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Bio-nanocomposites for food packaging applications
... This outcome can be attributed to the nanofibers' superior barrier properties against moisture and oxygen, which are further enhanced by the antioxidant activity of the PoCDs and chitosan. The antioxidant activity slows down oxidative processes that can lead to increased water loss, as previously demonstrated in research involving nanocomposite packaging [64]. activity due to the absence of functional groups capable of donating electrons or protons to neutralize free radicals (I. ...
... This finding suggests that the antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of nanofibers also contribute to reducing microbial spoilage and moisture loss, which are primary factors in the softening of mushrooms during storage. Previous studies on nanofiber-based packaging materials have also linked enhanced food texture retention to the use of active packaging with antioxidant and antimicrobial properties [64]. The PVA-Chi-PoCDs packaging material outperforms the other materials in preserving the mushrooms' quality by reducing weight loss, inhibiting microbial growth, and maintaining firmness over time. ...
In this study, carbon dots (CDs) were synthesized from Pleurotus ostreatus liquid culture and incorporated into polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and chitosan (Chi) nanofibers, fabricated via the electroblowing technique to create an active packaging material. TEM analysis confirmed that the synthesized CDs possessed uniform size and morphology, while UV-Vis spectroscopy validated their optical properties. SEM imaging revealed that the electroblown nanofibers had a smooth surface morphology and uniform distribution of CDs within the PVA-Chi matrix. The nanofibers also exhibited enhanced thermal stability, as determined by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The developed CD-PVA-Chi nanofiber packaging was applied to oyster mushrooms, where it significantly reduced weight loss by over 50%, inhibited microbial growth by approximately 60%, and preserved 80% of the mushrooms’ firmness over a 6-day storage period compared to control packaging. The cytotoxicity tests confirmed that the packaging material was non-toxic, making it safe for food contact applications. This study demonstrates that the CD-PVA-Chi nanofiber packaging is a promising, eco-friendly alternative to conventional packaging materials, with potential for extending the shelf life of perishable foods through its bioactive properties and scalability for industrial production.
... Any biodegradable polymers can be engineered to have mechanical properties that are comparable to petroleum-based plastics. Biopolymers have been found in many applications, including medicine, pharmacy and the packaging industry [6][7][8][9][10]. As interest in sustainability and environmental conservation grows, the development and adoption of biodegradable polymers represent a promising direction for reducing plastic waste and pollution [11,12]. ...
... In recent years, polymer nanocomposites with nano-addition of aluminosilicates have attracted wide interest due to significant improvement of polymer properties using small amounts of nanofiller [6,31]. Numerous studies have been conducted with the addition of layered silicates such as saponite, bentonite, kaolinite and montmorillonite (MMT) [32,33]. ...
The growing demand for products made of polymeric materials, including the commonly used polypropylene (PP), is accompanied by the problem of storing and disposing of non-biodegradable waste, increasing greenhouse gas emissions, climate change and the creation of toxic products that constitute a health hazard of all living organisms. Moreover, most of the synthetic polymers used are made from petrochemical feedstocks from non-renewable resources. The use of petrochemical raw materials also causes degradation of the natural environment. A potential solution to these problems is the use of biopolymers. Biopolymers include biodegradable or biosynthesizable polymers, i.e., obtained from renewable sources or produced synthetically but from raw materials of natural origin. One of them is the poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (P3HB) biopolymer, whose properties are comparable to PP. Unfortunately, it is necessary to modify its properties to improve its processing and operational properties. In the work, hybrid polymer nanobiocomposites based on P3HB, with the addition of chain, uncross-linked polyurethane (PU) and layered aluminosilicate modified with organic salts (Cloisite®30B) were produced by extrusion process. The introduction of PU and Cloisite®30B to the polymer matrix (P3HB) influenced the processing parameters beneficially and resulted in a decrease in the extrusion temperature of more than 10 °C. The influence of the simultaneous addition of a constant amount of PU (10 m/m%) and the different amounts of nanoadditives (1, 2 and 3 m/m%) on the compatibility, morphology and static mechanical properties of the resulted nanobiocomposites were examined. The component interactions by Fourier transformation infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis, nano- and microscale structure studies using small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) and morphology by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were carried out, and the hardness and tensile strength of the obtained polymer nanobiocomposites were determined. FTIR analysis identified the compatibility of the polyester matrix, PU, and organomodified montmorillonite, the greatest being 3 m/m% Cloisite30B content. The addition of PU to the polyester elasticizes the material and decreases the material’s strength and ductility. The presence of nanoclay enhanced the mechanical properties of nanobiocomposites. The resulting nanobiocomposites can be used in the production of short-life materials applied in gardening or agriculture.
... In contrast, chitosan films made from highmolecular-weight chitosan usually exhibit higher water contact angles, typically between 90° and 110°. This is attributed to the more complex surface structure and increased surface roughness of CS-HMW, which enhances hydrophobicity [36,37]. ...
... In contrast, chitosan films made from highmolecular-weight chitosan usually exhibit higher water contact angles, typically between 90 • and 110 • . This is attributed to the more complex surface structure and increased surface roughness of CS-HMW, which enhances hydrophobicity [36,37]. ...
Numerous bacterial species can both suppress plant pathogens and promote plant growth. By combining these bacteria with stabilizing substances, we can develop biological products with an extended shelf life, contributing to sustainable agriculture. Bacillus subtilis is one such bacterial species, possessing traits that enhance plant growth and offer effective protection, making it suitable for various applications. In this study, we successfully incorporated B. subtilis into hybrid materials composed of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) fibers coated with chitosan film. The polymer carrier not only supports the normal growth of the bioagent but also preserves its viability during long-term storage. For that reason, the impact of chitosan molecular weight on the dynamic viscosity of the solutions used for film formation, as well as the resulting film’s morphology, mechanical properties, and quantity of incorporated B. subtilis, along with their growth dynamics was investigated. SEM was used to examine the morphology of B. subtilis, electrospun PHB, and PHB mats coated with chitosan/B. subtilis. The results from mechanical tests demonstrate that chitosan film formation enhanced the tensile strength of the tested materials. Microbiological tests confirmed that the bacteria incorporated into the hybrid materials grow normally. The conducted viability tests demonstrate that the bacteria incorporated within the electrospun materials remained viable both after incorporation and following 90 days of storage. Moreover, the prepared biohybrid materials effectively inhibited the growth of the plant pathogenic strain Alternaria. Thus, the study provides more efficient and sustainable agricultural solutions by reducing reliance on synthetic materials and enhancing environmental compatibility through the development of advanced biomaterials capable of delivering active biocontrol agents.
... The microbiological contamination can be prevented by adding antimicrobial agents or by applying them on the surface of food (Chawla et al., 2021). Furthermore, these materials are excellent vehicles for incorporating a variety of additives such as nano clays, nanometals, antimicrobial materials, and other nutrients (Rhim et al., 2013). In food protection, the addition of antimicrobial agents in packaging films or coating results in improved efficiency and stability and ensures the controlled release of the active agent into food. ...
In this study, the antimicrobial nisin nanocomposites were prepared by the addition of silver nanoparticles along with varying concentrations of montmorillonite K10 nanoclay into nisin. These nanocomposites were coated on the oxygen plasma surface-modified polypropylene (PP). The coated film was characterized by various techniques, and the novelty of this research work lies in the use of nisin, AgNPs, and MMT K10 which led to positive effects on various properties in food packaging applications. The thickness of the nisin-based coated nanocomposites was calculated by scanning electron microscopy. The functional groups and dispersion of nano clays in the preparation of nisin-based bio nanocomposites were analysed via Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction spectroscopy. Contact angle analysis was used to determine whether the wettability of the coated samples increased due to the addition of AgNPs. The surface colour and opacity were found to be enhanced after the inclusion of MMT K10 and AgNPs. Nisin with 5 wt% MMT K10 nano clay and AgNPs coating provided promising barrier properties such as a low oxygen transmission rate of 369.65 cc/m².day.atm and a low water vapour transmission rate of 1.72 g/m².day. Additionally, the same concentration had the best tensile strength (13.14 MPa) and coating adhesion strength (8.1 N/cm) which were better than those of the other various concentrations. The antimicrobial properties of nisin nanocomposite-coated PP were evaluated against Gram-positive (Staphylococcus aureus) and Gram-negative (Escherichia coli) microorganisms. The nano migration of AgNPs from the coating was calculated by inductively coupled plasma‒mass spectrometry, and it was under the limit stated by European regulations. This high-performance nisin/MMT K10/AgNPs-coated PP film has potential practical applications in active food packaging.
