOC) and total nitrogen content (STN), and for water-stable aggregation (WAS). Soil loss and erodibility indicators were studied using microrain simulator. With 12 years, the cumulative carbon (C) inputs of aboveground biomass were similar between tillage, but C input in CC was 50% higher than ROT. This difference was explained because 84% of the pastures dry matter was consumed by animals. Nevertheless we estimated a higher below ground biomass in ROT compared to CC systems (24.9Mgha−1 vs. 10.9Mgha−1). NT presented 7% higher SOC than CT (0–18cm) with no differences between rotation systems. While all treatments declined in STN during 12 years, ROT had 11% and 58% higher STN and WAS than CC systems, with a large impact of the pasture under CT. Runoff and erosion were minimized under NT in both rotations systems. Thus, including pastures in the rotation, or switching from CT to NT improved soil quality properties. The expected benefit of combining NT and ROT will likely require more years for the cumulative effect to be detectable in both C input and soil properties.
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Integrated crop–livestock systems have been purported to have numerous agronomic and environmental benefits, yet information documenting their long-term impact on the soil resource is lacking. This study sought to quantify the effects of an integrated crop–livestock system on near-surface soil properties in central North Dakota, USA. Soil bulk density, electrical conductivity, soil pH, extractable N and P, potentially mineralizable N, soil organic carbon (SOC) and total nitrogen (TN) were measured 3, 6 and 9 years after treatment establishment to evaluate the effects of residue management (Grazed, Hayed and Control), the frequency of hoof traffic (High traffic, Low traffic and No traffic), season (Fall and Spring) and production system (integrated annual cropping versus perennial grass) on near-surface soil quality. Values for soil properties were incorporated into a soil quality index (SQI) using the Soil Management Assessment Framework to assess overall treatment effects on soil condition. Residue management and frequency of hoof traffic did not affect near-surface soil properties throughout the evaluation period. Aggregated SQI values did not differ between production systems 9 years after treatment establishment (integrated annual cropping=0.91, perennial grass=0.93; P=0.57), implying a near-identical capacity of each system to perform critical soil functions. Results from the study suggest that with careful management, agricultural producers can convert perennial grass pastu