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The paper presents some preliminary data on the food structure of the Sand Martin nestlings (Riparia riparia L., 1758) during the three months of the breeding season: May, June and July. Our researches were made in two colonies from the Argeº River, 3 km downstream the dam from Mihãileºti. We used the method of the analysis of the faeces eliminated by the nestlings. We collected 66 faeces at the end of May, 69 faeces in June, and 14 faeces in July. In all 159 studied samples we identified 2,116 preys which belong to two classes, 7 orders and 16 families of arthropods. Most of the preys were represented by coleopterans (60.39%), hymenopterans (29.02%), heteropterans (4.01%), dipterans (2.89%) and other groups (3.68%).
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PRELIMINARY DATA ON THE FOOD STRUCTURE OF THE
SAND MARTIN NESTLINGS (RIPARIA RIPARIA L. 1758)
(AVES: HIRUNDINIDAE) IN SOUTHERN ROMANIA
GABRIEL CHIªAMERA, TRAIAN MANOLE
Abstract. The paper presents some preliminary data on the food structure of the Sand Martin nestlings
(Riparia riparia L., 1758) during the three months of the breeding season: May, June and July. Our
researches were made in two colonies from the Argeº River, 3 km downstream the dam from
Mihãileºti. We used the method of the analysis of the faeces eliminated by the nestlings. We collected
66 faeces at the end of May, 69 faeces in June, and 14 faeces in July. In all 159 studied samples we
identified 2,116 preys which belong to two classes, 7 orders and 16 families of arthropods. Most of the
preys were represented by coleopterans (60.39%), hymenopterans (29.02%), heteropterans (4.01%),
dipterans (2.89%) and other groups (3.68%).
Résumé. Le travail présente quelques données préliminaires sur la structure de la nourriture de
l’hirondelle de rivage (Riparia riparia L., 1758) pendant les trois mois de la saison de reproduction:
mai, juin et juillet. Notre recherche a été faits dans deux colonies de la rivière Argeº, 3 kilomètres aval
du barrage de Mihãileºti. Nous avons employé la méthode d’analyse des excréments. Nous avons
collecté 66 excréments à fin du mai, 69 excréments en juin et 14 excréments en juillet. Dans tous les
159 échantillons étudiés nous avons identifié 2.116 proies qui appartiennent à deux classes, 7 ordres et
16 familles des arthropodes. La plupart des proies ont été représentés par des coléoptères (60,39%),
hyménoptères (29,02%), hétéroptères (4,01%), diptéres (2,89%) et d’autres groupes (3,68%).
Key words: Sand Martin, Riparia riparia, nestlings diet.
In Romania, the studies on the food of the insectivorous birds are few in
number. The first references on the food of the insectivorous birds were published
by Dombrowski (1912) and Linþia (1946). But most of the papers appeared during
the period 1958 - 1971. Such kind of studies were made by Korodi Gal (1958) for
Phoenicurus phoenicurus, Korodi Gal (1965) for Sylvia atricapilla; Theiss &
Ieniºtea (1967), who followed the neck ring method in order to identified the
composition of the nestlings food of Passer domesticus and Passer montanus;
Iordache (1971), analysed the stomach content of the nestlings of the same species;
Munteanu (1969), used also the neck ring method in analisying the food of
Phoenicurus ochruros nestlings; Papadopol (1969), published a paper in which he
referred to the main investigation methods on the bird food.
The reason which lies at the bottom of this paper was that there are very few
papers dealing with the food of Hirundinidae in the specialized literature. Frequently
it is asserted only that they are insectivorous, without details on the insect groups
included in the diet of these birds and their share.
In the foreign literature, papers on the Hirundinidae food were published by:
Kozena (1975), for Delichon urbica, Kozena (1979, 1980, 1983), for Hirundo
rustica, Prodon (1982), for Hirundo daurica rufula, Turner (1984), for Phaeoprogne
tapera, Kopij (2000), for Hirundo rustica, H. albogularis, H. semirufa, H. cucullata,
English translation by Mihaela Barcan Achim.