... Bio-sourced materials are environmentally friendly and abundant, including plant fiber (the main component is cellulose) (Klemm et al. 2005), starch (Rhim et al. 2013), chitosan (Wei et al. 2021), etc. Among them, the main component of plant fiber is cellulose which is the most abundant natural biopolymer on earth (Arevalo-Gallegos et al. 2017) and the technology for industrialized pulp fiber products (paper, cardboard, pulp molding, etc.) are very mature and well equipped which are cured by thermoforming primarily (Didone and Tosello 2019;Forsberg et al. 2022). ...
Large-scale use of petroleum-based plastic foams has caused serious environmental problems. Biodegradable and renewable plant resources have become ideal alternative materials. However, the inherent low mechanical strength and flammability of plant-based foams have prevented their widespread use. In this paper, pulp foams (PUPs) were prepared by cross-linking pulp fibers with ammonium polyphosphate (APP) in a novel and simple method. The resulting foam exhibits ultralow density (12.4 mg cm⁻³), good mechanical properties, high flame retardancy, and recyclable, degradable performance. In the compression experiment, the compressive strength of PUP (15%) foam increased by 175% at 80% strain. Besides, PUP (15%) retains its woven structure well after vertical and horizontal combustion tests. It is expected that this work will provide new insights into the production of flame-retardant foams, which have a high potential to replace flammable and non-degradable petroleum-based foams.
Graphical Abstract
... The investigation of water resistance involves the examination of water solubility (WS) and water uptake ratio (WUR), using the approach outlined by Rhim et al. [16] with some adjustments. The specimen was cut to 30 × 30 mm, and subjected to a drying process in an oven at a temperature of 105 °C for a duration of 24 h, and subsequently weighed to determine the initial dry weight in grams. ...
Nanocellulose is already established as a reinforcing agent in bioplastics. Sorghum stalk, an underutilized source of cellulose despite its high cellulose content and abundance, is put to use in this study. An alternative, more environmentally friendly isolation method using a deep eutectic solvent (DES) consisting of an oxalic acid/choline chloride (ChCl) mixture is similarly put to test. This study thus aims to investigate the effect of the addition of nanocellulose from this alternative source and isolation method on the characteristics of agar-based bioplastics. Using a previously established optimal oxalic acid:ChCl ratio of 1:1 resulted in cellulose nanofibrils (CNF) with a yield of 61.50%, zeta potential of − 21.7 mV, average diameter of 55.53 ± 2.89 nm, transparency of 0.035% and the highest degradation temperature compared to other tested ratios. When this nanocellulose was incorporated into agar-based bioplastics, the resulting bioplastic showed a significant (at p < 0.05) improvement in its physical (thickness, transparency, water vapor transmission rate (WVTR)) and mechanical (tensile strength, modulus of elasticity) properties. In addition, the addition of nanocellulose also improved the thermal properties of the bioplastics as well, showing an increase of 0.96% in melting point, 72.71% in Tonset, 19.10% and in Tmax. These improvements open up the opportunity for the application of nanocellulose-reinforced agar-based bioplastics as food packaging material.
Graphical Abstract
... The more important bio-based nanocomposites are derived from natural polymers, such as starch and cellulose. Whereas, the more effective nanoclays used to improve the packing strength of nanocomposites are MMT and kaolinite [61]. Such nanocomposites are used in many kinds of packing material including plastics made up of bio-polymers for the packing of drinking products and shrink wrap material. ...
The current review focuses on the applications of polymer nanocomposites in the packing industry. Nanocomposite fabrication may be carried out through several synthetic techniques based on the type of material required. Basically, it is the composite formation of polymeric matrix and a reinforcing nanofiller. The nanoclay used for the modification of nanocomposites acts as a reinforcement or filler. Montmorillonite (MMT) is the most frequently used clay material to obtain the desired properties of nanocomposite. Clay reinforcement enhances the food packing properties of the material because of its properties as flame retardant, tensile features, barrier properties, and biodegradability. Among bottom-up and top-down techniques, sol-gel synthesis, self-assembly, and polymerization are the most common techniques used for the synthesis of nanocomposites. Nanocomposites derived from bio-polymers make the material biodegradable which, in turn, is one of the most desirable features for their future use. Owing to improved characteristics, clay nanocomposites form a superior class of materials for food packaging, yet much finer dispersion of nanofillers and compatibility may be devised.
... Also, the films exhibited transparency (L*), which is essential so that it goes unnoticed by consumers. The values are similar to the reports by Gaona-Sánchez et al. [23], which obtained 96.65 for pectin citrus peel films, and Rhim et al. [24], which obtained 96.86 for soy protein isolate films. In contrast, studies on pectin and alginate films, such as Galus and Lenart [25], reported slightly lower L* values (91-89), and Ghanbarzadeh et al. [26] noted even lower values for modified starch and carboxymethyl cellulose films. ...
This study investigated corn pericarp, a by-product of the nixtamalization process, in developing sustainable films for fruit coatings. These films were evaluated for their optical, structural, barrier, and mechanical properties. The results showed that the pericarp films were transparent, had heterogeneous surfaces, and exhibited favorable mechanical and barrier properties, suggesting their potential as fruit coatings. The pericarp films significantly extended shelf life when applied to peaches and tejocotes postharvest. The films slowed the maturation process, as evidenced by minimal changes in peel and mesocarp color for up to five days for tejocotes and even longer for peaches. Additionally, coated fruits showed slower rates of weight loss, firmness reduction, and decreases in titratable acidity, total soluble solids, and total sugar content compared to control samples. These findings demonstrate the potential of corn pericarp films as effective coatings for extending the shelf life of stone fruits.
... PHB acts as a barrier against water vapour, oxygen, and carbon dioxide and is stable, flexible, and highly resistant, which makes them suitable for use in food packaging 62 . They are also biodegradable and non-toxic to the environment, unlike polypropylene, widely used in bottles and jars manufacturing 63 . ...
Over the past decade, petroleum-based plastics have emerged as a significant concern, disrupting normal human life cycles. The adverse impacts of synthetic plastics on living organisms include their accumulation in both marine and terrestrial habitats, lack of proper disposal methods, slow biodegradation rates, and absence of natural degradation processes. Consequently, researchers have been driven to develop eco-friendly polymers that pose minimal harm to the environment. Among the most prevalent alternatives to synthetic plastics are biopolymers, with Polyhydroxybutyrates standing out as a widely used example due to its properties suitable for replacing conventional plastics. Biopolymers offer solutions to the drawbacks of synthetic plastics. When biopolymers are released into the environment, they do not generate toxic chemicals that harm living organisms. These biopolymers are already in use in various industries. Through this review, we would understand the usage of these biopolymers in various industries.
... This also leads to a shorter food shelf life compared to conventional packaging materials (Haghighi et al., 2021). To overcome these limitations and expand its potential use in food packaging and future commercialisation, gelatin will be thermally crosslinked and or combined with polysaccharides (Rhim et al., 2013;Ehrmann, 2021) or other biodegradable polymers such as polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) (Chi et al., 2022). ...
This study aims to develop a novel active food packaging material from hybrid micro‐nanofibrous mats fabricated from gelatin (G)–chitosan (Ch)–polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)–Origanum elongatum essential oil (EO), (G‐Ch‐PVA‐EO) through electro‐blowing. The fibrous mats were characterised to assess their morphologies, shelf life efficiency, antimicrobial and antioxidant properties, surface‐wetting, and thermal, chemical, and physical interactions, among other factors. Results showed that the antioxidant activity was improved with the addition of EO, this enhancement is potentially linked to its rich content of phenolic components; carvacrol and P‐cymene. In addition, G‐Ch‐PVA‐EO showed higher firmness measurements compared to the control samples. Herein, low microbial counts were noted for both mesophilic aerobic bacteria (3.76 log CFU g⁻¹) and yeast/mould (3.91 log CFU g⁻¹) even at day 20. To conclude, the G‐Ch‐PVA‐EO microfibrous mat exhibits great promise in preserving the freshness of tomatoes.
... role in the stability and quality control, enabling the diffusional mobility of α-lionic acid. An electrostatic attraction was observed among the components of the polylysine, kappa-carrageenan, and pectin film, forming a robust complex that acts as an effective antimicrobial delivery system [151,163]. ...
Seaweed has different biologically active macromolecules, including polyphenols, fiber, proteins, and polysaccharides. Recent developments in seaweed bioactive compounds improved food packaging quality and functional properties and increased food production innovations and sustainability. Seaweed compounds are a good source of gelling, thickening, and emulsifying agents in food industrial products. Further Green Extraction methods are used for the extraction of bioactive compounds, these methods are environment friendly, with less time and high-yield production. Seaweeds incorporate antioxidants that reduce lipid oxidation, thus enhancing food's durability and nutritional value and reducing free radicals' occurrence and retard the growth of bacteria. Seaweed has increased its potential for antimicrobial packaging solutions. The manuscript explores the perspective for advancing seaweed-based films, involving property improvements, increased shelf life, and production scalability. Seaweed-based films offer sustainable packaging for fresh produce, seafood, bakeries, and confectionery products. Seaweed-derived bioactive compounds enhance the quality and safety of packaged food products and seaweed polysaccharides in food packaging are their biodegradability and environmental friendliness.