Travaux du Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle
«Grigore Antipa» Vol. XLVIII pp. 383–394 © 30 Dec.
2005
H. spilodera, H. fuligula, Delichon urbica, Riparia paludicola and Riparia cincta,
Mengelkoch & col. (2004), for Tachycineta bicolor.
As regards the food of the Sand Martin there are some previous papers, two of
them on the populations of Riparia riparia from North America, Beal (1918) and
Stoner (1936), one for the populations from United Kingdom, Waugh (1979), and
one for Russia, Pavlova (1962).
In Romania, only one paper on the food of the Swallow, Hirundo rustica, was
published, Pap & col. (1998).
Our paper is the first contribution to the knowledge of the food structure of
Sand Martins from southern Romania.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
Main methods used during the study of the food structure of Hirundinidae are:
analysis of the stomach content; the neck ring method and the analysis of the faeces.
Besides these methods, Mc.Carty & Winkler (1991) used an artificial nestling for
the identification of the food in Tachycineta bicolor.
The method of the analysis of the stomach content has a major shortcoming, it
presuming the killing of the birds. Because of this reason the method is used now
only for the study of the already dead specimens or preserved in liquid in different
scientifically collections or museums.
The neck ring method is advantageous because it allows the estimation of the
food quantity consumed during a period of time and, at the same time, it allows the
exact identification of the preys. Beside this advantage, the method is
disadvantageous because it induces a great stress to the nestlings.
The investigation of the faeces content is good because it does not imply the
killing of the birds and the nestlings are not stressed. The method was used during
the studies of the food structure of the Sand Martin nestlings by Waugh (1979). A
disadvantage of this method is that the soft parts of some insects, as some dipterans
or homoptera, are entirely digested or crumbled after they transited the alimentary
canal, rising problem in identification. Thus, it is impossible to identify the exact
number of the preys from the samples. The remains of coleopterans and
hymenopterans are preserved better after they transit the alimentary canal, allowing
the identification up to the species level.
For this study we collected 159 faeces, during the period May - July 2004,
from two Sand Martin colonies (Riparia riparia) placed in a ballast-pit at 3 km
downstream the dam from Mihãileºti, on the Argeº River (Fig. 1).
Later, the faeces were crumbled under binocular and the chitinuous remains
were separated from the undigested ones. They were sorted and identified up to the
species, family or order level.
For the identification of the undigested insect remains we also used
comparative material, collected with the entomological net from the feeding habitat
of the Sand Martins.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The ecology and the behaviour of the Hirundinidae are independent from the
distribution and abundance of the insects. Feeding territory of the Sand Martins
surrounds the colony during the nesting period, at distances which varies from 200
m (Turner, 1989), to 6 km around the colony (Svenson, 1969). The distance towards
this hunting territory depends on the feeding places available to Sand Martins.
384 GABRIEL CHIªAMERA, TRAIAN MANOLE
Within the researched area, the feeding territories of the Sand Martins are the
bed of the Argeº River, the banks covered by characteristic vegetation formed of
Salix sp., Crategus sp., Rosa canina and rich grassy vegetation. Also, there are
numerous agricultural lands, cultivated with wheat, oat, maize and lucerne.
Hirundinidae species which feed on large-sized and dispersed insects are
generally solitary or nest in small groups, while the colonial species, as Sand Martins,
feed on small-sized insects and which swarm (Turner, 1989). This behaviour seems
to be a consequence of the colonial life, which increases the efficiency of exploration.
This phenomenon is also pointed out by the large share of some insects which fly in
swarms in the nestlings food. For instance, Pleurophorus caesus, (Coleoptera:
Scarabeidae), which live on rotting vegetal matter and which fly in swarms above the
fresh plough-land. This species represent 32.28% from the preys identified in May,
and 31.45% from the preys identified in June. In July the winged ants are preferred,
which represent 66.21% from the preys identified in this month.
Most of the preys are caught on the fly, but occasionally those on the ground
and the water surface can also be captured (Cramp, 1988), the last ones, especially
on bad weather.
For North America, Hobson & Sealy (1987) reports six Hirundinidae species
which take the food from the ground: Hirundo rustica, H. pyrrhonota, Tachycineta
bicolor, Progne subis, Stelgidopteryx serripennis, Tachycineta thalassina and
Riparia riparia. In the studied samples taken from the colony from the Argeº River,
we identified four possible preys, susceptibly of being caught on the ground or even
in the nest. Thus, we identified five arachnid specimens (Arachnida) and a specimen
of Haploglossa gentilis (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae), which maybe it was swallowed
FOOD STRUCTURE OF THE SAND MARTIN NESTLINGS (RIPARIA RIPARIA) (AVES) 385
Fig. 1 – General view of one of the two the colonies from where the samples were collected (Photo G.
Chiºamera).
by nestlings just in their nest. For Europe, Prodon (1982) mentions this behaviour in
Hirundo daurica, too.
The height they feed varies from 15 m (Turner, 1989) to almost the level of
the ground. Thus, in the food of the Sand Martin a large diversity of insects occurs,
those flying in swarm and the solitary ones from the level of the vegetation being
prevalent, but also, they catch preys just from the ground.
The Sand Martins can catch, occasionally, preys belonging to other
invertebrate classes. Therefore, in the 159 analysed faeces we also identified 5
specimens of arachnids, which probably were caught on the ground and vegetation.
The food structure during the breeding season, when we took the samples,
varies in the share of different groups of eaten preys. Thus, in May and June,
coleopterans have the largest share, and in July, hymenopterans.
In the 66 samples from May, we identified 951 preys, out of which 63.82%
were coleopterans, 19.87% hymenopterans, 6.3% heteropterans, 5.78% dipterans,
1.15% homopterans and 3.04% other unidentified insect groups (Fig. 3).
From the coleopterans, which where prevalent in May, the largest share is
represented by the families Scarabeidae (32.28%), Bruchidae (9.67%), represented
by Euspermophagus sericeus, Curculionidae (8.7%), represented by several species,
the most important being Hypera variabilis, which represent 4.2% alone, from the
total of the preys (Tab. 1). Family Scarabeidae formed the largest percentage from
the preys and it was exclusively represented by Pleurophorus caesus, species which
lives on rotting vegetal matters. Vegetal remains which favour the appearance of the
scarabs in the food, in a high number, are very numerous in the researched area, and
are placed especially in the waste pit of Cornetu village, which is near the Sand
Martin colonies and where we often remarked the martin flocks feeding themselves.
For June we studied 69 faeces and remarked the same prevalence of the
coleopterans, which represent 63.51% from the preys. We also observed an
386 GABRIEL CHIªAMERA, TRAIAN MANOLE
Fig. 2 – Feeding habitat of the Sand Martin in the basin of the Argeº River (Photo G. Chiºamera).
increasing of the hymenopteran percentage to 31.16%, to the prejudice of dipterans
and heteropterans, whose percentages significantly decreased (Fig. 4).
From the coleopterans, the largest share is represented also by Scarabeidae
(31.45%), exclusively represented by Pleurophorus caesus, followed by Curculionidae
(15.27%), Bruchidae (4.63%) and Carabidae (4.04%).
Curculionidae are especially represented by Ceutorhynchus erysimi (0.29%)
and Hypera variabilis (13.7%) in the preys identified in June.
FOOD STRUCTURE OF THE SAND MARTIN NESTLINGS (RIPARIA RIPARIA) (AVES) 387
Fig. 3 – The share of the insect groups in the Sand Martin food, in May.
Fig. 4 – The share of the insect groups in the Sand Martin food, in June.
388 GABRIEL CHIªAMERA, TRAIAN MANOLE
Table 1
Taxonomical arthropod groups identified in the faeces collected during the period May-July 2004 from the Sand Martin colonies.
from southern Romania.