... In many sauces, beverages, oils, and juices, NPs have shown a variety of electrochemical and visual characteristics. The incorporation of nano-emulsified bioactives and flavors to beverages has no impact on the appearance of the product (Rhim et al., 2013). A recent study demonstrated that CS nano-composite may also be employed for the clarifying, stabilization, and encapsulating of alcoholic, nonalcoholic, and dairy-based drinks, juices, teas, and coffees (Morin-Crini et al., 2019). ...
... Despite its non-renewability and persistence in the environment, plastic is one of the most used materials for food packaging. Its affordability, ease of processing, and versatility position it as the primary choice for food packaging companies (Rhim et al., 2013). According to Eurostat, in 2021, the EU generated an estimated 188.7 kg of packaging waste per capita, resulting in a 22.5% increase compared to 2010. ...
Current European food packaging legislation requires exploring new alternatives to respond the challenges that lie ahead. Using sustainably sourced biomass, such as pruning residues, has significant potential for creating sustainable packaging. Avocado pruning fiber (10–40%) together with bio-polyethylene was used to produce biocomposites by thermoforming technology. The materials were evaluated for food contact suitability. Adding avocado pruning fiber to biopolyethylene improved processability, producing functional trays with up to 30% fiber. The biocomposites reduced S. aureus and L. monocytogenes adhesion, especially with 20% fiber, and enhanced antioxidant activity, reaching 17.82% SA/cm2 with 40% fiber. Soil degradation tests showed a 23% reduction for 40% fiber samples after 91 days. Migrations within the limits for hydrophilic, acidic, and fatty foods were obtained for samples containing up to 20% fiber. Cherry tomatoes stored in bio-based trays demonstrated comparable or superior preservation to commercial high-density-polyethylene trays, with reduced fungal growth, lower weight loss, and better color retention.
... Moreover, it showcases remarkable film-forming capabilities. (Rhim et al. 2013;Roy and Rhim 2019). However, due to its rather low mechanical flexibility and thermal stability, attempts have been made to improve its properties by blending it with other polymers rather than using agar as a single film (Rhim 2011;Malagurski et al. 2017). ...
Biomaterials engineering approaches for treating bone defects involve utilizing a combination of potent bioactive molecules to stimulate cell proliferation, fostering a conducive environment and scaffold for the regeneration process. Due to the aging global population, there is an urgent need for research in bone regeneration and wound healing. Hydroxyapatite (HAP) is a major mineral component of bone tissue with high biocompatibility and bioactivity. Agar and carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) both exhibit the essential characteristics of biomaterials, either separately or in combination. Hence, this present study aimed to prepare HAP nanoparticles loaded Agar/CMC composite film for enhanced bone regenerative applications. The crystal structure, morphology, phase composition, thermal stability, and chemical state of the film composites were characterized using XRD, SEM, TGA, and FTIR. Cytotoxicity evaluation on rat fibroblasts cells indicated over 90% biocompatibility for the film composites. Moreover, in wound healing assays, the nanocomposite film-treated group (98.14 ± 0.15%) exhibited a 35% higher wound closure rate compared to the negative control group (62.08 ± 1.87%). Alizarin Red Staining assay revealed a 20.89 ± 6.9% increase in calcium deposition in treated MC3T3-E1 cells compared to the negative control, affirming their osteogenic potential. These results demonstrate that the developed nanocomposite film is a promising therapeutic platform for effectively addressing complex bone-related ailments.
... It has been widely demonstrated that the incorporation of CNCs into biopolymers such as starch, gelatin, poly (oxyethylene), polyvinyl chloride (PVA), chitosan, PLA, PCL, PBAT, and polyhydroxyalkanoate can result in bio-nanocomposite materials with high mechanical, optical, thermal, and barrier properties, [9][10][11][12][13][14][15] which are the main properties required for packaging applications. 16 CNC's large functional groups and adhesive properties interact with the matrix or other biopolymers on its surface. 11 Cellulose crystals in nanoscale have been effective as a rheology modifier, elasticity, and viscosity enhancer and have shown that the amount and blending method of CNCs when preparing nanocomposites primarily determine the viscoelasticity, processability, and final performance of the products. ...
In an age marked by environmental consciousness, ‘Sonali Bag’ has emerged as a promising substitute for single-use plastic bags, invented in Bangladesh. It is a jute cellulose-based, totally biodegradable, compostable, recyclable, and environment-friendly biopolymer. However, certain physical limitations have hindered its widespread consumer appeal. To address these challenges, this study pioneers the integration of jute cellulose nanocrystals (JCNCs) into Sonali Bag, with the objective of enhancing their physical properties. JCNC, obtained through a meticulous 64% concentrated sulfuric acid hydrolysis process, has been reinforced with Sonali Bag at varying loadings (0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, and 0.4 wt.%). The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis showed spherical cellulose nanocrystals with high crystallinity and distinctive tear-like features on the nanoparticle’s surface. Furthermore, the SEM micrographs depicted that JCNC loading up to 0.2% helped reduce the pore formation of biocomposite. Moreover, the thermal properties increased significantly, and tensile strength increased by approximately 37% MPa after reinforcing JCNC with Sonali Bag. The water-resistant capacity of 0.2% CNC-reinforced film was about 30% better than other compositions. The JCNC-reinforced composite materials were found to moderate the degradation rate, contributing to the prolonged sustainability of these biodegradable solutions.
... Starch nanocrystals have enhanced water-retaining properties and decreased cost. 74 Several studies have been published pertaining to polylactic acid (PLA) nanocomposites. The controllable and exible strength of the KENAF brous content was observed to have increased by 50% when the effect of bre content on the characteristics of KENAF ber-based PLA composite was investigated. ...
To minimize the consumption of nonrenewable resources and ensure environmental sustainability, there ought to be greater utilization of abundant and renewable greener nanobiopolymers, particularly those derived from various plants and microbes. This article discusses the various types, origins, and synthesis methods of biopolymers, including those that come from natural resources and microorganisms, with a focus on their properties in nanoformat; the most common and recently researched nanobiopolymers have been deliberated. In addition, discussion on various synthesis steps and structural characterization of green polymeric materials such as cellulose, chitin, and lignin is also incorporated. A comprehensive discussion of greener nanobiopolymers with illustrative examples has been presented for the last five years comprising their diverse types and topologies including the environmental improvements realized via the deployment of nanoencapsulation, especially the applications of polymer nanoencapsulated materials in wastewater and soil treatment. The emphasis on the use of greener nanobiopolymers for sustainable environmental remediation is specifically highlighted for the decontamination of soil, water, and air with the main objective being to offer an overview of their adaptability embracing nanotechnology. This effort could stimulate additional research in their deployment in practical environmental applications.
... The most investigated bionanocomposites for food packaging applications derive from starch and cellulose, PLA, PHB, polycaprolactone (PCL) and poly-(butylene succinate) (PBS). Metal (mostly Ag) and metal oxide (mostly ZnO and TiO 2 ) nanoparticles are widely used to functionalize polymeric materials and obtain innovative food packaging for their thermal stability, antimicrobial, optical and catalytic properties (Rhim et al. 2013). The most promising nanoscale fillers are layered silicate nanoclays such as montmorillonite and kaolinite. ...
The need to urgently find alternative plant-based biodegradable fibres is not just important, it is a pressing necessity. The severe environmental damage caused by plastic packaging materials demands immediate action. It is a responsibility that everybody should share to reduce the global plastic pollution rate and environmental footprint. Biodegradable films from natural and waste products have gained considerable consideration for their ability to guarantee optimal product conservation while avoiding any risk of contamination or intoxication. Therefore, this overview addresses recent developments in food packaging and the application of sensors to indicate possible packed food spoilage. The new role of food packaging was discussed widely, from traditional to bio-based, active and intelligent packaging. Until a few years ago, food packaging had the sole purpose of protecting food from external contamination. However, the barrier effect is no longer enough: the packaging should act directly on the food and the surrounding space. The interesting innovation that responds to this need is active and intelligent packaging, a market with solid growth in recent years. It allows the enhancement of food conservation and the detection of pathogens while maintaining good monitoring of the environment inside the package, continuously recording the food conditions. This more complete and interactive information is recorded thanks to special analytical devices: sensors. They can detect and transmit a message to the consumer about food quality, freshness and safety, thanks to the ability to record internal and external changes in the product’s environment. However, these devices are not free from limitations, such as costs and performance, which limit their wider use.
... The development of more innovative, safe, and sustainable food packaging has become a major concern in the food industry for all links in the food supply chain. The reason is that the basic function of packaging is not only to protect and preserve the food, but also to reduce the overall environmental impact of the product and packaging system throughout its entire life cycle (Bahl et al. 2021;Haghighi et al. 2020;Rhim et al. 2013;Robertson 2013). ...