Class ARACHNIDA
Ord. Araneae 2 0.21 2 1 0.09 1 - -
Fam. Araneidae - - 2 0.19 1 - -
Class INSECTA
Ord. Coleoptera
Fam. Staphylinidae
Haploglossa gentilis 1 0.1 1 - - - -
Fam. Elateridae
Drasterius bimaculatus Rossi 7 0.73 6 18 1.77 9 - -
Fam. Hydrophilidae
Subfam. Helophorinae 7 0.73 5 2 0.19 2 - -
Helophorus granularis L. 46 4.83 27 13 1.28 8 - -
Fam. Anthicidae
Subfam. Anthicinae
Formicomus pedestris Rossi. 3 0.31 3 5 0.49 5 - -
Fam. Histeridae
Subfam. Saprininae
Saprinus rufipes Payk. 1775 1 0.1 1 4 0.39 2 - -
Saprinus semistriatus Scriba - - 1 .09 1 - -
Fam. Carabidae
Dromius melanocephalus Dej. 1 0.1 1 41 4.04 12 - -
Fam. Scarabeidae
Pleurophorus caesus Creutzer 1796 307 32.28 52 319 31.45 41 9 5.96 3
Month
May (66 samples)
Appearan
ce
frequency
in the
samples
% from
the specs
no
Identified
specs no
1 2 345678 9 10
Identified taxa Appearan
ce
frequency
in the
samples
% from
the specs
no
Identified
specs no
Appearan
ce
frequency
in the
samples
% from
the specs
no
Identified
specs no
June (69 samples) July (14 samples)
FOOD STRUCTURE OF THE SAND MARTIN NESTLINGS (RIPARIA RIPARIA) (AVES) 389
Table 1 (continued)
Fam. Bruchidae
Subfam. Amblycerinae
Euspermophagus sericeus 92 9.67 37 47 4.63 27 10 6.62 7
Geoffr. 1785
Fam. Curculionidae 24 2.52 17 13 1.28 11 4 2.64 4
Tanysphyrus lemnae Payk. 1792 1 0.1 1 - - - -
Ceutorhynchus erysimi F. 1787 14 1.47 10 3 0.29 3 - -
Ceutorhynchus marginatus 3 0.31 3 - -
Payk. 1792
Hypera variabilis Herbst. 1795 40 4.20 17 139 13.7 32 2 1.32 2
Baris coerulescens Scop. 1 0.1 1 - - - -
Fam. Nitidulidae
Meligethes subrugosus Gyll. 2 0.21 1 - - - -
Heterostomus viliger Reitt. - - 1 0.09 1 - -
Other groups of unidentified coleopterans 57 5.99 36 38 3.74 25 2 1.32 2
Ord. Hymenoptera
Suprafam. Ichneumonoidea 1 0.1 1 - - - -
Fam. Braconidae
Subfam. Cheloninae 4 0.42 4 4 0.39 4 - -
Fam. Ichneumonidae - - 4 0.39 1 - -
Suprafam. Formicoidea 27 2.83 15 111 10.94 30 26 17.21 10
Fam. Formicidae 37 3.89 10 143 14.10 33 74 49 9
Suprafam. Vespoidea
Fam. Chalcididae 5 0.52 5 2 0.19 2 - -
Fam. Chrysididae 1 0.1 1 11 1.08 11 - -
Other groups of unidentified 114 11.98 43 41 4.04 21 9 5.96 6
hymenopterans
Ord. Homoptera
Suprafam. Psylloidea
Fam. Psyllidae 2 0.21 1 - - 1 0.66 1
Suprafam. Cicadoidea 9 0.94 9 19 1.87 11 3 1.98 1
Ord. Heteroptera 60 6.30 18 23 2.26 21 2 1.32 1
Ord. Odonata 3 0.31 2 1 0.09 1 - -
Ord. Diptera 55 5.78 22 5 0.49 3 1 0.66 1
Other groups of unidentified insects 24 2.52 10 3 0.29 3 8 5.29 6
1 2345678910
An important percentage from the identified hymenopterans in June belongs
to the winged ants, which represent 25.04% from the total number of the identified
preys. Heteroptera (2.26%), dipterans (0.49%) and homopterans (1.87%) are less
important in the diet of the Sand Martins in June.