Cellulosic material is considered to be excellent for food packaging due to its low cost, easy degradability, and high recyclability rates. However, its application is still limited due to its porous structure and high hydrophilicity, which provide high permeabilities to grease, gas and water vapor. One solution to fix these issues and to bring new functionalities that can also extend food shelf life is to coat the paper substrate with biopolymers containing nanoparticles and/or components with antioxidant and/or antimicrobial activities. In this regard, the aim of this study was to review some aspects of the current knowledge critically and didactically on applications of biopolymer-based coatings incorporated with active components and/or nanoparticles on paper/paperboard materials usually applied as primary cellulosic active packaging. Studies have shown that this combination can positively improve the physical, mechanical, and barrier properties of cellulosic packaging, along with the enhancement of antioxidant and antimicrobial activities. A better understanding of these aspects enables the use of other active compounds to develop more functionality to the packaging itself as well as to apply it to food packaging in general.
The marine environment is an abundant source of organisms which are rich in functional/bioactive compounds. Many of these compounds exhibit a remarkable potential for medical, industrial and biotechnological applications. Handled appropriately, with a focus on sustainability, these organisms and compounds can offer new and renewable feedstocks for a variety of industries. The biomass from marine organisms also offers opportunities for clean and sustainable fuel generation, carbon sequestration and wastewater remediation.
Focusing on the use of biomass from marine algae (both macro and micro), bacteria and yeasts this book looks at opportunities for producing high value chemicals with applications across multiple industries. It is an essential read for researchers interested in innovative, green feedstock sources, sustainability and the circular economy.
Carbon quantum dots (CQDs) have recently attracted extensive attention due to their excellent physical and chemical properties, including abundant surface functional groups, ultra-small size, tunable high-fluorescence, good biocompatibility, excellent antibacterial activity, and nontoxic/low-toxicity etc. These advantages provide opportunities for the application of CQDs in the food industry. The CQDs have been used to develop new technologies that can improve shelf life or freshness of food samples, design methods or tools for rapid food analysis, and fabricate functional and environmentally friendly food packaging. This chapter systematically reviews the applications and detecting principles of CQDs used as fluorescent probes in food safety and quality detection, and reviews the applications of CQDs used as value-added multifunctional fillers in protective and active intelligent packaging films. In addition, it also summarizes the applications and effects of CQDs used as nanoscale food additives and coating agents in food preservation field and discusses the security of CQDs.
The use of synthetic polymers in the food industry poses significant risk of contamination, global plastic waste, and pollution. In contrast, biopolymers offer a potential solution for a sustainable future. Derived from natural resources, biopolymers are biodegradable and compostable and do not leach hazardous chemicals into food, which make them ideal for various applications in the food industry, owing to the non‐leaching of hazardous chemicals into the food. Here, an overview of the potential of biopolymers to replace synthetic plastic in food is discussed. The degradation of biopolymers and their environmental impact, the formation of biopolymer films, the utilization of different biopolymers for sustainable solutions to synthetic polymers, and their advantages are thoroughly presented. This review is expected to guide food industry stakeholders in seeking biopolymers as sustainable and eco‐friendly alternatives to synthetic polymers.
Functional biomaterials are being used in many promising industries to improve human quality of life and advance environmental objectives. Consideration has been given to many applications in the domains of medical, electronics, food, and pharmaceuticals. The use of bio-inspired materials enables the creation of more sustainable alternatives that strive to advance environmental preservation while simultaneously ensuring customer satisfaction. It was discovered that biopolymers are used in a number of different industries for the production of a wide range of functional bio-products. These bio-products include organic thin film transistors, organic phototransistors, emitting diodes, photodiodes, photovoltaic solar cells, hybrid dental resins, sustainable medicines, and consumer food packaging. A growth of this magnitude makes it possible to conduct substantial research in order to more inspection of the limitless requests and uses of bio-based composites. In order to fulfill the needs of certain applications, it is necessary to adjust and reassess attributes and parameters– such as hardness, durability, crack toughness, binding, solubility, polarization, plasticity, hydrogen bonding, thermal characteristics, and dielectric behavior. By virtue of their electronic and electrical properties, bio-composites and biopolymers have been put to use in a variety of applications; some includes organic thin-film transistors, electrical applications, electromagnetic insulation, energy harvesting, and thermoelectric processes. Substantial proportions of electronic waste, also referred to as E-waste, are regularly released into the environment due to the continuous growth in the production of electronic devices. Consequently, this leads to substantial environmental and ecological problems caused by the release of non-degradable polymers, hazardous compounds, and toxic heavy metals into the environment. The advancement of biodegradable polymers has significant potential for effectively reducing the environmental burden, since they may be decomposed or absorbed into the surrounding environment without generating any toxic effects. Hence, the purpose of this study is to illustrate the creation of biocompatible composites and their prospective uses in electrical applications.
Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) have garnered attention as an effective solution for anti-microbial food packaging. Agri-food waste should be viewed as a source of valuable products, paving the way for a zero-waste economy. With special qualities that may greatly improve the quality and safety of packaged food items, this chapter examines the various ways in which silver nanoparticles have revolutionized food packaging and enhanced food safety and quality standards. Silver nanoparticles' antibacterial qualities have been thoroughly investigated and used to prevent microbial development on food surfaces, increasing shelf life and lowering the risk of foodborne infections. Furthermore, silver nanoparticles' barrier qualities help to maintain the nutritional value, taste, and freshness of packaged goods, assuring customer pleasure and positive health effects. This food waste is used as green synthesis of silver nanoparticles. It is envisaged to minimize the pollution and promote green synthesis of metallic nanoparticles.
This paper explores the innovative application of nanotechnology in edible packaging to enhance food safety, shelf life, and overall quality. With increasing demand for sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives to conventional packaging, edible packaging offers a promising solution by minimizing wastage while maintaining food integrity for consumers. Integrating nanomaterials, such as nanoparticles, nanofibers, and nanosensors, into edible films and coatings has demonstrated notable improvements in mechanical strength, barrier properties, and active functionalities, such as antimicrobial and antioxidant effects. This review examines recent advances in nanotechnology-enhanced edible packaging, discussing material selection, functional properties, and mechanisms through which nanoscale additives extend product freshness and monitor contamination. Emphasis is placed on how nanostructures can be tailored for specific food applications to deliver protection, reduce the need for preservatives, and support the industry's shift toward greener packaging solutions. The paper concludes with insights into regulatory considerations, consumer acceptance, and future directions for implementing nanotechnology in edible packaging to meet the rising standards of food safety and sustainability.
Meat industries across the globe are focusing on the development of novel meat products to meet the demand of health conscious consumer. Nanotechnology a novel and an emerging alternative to enhance the shelf-life, quality, functional value and safety of meat and meat products acting all along the production chain from processing, preservation to packaging.
The potential applications of nanotechnology in meat industry include improvement in the sensory properties, development of low fat and low salt meat products, enhanced nutrient absorption, improved packaging techniques and better pathogen detection system. With regard to food safety, it is utilized to detect food borne pathogens and chemical/microbial toxins in meat products. Additionally, nanotechnology is widely used in meat packaging as an antimicrobial, antioxidant and to produce smart packaging. However, being a novel technology, concerns over the toxicity of nanoparticles are still controversial and therefore issues need to be addressed before taking a ride on the technology at the full throttle. This chapter aimed to provide an overview of the manufacturing nano-materials and their potential applications in processing, preservation, packaging and safety of meat and meat products.
Biomass-based packaging materials with various uses and functions are becoming increasingly innovative. Researchers and consumers have been paying significant attention to bio-nanocomposite packaging due to biomaterials' renewable, sustainable, biodegradable, and compatible characteristics. Therefore, there is a good chance that novel, high-performing, and environmentally friendly bio-nanocomposites will eventually replace conventional polymers made of petroleum that are not biodegradable. The demand for safer and more efficient food packaging systems worldwide has also raised interest in producing polymeric bio-nanocomposites for active and intelligent packaging applications. Current research trends in bio-nanocomposites, incorporating inorganic, organic, and nanohybrid nanomaterials, are thoroughly discussed. These materials are ideal for application in food packaging, given their superior mechanical, thermal, barrier, antibacterial, and antioxidant capabilities. The type of biomaterial, additives like nanoparticles, food type, storage conditions, and manufacturing process are some factors that can impact the quality of bio-nanocomposites. It has been discussed that the multifunctional qualities of bio-nanocomposite materials have little to no adverse environmental effects, and they may even enhance food safety and quality. The methods for creating polymeric bio-nanocomposites and their surface characteristics are the main topics of this chapter.