In July, hymenopterans were prevalent, representing 72.18% from the preys,
followed by coleopterans (17.88%). The hymenopterans identified in the food in this
period are mostly represented by the winged ants. Homopterans and heteropterans,
representing 2.64% and, respectively 1.32% from the food, and the dipterans, in a
small percentage, of 0.66%, are insignificant.
Low percentage of dipterans from the total identified preys can be, on the one
side, due to a shortcoming of the method, i.e. after the intestinal transit the small-
sized dipterans are completely digested, and, on the other one, due to different
ecological conditions from the areas where the studies on the food of the Sand
Martin nestlings were made: U.S.A. (Beal, 1918 and Stoner, 1936), United
Kingdom (Waugh, 1979) and Romania.
The great variation in the share of the insect groups, presented for different
Sand Martin populations, demonstrates that they are not selective predators, that
means they do not select a certain kind of preys, the single selection implying the
size of the prey (Tab. 2).
Apparent preference of the studied population for coleopterans is due to the
great abundance of these insects in the feeding biotope of the Sand Martins, on the
one hand, and on the other one, to the flight of coleopterans which is much slower
and heavier than that of the hymenopterans and dipterans. Therefore coleopterans
are easier preys.
The presence of the waste pit of Cornetu village and of numerous agricultural
lands near the studied colony supports a rich coleopteran fauna, which is very much
390 GABRIEL CHIªAMERA, TRAIAN MANOLE
Fig. 5 – The share of the insect groups in the Sand Martin food, in July.
exploited by the Sand Martins. The high number of the Pleurophorus caesus
specimens, found in the analysed faeces, is due to the large volume of rotting vegetal
matters stored near the colony, and the presence of Hypera variabilis in food is due
to the presence of some lucerne cultures near the studied colonies, on which this
species develops.
A result similar to that of ours was underlined by Kopij (2000) in the
populations of Riparia cincta, studied in southern Africa, in whose diet a percentage
of 62.1% coleopterans were identified (Tab. 3)
Analysing the share of the coleopteran families identified in the food during
the three months of study, we found out that Scarabeidae is the most important
family from the prey number point of view, it being prevalent in May and June,
followed by Curculionidae, which was occurred in a higher percentage in June (see
fig 6). From Curculionidae we often identified Hypera variabilis and
Ceutorhynchus erysimi.
Conclusions
The food structure during the three months of the breeding season of Sand
Martins varied in the proportion of different prey groups which form the diet of this
species (see fig. 3 and tab. 2).
The studied population showed an apparent preference for coleopterans,
contrasting with the data from literature, on the one hand due to the abundance of
these insects in the feeding biotope, and, on the other one, due to the slower and
heavier flight of coleopterans than that of hymenopterans or dipterans, thus
becoming easier preys.
Table 3
Comparison between the food structure in Riparia paludicola, Riparia cincta and Riparia riparia.
Coleoptera 35.7% 62.1% 60.39%
Hymenoptera 17.9% 0 29.02%
Diptera 0 32.4% 2.89%
Other preys 46.4% 5.5% 7.19%
Riparia paludicola
southern Africa,
(Kopij, 2000)
- stomach analyses
Preys
Riparia cincta
Southern Africa,
(Kopij, 2000)
- stomach analyses
Riparia riparia
(Romania)
- faeces analyses
Table 2
Comparison between the shares of the taxonomical insect groups from the Sand Martin
food, in different studies.
Coleoptera (%) 17.90 36.13 10.68 60.39
Hymenoptera (%) 33.49 5.66 4.93 29.02
Heteroptera (%) 7.69 23.94 12.53 4.01
Diptera (%) 26.63 31.59 69.26 2.89
Other groups (%) 14.02 2.68 2.60 3.68
TOTAL (%) 100 100 100 100
Romania
Present study
(2004)
United Kingdom
(Waugh, 1979)
S.U.A.
(Stoner, 1936)
S.U.A.
(Beal, 1918)
- stomach analyses - faeces analyses
Preys
FOOD STRUCTURE OF THE SAND MARTIN NESTLINGS (RIPARIA RIPARIA) (AVES) 391
The high percentage of injurious coleopterans identified in the food of June
underlines the importance of the Sand Martin populations in maintaining some
populations of injurious insects to the agricultural lands under control.