The escalating interest in developing bio-based polymers and innovative process technologies is fuelled by a collective drive to diminish reliance on fossil fuels and transition toward material foundations. In this scenario, bio-nanocomposites show promise as a new field of study that might lead to the development of high-performing, lightweight green nanocomposite materials. Bio-nanocomposite materials have components of biological origin and particles with at least one dimension in the 1–100 nm range. Due to enhanced nano and biomaterial technologies, physicians may now be able to use their patients’ cells to heal some ailments. These advancements in nano-enabled approaches have significantly improved life quality and opened up an era to explore novel bio-nanocomposites, systems, therapies, etc. These are promising hybrid materials suitable for diverse technical applications, including artificial tissue culture, drug delivery, and biosensors. They are designed to undergo characterization over a specific period and subsequently degrade harmlessly within the body. The selection of biopolymers and the methods employed in their preparation play pivotal roles in determining bio-nanocomposites’ characteristics. This chapter comprehensively overviews extensively used bio-nanocomposites and their processing methods. The chapter summarizes and briefly describes recently studied bio-nanocomposites, highlighting key concepts such as biodegradability, biobased materials, and nanofillers and concluding with prospects for sustainable bio-nanocomposite materials.
The design of biomaterials has been mostly limited to their diverse individual features and is used in specific sectors, including biomedical or food. In terms of fabrication and characterisation of multifunctional engineered materials, increasing interest has arisen on the combination of several features in recent years. Composites, a combination of a fibrous compound embedded in a polymer or a nonorganic matrix, are among the most interesting examples. Various polysaccharides have been widely investigated for the development of biomaterials for different applications. The functional group in a molecular chain of chitosan may facilitate the formation of interactions that permit interconnected structures within chitosan-based composites. Here, we report on the development of a new multifunctional chitosan-based composite. The resulting films were fabricated by the casting/solvent evaporation method. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy showed the occurrence of molecular interconnection between the polysaccharide and pyomelanin via the formation of intermolecular hydrogen bonds between the compounds. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and Atomic force microscopy (AFM) analysis revealed a porous and texture structure of the films. The antimicrobial effect of the material was observed against both strains of bacteria and fungi. Moreover, no toxicity of the composite toward mouse and human cells was proved, thus demonstrating the potential of the materials for medical applications.
The renewable discovery resulting from the synthesis of nanocomposites using nano fibrillated cellulose (NFC) as a nanofiller and poly (vinyl alcohol) (PVA) as a matrix with the addition of carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) additives demonstrates good potential for food packaging applications. NFC was synthesized through a mechanical homogenization method from microfibrillated cellulose (MFC) and was effectively characterized by its physical properties, including density and particle size. Subsequently, PVA/CMC/NFC nanocomposites were created using a mechanical homogenization method with various CMC concentrations (0, 0.5, 1, and 2%) and a 90:10 ratio of PVA/CMC to NFC. The resulting nanocomposites were also characterized for their physical properties. It was found that adding CMC 2% increased the density of the solution. Then, these nanocomposites were used to apply as a coating paper. Micro photo characterization was carried out on the nanocomposite to examine the nanocomposite’s morphology on the paper and evaluate the nanocomposite’s performance as a coating paper. The results indicate that the nanocomposite has an uneven particle size distribution and demonstrates agglomeration with increased CMC concentration. This is due to hydrogen bonding interactions among PVA, CMC, and NFC, the adhesion properties to the paper, and the ratio between PVA, CMC, and NFC in solution.
This study aimed to produce Plantago major seed gum (PMSG) and carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) antimicrobial nanocomposite film by adding Cerium oxide nanoparticles (CeO2 NPs) (2.5 and 5%W/W) as reinforcing additive and Fenugreek seed essential oil (FSEO) (4 and 8%W/W) as a bioactive agent. The nanocomposite films were prepared by casting method, and moisture content, moisture absorption, opacity, water vapor permeability (WVP), antimicrobial activity, and antioxidant properties of them were examined. FTIR, FESEM, XRD, and TGA tests were carried out to study the morphology, crystalline structure, and thermal stability of films, respectively. Moreover, mechanical properties, for instance, tensile strength (TS), elongation at break (EB), and thickness of the films, were measured. The results indicated that adding CeO2 NPs improved the mechanical properties and formed new crystalline structures on the nanocomposite films. The inclusion of 5% CeO2 NPs and 8% FSEO had a significant reduction in moisture content and moisture absorption (p < 0.05). Besides, FSEO addition did not have a significant effect on the WVP amount (p > 0.05). However, adding CeO2 NPs and FSEO caused a significant effect on antimicrobial and antioxidant properties, and the highest antimicrobial and antioxidant activities were obtained by the film containing 2.5% CeO2 NPs and 8% FSEO. The results showed that the TS was decreased by adding FSEO, and it increased by adding CeO2 NPs, especially at higher concentrations. EB was significantly affected by the addition of CeO2 NPs and FSEO, EB was enhanced by the addition of FSEO, and was reduced by the addition of CeO2 NPs. Instrumental analysis FTIR, FESEM, XRD, and TGA tests showed high potential of PMSG/CMC-based nanocomposite reinforced by CeO2 NPs and FSEO for food packaging technology.
This paper represent a description of the ICCAP'2023 conference, editors, and all others details.
Представлен обзор ранее проведенных исследований, а также новые результаты по созданию высококонцентрированных коллоидных растворов с наночастицами (НЧ) благородных металлов (золота и серебра) в среде СК-СO и развитию одностадийного метода получения полимерных нанокомпозитов. Изучено влияние плотности СК-CO на динамику формирования и распада СКФ-наноколлоидов серебра и золота в процессе импульсной лазерной абляции и после ее окончания. Рассмотрена возможность получения коллоидов биметаллических наночастиц. Методом численного моделирования спектров экстинкции в дипольном приближении рассчитаны величины эффективной диэлектрической проницаемости коллоидного раствора НЧ Ag в СК-CO при различных значениях плотности с учетом размера и степени асферичности наночастиц. Рассмотрены процессы формирования в одном СКФ-реакторе и в едином технологическом процессе различных пленочных нанокомпозитов: на основе пористого сополимера политетрафторэтилена - винилиденфторида с наночастицами рубина, а также на основе двух модификаций чистого пористого политетрафторэтилена с наночастицами серебра.
We present a review of previous studies, as well as new results on the creation of highly concentrated colloidal solutions with nanoparticles of noble metals (gold and silver) in the medium of supercritical carbon dioxide and the development of a single-stage method for the production of polymer nanocomposites. The effect of the density of supercritical carbon dioxide on the dynamics of the formation and decomposition of supercritical fluids of silver and gold nanocolloids in the process of pulsed laser ablation and after its termination has been studied. The possibility of obtaining colloids of bimetallic nanoparticles is considered. Using the method of numerical simulation of the extinction spectrain the dipole approximation, we calculated the effective dielectric constant of a colloidal solution of Ag nanoparticles in supercritical CO at various densities, taking into account the size and degree of asphericity of the nanoparticles. The processes of formation in one SCF reactor and in a single technological process of various film nanocomposites are considered: based on a porous polytetrafluoroethylene copolymer - vinylidene fluoride with ruby glass nanoparticles and on the basis of two modifications of pure porous polytetrafluoroethylene with silver nanoparticles.
Increasing demand for packaging has motivated research into sustainable materials to prevent continued plastic pollution. Materials based on polysaccharide polyelectrolyte complexes (PPCs) are emerging as a viable solution for packaging applications. We employed ball milling, a well‐established technology, for the preparation of PPC materials to create an innovative one‐step process capable of producing highly concentrated and homogeneous PPC particle precursor dispersions. We fabricated carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) and chitosan (CS)–based PPC solutions exhibiting high‐solid loading and investigated the potential of PPC solutions made from ball milling as alternative barriers for packaging. PPC‐coated paperboard exhibited improved Cobb test performance and outstanding grease resistance as compared to pristine paper. The results certified that a single‐step process via ball milling can produce high‐solid content PPC solutions useful for creating bio‐based coatings with excellent barrier performance.
The rising level of food waste has exacerbated climate change, and this issue is further intensified by the harmful environmental impact of the conventional plastics used in food packaging. In response, we have set out to address these concerns by developing nanocomposite films made of polypropylene carbonate (PPC) and polylactic acid (PLA) with different wt % (0.5, 1, 1.5, and 2 wt %) of the zeolite imidazole framework (ZIF-8), by using the solution casting method. ZIF-8 was prepared by using an eco-friendly solvothermal method. The structural insights of the prepared ZIF-8 and its nanocomposites were evaluated by using the FTIR, XRD, EDX, FE-SEM, mechanical and thermal analyses. The incorporation of ZIF-8 enhanced the tensile strength, with the nanocomposite containing 1.5 wt % ZIF-8 showing the highest tensile strength at 23 ± 0.9 MPa, significantly higher than the 7.17 ± 0.4 MPa of the neat PPC. Additionally, the thermal properties improved with the addition of ZIF-8, as the maximum degradation temperature for the 1.5 wt % ZIF-8 composite was found to be 276.70 °C, higher than that of the neat PPC. The nanocomposites demonstrated promising antimicrobial properties against Bacillus subtilis, by showing a maximum inhibition zone of radii of 20 mm for the nanocomposite with the highest wt % of ZIF-8. Moreover, the nanocomposites exhibited no toxicity towards the HEK293 cells and they demonstrated remarkable activity in preserving the shelf life of black grapes. Thus, the overall results suggest that the developed nanocomposite holds significant promise for applications in food packaging sectors.
A physicochemical perspective on the potential migration of engineered nanoparticles (ENPs) from packaging to food is presented, based on evaluation of the average distance travelled by ENPs in the polymer matrix. The study has taken into account physicochemical properties of both ENPs and packaging polymers. From the properties, some general characteristics underpinning ENP migration can be predicted. The results indicate that any detectable migration of ENPs from packaging to food will take place in the case of very small ENPs with a radius in the order of 1 nm, from polymer matrices that have a relatively low dynamic viscosity, and that do not interact with the ENPs. These conditions are likely to be met in the case of nanocomposites of silver with polyolefines (LDPE, HDPE, PP). It can also be predicted that there will not be any appreciable migration in the case of bigger ENPs, that are bound in polymer matrices with a relatively high dynamic viscosity such as polystyrene and polyethylene terephtalate.
A nanodispersion of surface-functionalized fumed silica was incorporated into an acrylic paint formulation. SEM imaging indicated good dispersion of silica within the polymer matrix. This hybrid coating showed significantly lower dirt pick-up than the equivalent paint formulation without nanosilica additive, towards both organic and inorganic ashes. Washing with running water further decreases dirt retention. This self-cleaning performance remained unchanged after several dirt/washing cycles, during a 1-month period. Surface hardness measurements indicated no significant differences between the original and composite paint films. The lower dirt pick-up was attributed to nanoroughness created by the nanosilica particles present in the film.
PurposePerspective applications of nanocomposites in biomedical applications are investigated in this work by producing intercalated dispersions of clays into a biodegradable polymer matrix. Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) was selected being produced from renewable resources and approved by the Food and Drug Administration for medical use.In order to improve PLA mechanical properties and to accelerate its degradation, different layered silicate nanoclays are added: montmorillonites and fluorohectorites, without or with organic modifiers. Preparation, characterization, mechanical properties and biodegradation in blood plasma are evaluated.
To investigate the mechanism of inhibition of silver ions on microorganisms, two strains of bacteria, namely Gram-negative Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Gram-positive Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus), were treated with AgNO3 and studied using combined electron microscopy and X-ray microanalysis. Similar morphological changes occurred in both E. coli and S. aureus cells after Ag⁺ treatment. The cytoplasm membrane detached from the cell wall. A remarkable electron-light region appeared in the center of the cells, which contained condensed deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecules. There are many small electron-dense granules either surrounding the cell wall or depositing inside the cells. The existence of elements of silver and sulfur in the electron-dense granules and cytoplasm detected by X-ray microanalysis suggested the antibacterial mechanism of silver: DNA lost its replication ability and the protein became inactivated after Ag⁺ treatment. The slighter morphological changes of S. aureus compared with E. coli recommended a defense system of S. aureus against the inhibitory effects of Ag⁺ ions. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res, 52, 662–668, 2000.
The shelf-life of a product is critical in determining both its quality and profitability. This important collection reviews the key factors in determining shelf-life and how it can be measured. Part one examines the factors affecting shelf-life and spoilage, including individual chapters on the major types of food spoilage, the role of moisture and temperature, spoilage yeasts, the Maillard reaction and the factors underlying lipid oxidation. Part two addresses the best ways of measuring the shelf-life of foods, with chapters on modelling food spoilage, measuring and modelling glass transition, detecting spoilage yeasts, measuring lipid oxidation, the design and validation of shelf-life tests and the use of accelerated shelf-life tests. Understanding and measuring the shelf-life of food is an important reference for all those concerned with extending the shelf-life of food. Reviews the key factors in determining shelf-life and how they can be measured. Examines the importance of the shelf-life of a product in determining its quality and profitability. Brings together the leading international experts in the field.
Packaging performs a number of functions in the containment, protection, shipment and selling of goods. Innovations in Food Packaging recognizes that food packaging is a fast-growing area that impacts upon the important areas of product shelf-life and food safety. Each chapter provides information on the scientific background, new material development and utilization, and case studies of the use of new system for perishable food products. Covers four major food packaging topics: * Theories in food packaging * Active packaging * Modified atmosphere packaging * Edible films and coatings.
The main function of food packaging is to protect and preserve the food, to maintain its quality and safety, and to reduce food waste. Other desirable attributes have come to the fore recently including packaging that is sustainable with a low environmental footprint, is “active” and/or is “intelligent.” As materials and applications of nanotechnologies can help meet these requirements, they are rapidly becoming a commercial reality in the area of food packaging. Example applications include the enhancement of mechanical properties to allow development of further light-weight materials, and using nanocomposites or nanocoatings to improve barrier properties. An especially interesting area of application is using nanotechnology products to increase the performance of some biobased and biodegradable materials so that they can be used for a wider range of food applications and not only dry foods. There are also a number of products under development for active packaging – which can release or absorb chemicals – or as intelligent (smart) packaging materials that incorporate nano-sensors. Consequently, nanotechnology products and applications could revolutionise some areas of the food packaging sector, providing innovative, sustainable, strong, lightweight and active and intelligent materials. Market uptake will however be impeded by any uncertainties on consumer and environmental safety. Based on theoretical considerations, and the results of limited testing that has been carried out so far, the expectation is that due to the fixed or embedded nature of nanomaterials in plastics, they are not likely to pose a significant risk to the consumer. However, further research addressing the safety issues of nanotechnologies is needed.
Reduction of packaging waste has been a strong motivation for replacing plastic packaging materials by biodegradable materials from renewable sources during the last decades. The efficiency of biopolymer films in food packaging has however been limited by their poor mechanical properties and by their moisture sensitivity. Improving the barrier and tensile properties is a major challenge that has directed the focus towards nanotechnology and the potential of forming bio-nanocomposites by incorporation of nanosized reinforcing fillers in biopolymer matrices. This chapter summarizes some requirements set on food packaging, and deals with legislation concerning materials in contact with packaged food as well as properties of novel biobased nanocomposites with the potential to be utilized in food packaging applications.
Skrobiȩ termoplastyczna̧ (TPS) plastyfikowano gliceryna̧ w procesie wytłaczania i zastosowano do wytwarzania biodegradowalnych kompozytów z polimerami syntetycznymi i poliestrem alifatycznym (PEA). Scharakteryzowano właściwości fizyczne TPS i kompozytów TPS/PEA oraz ich strukturȩ metodami SEM, WAXS i spektrofotometrii FTIR. Oznaczono odporność kompozytów skrobiowych na dziatanie amyloglukozydazy. Dokonano przegla̧du metod przerobu skrobi.
Polymer layered silicate (PLS) nanocomposites are materials with unique properties when compared to conventional filled polymers. For example, the mechanical properties of a nylon-6 layered-silicate nanocomposite, with a silicate mass fraction of only 5%, show excellent improvement over those for the pure nylon-6. The nanocomposite exhibits a 40% higher tensile strength, 68% greater tensile modulus, 60% higher flexural strength, and a 126% increased flexural modulus. The heat distortion temperature (HDT) is increased from 65 °C to 152 °C. Previously, we reported on the flammability properties of delaminated nylon-6 layered silicate nanocomposites and intercalated polymer layered-silicate nanocomposites prepared from polystyrene, PS, and polypropylene-graft-maleic anhydride, PP-g-MA. Here, we will briefly review these results and report on our initial studies of the flammability of thermoset PLS nanocomposites: intercalated vinyl ester silicate and intercalated epoxy silicate nanocomposites.
This chapter describes the major features of current smart, self-cleaning photocatalytic materials. These materials include semiconductor materials such as titanium dioxide (TiO2). This chapter focuses on TiO2-based materials because they are most widely studied. Characteristics such as low toxicity, high chemical stability, availability and low cost make TiO2 the ideal candidate for industrial applications.
Mathematical models can describe the release of an antimicrobial agent from packaging material into a food product to inhibit the growth of microorganisms and extend shelf life.
This chapter reviews intelligent packaging technologies and describes different types of devices. Intelligent packaging refers to a package that can sense environmental changes, and in turn inform the changes to the users. Rodrigues and Han (2003) defined intelligent packaging as having two categories: simple intelligent packaging, and interactive or responsive intelligent packaging. In the later, the packaging contains sensors that notify consumers that the product is impaired, and they may begin to undo the harmful changes that have occurred in the food product. Such packaging systems contain devices that are capable of sensing and providing information about the functions and properties of the packaged foods, and/or contain an external or internal indicator for the active product history and quality determination. These types of devices can be divided into three groups. The first type is the external indicators that are attached outside the package, and include time temperature indicators and physical shock indicators. The second type is the internal indicators, which are placed inside the package. They are either placed in the headspace of the package or attached to the lid-for example, oxygen leak indicators, carbon dioxide, microbial, and pathogen indicators. The third type of devices is the indicators that increase the efficiency of information flow and effective communication between the product and the consumer. These products include special bar codes that store food product information, such as use and consumption date.
The quality of packaged foods is a combination of attributes that determine their value as human food. These quality factors include visual appearance, texture, flavor, nutritive value, and safety. "Keeping quality" is used more commonly than "shelf life" because of consumer demand for product freshness. The deterioration of foods that occurs progressively during storage may result from physical or chemical changes in the food itself, or from the activity of microorganisms growing in or on the product. Eventually, the cumulative effect of the changes reaches a point at which the consumer rejects the product. Rejection is based on the sensory expectations and perceptions of consumers. Shelf life of a product depends on a multiplicity of variables and changes in them, including the product, the environmental conditions, and the packaging. Depending on the product and its intended application, shelf life may be dictated by microbiology, enzymology, and/or physical effects. The combined knowledge and experience of processors, and those involved in the storage, distribution, and retailing of foods enable estimates to be made of the likely shelf life of the product under specific storage conditions. In practice, however, the influencing variables that accelerate or retard shelf life are temperature, pH, water content, water activity, relative humidity, radiation, gas concentration, redox potential, the presence of metal ions, and pressure.
This review reports recent advances in the field of polymer–layered silicate nanocomposites. These materials have attracted both academic and industrial attention because they exhibit dramatic improvement in properties at very low filler contents. Herein, the structure, preparation and properties of polymer–layered silicate nanocomposites are discussed in general, and detailed examples are also drawn from the scientific literature.
In this study, we investigated antibacterial activity of zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles coated on polyvinyl chloride (PVC) films against Escherichia. coli both in vitro and in actual test. Results showed that the nano-ZnO coated films displayed excellent inhibition effects on the growth of E. coli and the nano-ZnO particular was contributed to the bactericidal ability. The more amounts of the ZnO particulars the film coated, the greater inhibitory effect it exhibited. The disinfection efficiency with ZnO film is relatively constant at pH values in the range of 4.5 to 8.0. In the actual test, the number of E. coli cells from cut apple stored in a ZnO-coated bag in the dark decreased from 8.72 to 6.3 log CFU/ml after 1 day, while that of an same bag irradiated with light decreased from 8.72 to 3.5 log CFU/ml after 2 days of storage. The results reveal that nano-ZnO coated film has a good promise to make antimicrobial packaging again E. coli and reduce the risks of microbial growth on fresh-cut produce.
Polymer nanocomposites with layered silicates as the inorganic phase (reinforcement) are discussed. The materials design and synthesis rely on the ability of layered silicates to intercalate in the galleries between their layers a wide range of monomers and polymers. Special emphasis is placed on a new, versatile and environmentally benign synthesis approach by polymer melt intercalation. In contrast to in-situ polymerization and solution intercalation, melt intercalation involves mixing the layered silicate with the polymer and heating the mixture above the softening point of the polymer. Compatibility with various polymers is accomplished by derivatizing the silicates with alkyl ammonium cations via an ion exchange reaction. By fine-tuning the surface characteristics nanodispersion (i. e. intercalation or delamination) can be accomplished. The resulting polymer layered silicate (PLS) nanocomposites exhibit properties dramatically different from their more conventional counterparts. For example, PLS nanocomposites can attain a particular degree of stiffness, strength and barrier properties with far less inorganic content than comparable glass- or mineral reinforced polymers and, therefore, they are far lighter in weight. In addition, PLS nanocomposites exhibit significant increase in thermal stability as well as self-extinguishing characteristics. The combination of improved properties, convenient processing and low cost has already led to a few commercial applications with more currently under development.
Biodegradable blends of amorphous poly(lactic acid) (aPLA) and polycaprolactone (PCL) and nanocomposites of these blends were developed by melt blending. A morphological study of the bioblends was carried out by means of WAXS and SEM showing immiscible behavior. The nanocomposites were also characterized morphologically by WAXS, TEM and SEM, revealing high degree of interaction of the nanoclays with the aPLA. Mechanical, thermal and gas barrier properties of the different blends and nanocomposites were studied and the effect of blending and clay addition on the above-mentioned properties was evaluated.
Ag nanoparticles were synthesized in the interlamellar space of a layered kaolinite. Disaggregation of the lamellae of the nonswelling kaolinite was achieved by the intercalation of dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO). The kaolinite was suspended in aqueous AgNO3 solution and the adsorbed Ag+ ions were reduced on the surface of kaolinite lamellae with NaBH4 or UV light irradiation. The silver nanoparticles formed were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). We studied the effects of the two reduction methods on the size and the size distribution of Ag nanoparticles and how clay mineral structure is altered as a consequence of particle formation. It was established that the size of Ag nanoparticles depends on both silver content and the reduction method. Photoreduction of silver led to the formation of relatively large Ag nanoparticles (diameter 8–14 nm).
Linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE)/clay nanocomposite films with two different types of organoclays (Cloisite® 30B and Cloisite® 20A) were prepared using a melt blow extrusion method and their properties such as optical, tensile, water vapor and oxygen gas barrier, and antimicrobial activity were tested. Apparently the nanocomposite films are smooth, homogeneous, and flexible, but less transparent than the neat LLDPE film. XRD result indicated slightly intercalated nanostructures were formed with both organoclays. Though oxygen barrier properties improved after formation of the nanocomposite, the tensile strength (TS) and water vapor permeability (WVP) were not improved in the nanocomposite films. This is probably due to the lower compatibility between nonpolar, hydrophobic LLDPE polymer matrix and clay nanoparticles. Antimicrobial test showed the LLDPE/Cloisite® 30B nanocomposite film had a bacteriostatic activity against Gram-positive bacteria, Listeria monocytogenes.
The physical mechanism of symmetric vortex merger is investigated in use of a resurrected core-spreading vortex method. By taking advantage of the Lagrangian characteristics of the vortex method, both Eulerian and Lagrangian flow structures are obtained and used to explore the cause of merger. The simulation results suggest that a complete merging process is as follows: the vortices deform first due to the mutually induced straining; the deformation results in elliptical vortices and an angle between the major axis of each elliptical vortex and the line joining the two vortices, which in turn cause an attraction of fluid particles from one vortex to the other; sheetlike vortex structures are thus formed; and finally the velocity field induced by these sheetlike structures readily pushes two vortex cores together. This study suggests that the competition between the self-induced rotation and mutual attraction of vortices governs the formation of the sheetlike structures, and consequently the merger. When the flow is viscous, the separation between vortices reduces and the mutual attraction increases with time by diffusion. As the mutual attraction dominates over the self-induced rotation, sheetlike structures are formed gradually and merger eventually occurs. The onset time of merger is thus found to depend not only on the initial separation but also on the Reynolds number. The former determines when the mutual attraction will become dominant and the latter controls the speed at which sheetlike structures grow.
Tetradecyl triphenyl phosphonium bromide (TTP) functionalized few-layered graphite (FG) was prepared to investigate the effects of phosphonium salts usage on the characteristics, morphology, thermal stability and long-acting antibacterial property of TTP functionalized FG (TTP–FG) by introducing different content of TTP into FG. The results showed that the phosphonium salt was intercalated into FG, and the basal spacing of TTP–FG was enlarged with the increasing of phosphonium salt content. TTP–FG-3 with 33.7% (mass fraction) of TTP, displayed excellent thermal stability and long-acting antibacterial activity with the minimal inhibitory concentrations against E. coli and S. aureus of 580mgL−1 and 285mgL−1 after 72h soaking, respectively.
It was reported previously that Mg(OH)2 nanoplatelets are effective antibacterial agent [1]. This paper further studied the mechanism study of Mg(OH)2 nanoplatelets against Escherichia coli. Both experimental results and SEM analysis indicated that the membrane of the bacterial cell was destroyed by the direct contact with the Mg(OH)2 nanoplatelets, leading to the cell death. In addition, UV illumination could further improve the antibacterial efficiency of Mg(OH)2 nanoplatelets. Compared with other nanoparticles, it was also found that Mg(OH)2 nanoplatelets have higher antibacterial efficiency, implicating their great potential application in biological control.
Nanotechnology will become one of the most powerful forces for innovation in the food packaging industry. One such innovation is biobased nanocomposite technology, which holds the key to future advances in flexible packaging. Biobased nanocomposites are produced from incorporation of nanoclay into biopolymers (or Edible films). Advantages of biobased nanocomposites are numerous and possibilities for application in the packaging industry are endless. A comprehensive review of biobased nanocomposite applications in food packaging industry should be necessary because nanotechnology is changing rapidly and the food packaging industry is facing new challenges. This provides a general review of previous works. Many of the works reported in the literature are focused on the production and the mechanical properties of the biobased nanocomposites. Little attention has been paid to gas permeability of biobased nanocomposites. In regard to extensive research on Edible film, this article suggests investigating the replacement of biobased nanocomposites instead of Edible films in different areas of food packaging.
Biodegradable aliphatic polyester (APES)/thermoplastic starch (TPS)/Cloisite 30B ternary hybrid nanocomposites were prepared via melt intercalation. The dispersion of the silicate layers in the APES/TPS hybrids were characterized by using X-ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy. Tensile and barrier properties of the APES/TPS/Cloisite 30B hybrids were also studied. Adding APES to the TPS/Cloisite 30B hybrids leads to higher tensile strength and improved barrier property.
An aminopropyl-functionalized magnesium phyllosilicate clay was synthesized and used as an exfoliated precursor for the intercalation of myoglobin (Mb), haemoglobin (Hb) or glucose oxidase (GOx). Intercalation was achieved by exfoliation of the as-synthesized organoclay in water followed by room temperature re-assembly of the lamellar phase in the presence of negatively charged protein molecules. X-Ray diffraction data of the resulting nanocomposites showed an expansion of the interlayer d001 spacing from 1.6 nm in the parent organoclay to 4.3 and 6.4 nm for samples prepared with Mb and GOx, respectively, indicating that these biomolecules were successfully incorporated into the gallery regions. In both cases, FTIR and circular dichroism spectroscopies showed that secondary structures of the intercalated biomolecules were preserved. In addition, UV-vis spectroscopy revealed that the redox and CO/O2 binding properties of the intercalated Mb, as well as the enzymatic activity of GOx, were retained in the protein–organoclay nanocomposites. Significantly, the relative catalytic activities of GOx between pH values of 3 to 10, and up to temperatures of 65 °C, were higher in the hybrid nanocomposites compared with the native enzyme in solution. Similar experiments with Hb produced composites consisting of structurally and functionally intact protein molecules immobilized within a disordered matrix of organoclay lamellae.
A series of layered magnesium phyllo(organo)silicate nanocomposites that contain covalently linked organic functionalities have been prepared by a one-step, direct synthesis procedure. Organoclays with allyl, epoxy, imidazole or ethylenediamino functionalities were synthesized and characterized by XRD, TEM, FTIR and solid state 29Si and 13C NMR spectroscopy. The epoxy-functionalized nanocomposite undergoes in situ cross-linking reactions with m-phenylenediamine to produce a polymer-inorganic lamellar hybrid, as well as ring-opening reactions with methyl thioglycolate to give a covalently linked hydroxysulfide derivative. The ethylenediamino-functionalized magnesium phyllo(organo)silicate showed good binding capacity for aqueous CoII.
The silver chelate of 2-(4-thiazolyl)benzimidazole was exchanged for the interlayer cation of Li-taeniolite and Na-montmorillonite. The structure of the resulting films was derived from the (00l) relative intensities observed by X-ray diffraction. Four arrangements of the chelate between the silicate layers were considered, and the projected area of the chelate for each orientation was calculated. In Li-taeniolite the projected area available for one positive charge was too small to allow full exchange of the interlayer lithium cations by the silver chelate. On the other hand, the sodium ions in montmorillonite could readily exchange with the bulky silver chelate. Structural model calculation on the resulting clay film indicated that the silver chelate was oriented vertically between the layers of montmorillonite with its extremities at the center of linked the ditrigonal cavities.
In this study, the biodegradable poly(lactic acid) (PLA)/montmorillonite (MMT) nanocomposites were successfully prepared by the solution mixing process of PLA polymer with organically-modified montmorillonite (m-MMT), which was first treated by n-hexadecyl trimethyl-ammonium bromide (CTAB) cations and then modified by biocompatible/biodegradable chitosan to improve the chemical similarity between the PLA and m-MMT. Both X-ray diffraction data and transmission electron microscopy images of PLA/m-MMT nanocomposites indicate that most of the swellable silicate layers were disorderedly intercalated into the PLA matrix. Mechanical properties and thermal stability of the PLA/m-MMT nanocomposites performed by dynamic mechanical analysis and thermogravimetric analysis have significant improvements in the storage modulus and 50% loss in temperature when compared to that of neat PLA matrix. The degradation rates of PLA/m-MMT nanocomposites are also discussed in this study.
Hydrolytic degradation of polymer layered silicate nanocomposites based on polylactide matrix (PLA) and (organo-modified) montmorillonites was investigated in phosphate buffer solution for more than five months. While natural unmodified montmorillonite-Na+ led to the formation of a microcomposite, mainly intercalated nanocomposites were prepared by melt blending PLA with 3wt% of montmorillonite organo-modified either by 2-ethylhexyl (hydrogenated tallowalkyl) ammonium cations (Cloisite®25A) or by bis-(2-hydroxyethyl) methyl tallowalkyl ammonium cations (Cloisite®30B). The evolution of molecular weight of the matrix as well as its crystallinity with the hydrolysis time has been recorded by size exclusion chromatography (SEC) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), respectively. Thermogravimetric analyses (TGA) performed on the microcomposite based on Cloisite®Na+ has shown that the thermal stability of the materials decreased proportionally to the decreasing PLA molecular weight along the hydrolysis time. Moreover, in parallel to the morphology of the composites, the relative hydrophilicity of the clay layers has been shown to play a key role in the hydrolytic degradation of the PLA chains.
Biopolymer chitosan/montmorillonite nanocomposites have been prepared in which montmorillonite (MMT) is used as nanofiller and diluted acetic acid is used as solvent for dissolving and dispersing chitosan and montmorillonite. Morphology and properties of chitosan nanocomposites with and without acetic acid residue have been studied compared with those of pure chitosan. The effect of acetic acid residue and MMT loading in nanocomposites has been investigated. The XRD and TEM results indicate the formation of an intercalated-and-exfoliated nanostructure at low MMT content and an intercalated-and-flocculated nanostructure at high MMT content. The thermal stability and the mechanical properties of the nanocomposites are characterized by TGA and nanoindentation. The nano-dispersed clay improves the thermal stability and enhances the hardness and elastic modulus of the matrix systematically with the increase of clay loading. The existence of acetic acid residue in chitosan matrix will affect its crystallinity, thermal stability and mechanical properties.
Rectorite (REC), a type of layered silicate, was used to prepare the intercalated nanocomposites with quaternized chitosan (HTCC). Characterization by XRD and TEM revealed that HTCC were intercalated into the intergallery of REC. Moreover, it was confirmed from FT-IR, XRD and ζ-potential analyses that interaction between HTCC and REC took place. Two in vitro antimicrobial assays indicated that all the nanocomposites exhibited strong inhibition against Gram-positive bacteria, Gram-negative bacteria and Fungi under weak acid, water and weak basic condition, particularly against Gram-positive bacteria. Moreover, with increasing the amount or the interlayer distance of organic REC, the antimicrobial activity was stronger. The lowest minimum inhibition concentration values of the nanocomposites against Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis were less than 0.00313% (w/v) in all media tested, and the killing rate on S. aureus reached more than 90% in 30min. The mechanism of the antimicrobial action was briefly discussed.
Chitosan/layered silicate nanocomposites with different ratios were successfully prepared via solution-mixing processing technique. Unmodified Ca2+-rectorite and organic rectorite modified by cetyltrimethyl ammonium bromide were used. Their structures were characterized by XRD, TEM and FT-IR techniques. The results showed that chitosan chains were inserted into silicate layers to form the intercalated nanocomposites. The interlayer distance of the layered silicates in the nanocomposites enlarged as its amount increased. When the weight ratio between chitosan and organic rectorite was 12:1, the largest interlayer distance of 8.24nm was obtained. However, with further increase of its amount, the interlayer distance of the layered silicates in the nanocomposites reduced. In vitro antimicrobial assay showed that pristine rectorite could not inhibit the growth of bacteria, but chitosan/layered silicate nanocomposites had stronger antimicrobial activity than pure chitosan, particularly against Gram-positive bacteria. With the increase of the amount and the interlayer distance of the layered silicates in the nanocomposites, the nanocomposites showed a stronger antibacterial effect on Gram-positive bacteria, while the nanocomposites showed a weaker antibacterial effect on Gram-negative bacteria. The lowest minimum inhibition concentration (MIC) value of the nanocomposites against Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis was 0.00313% (w/v), and the relative inhibition time (RIT) against B. subtilis with concentration of 0.00313% (w/v) was >120h.