In May and June, coleopterans have the largest share, and in July,
hymenopterans.
Hypera variabilis is an important pest for the lucerne cultures. The adults
gnaw the leaf epidermis and parenchyma and the stem tissue, thus generating the
drying of the plant by the excessive loss of water. The consumption of this injurious
species, within the proportions established by us (see tab. 1), points out a certain
importance of the Sand Martin in the biological control of this injurious species,
hence an economical importance of the trophic activity of the group.
The large variation in the insect group share for different Sand Martin
populations demonstrates that they are not selective predators, that means they do
not select a certain taxonomical prey group. The single selection is generated by the
size of the preys.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We want to thank especially to Dr. Dumitru Murariu, for coordinating my preparation for PhD
Programme in "Grigore Antipa" National Museum of Natural History (Bucharest) and for his advice
giving during my work. Also, we want to thank to Dr. Angela Petrescu for her precious advice on the
investigation methods and the paper subject. Our thanks go to Mrs Rodica Serafim, Dr. Melanya Stan,
Miss Cristina Ban and Mr. Costicã Adam for their precious help in identifying some of the preys
occurred in the food of the Sand Martin. Finally we would like to thank the anonymous referees who
improved the manuscript.
392 GABRIEL CHIªAMERA, TRAIAN MANOLE
Fig. 6 – The share variation of the coleopteran families in the food of the Sand Martin chickens during
the three months of the breeding season.
DATE PRELIMINARE ASUPRA COMPOZIÞIEI HRANEI PUILOR
DE LÃSTUN DE MAL (RIPARIA RIPARIA L., 1758) (AVES: HIRUNDINIDAE)
ÎN SUDUL ROMÂNIEI
REZUMAT
Lucrarea prezintã câteva date preliminare privind compoziþia hranei puilor de lãstun de mal
(Riparia riparia L., 1758) în cele trei luni ale sezonului de reproducere: mai, iunie ºi iulie. Cercetãrile
au fost efectuate în douã colonii situate pe râul Argeº, la 3 km în aval de barajul de la Mihãileºti.
Metoda folositã a fost analiza conþinutului sacilor fecaloizi eliminaþi de cãtre pui. Am recoltat
66 saci fecaloizi de la sfârºitul lunii mai, 69 saci fecaloizi din luna iunie ºi 14 saci fecaloizi din luna
iulie. În toate cele 159 probe analizate am identificat 2116 prãzi care aparþin la douã clase, 7 ordine ºi
16 familii de artropode. Cele mai multe prãzi au fost reprezentate de coleoptere (60,39%), himenoptere
(29,02%), heteroptere (4,01%), diptere (2,89%) ºi alte grupe (3,68%).
Populaþia studiatã a prezentat o aparentã preferinþã pentru coleoptere, contrastând cu datele din
literaturã, fapt care se datoreazã pe de o parte abundenþei mari pe care o au aceste insecte în biotopul de
hrãnire ºi pe de altã parte faptului cã zborul coleopterelor este mult mai lent ºi mai greoi decât cel al
himenopterelor sau dipterelor, fiind astfel prãzi mult mai uºoare.
Procentul mare de coleoptere dãunãtoare identificat în hranã în luna iunie, evidenþiazã
importanþa pe care o au populaþiile de lãstun de mal în menþinerea sub control a populaþiilor unor specii
de insecte dãunãtoare culturilor agricole.
Consumul speciei dãunãtoare Hypera variabilis, în proporþiile arãtate în tabelul 1, evidenþiazã
un anumit rol al lãstunului de mal în controlul biologic al acestei specii dãunãtoare, deci o importanþã
economicã a activitãþii trofice a speciei.
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Received: February 2, 2005 Gabriel Chiºamera
Accepted: March 22, 2005 Muzeul Naþional de Istorie Naturalã „Grigore Antipa"
ªos. Kiselelff 1, 011341 Bucureºti 2, România
e-mail: gabriel_chisamera@antipa.ro
Traian Manole
Institutul de Cercetare Dezvoltare pentru Protecþia Plantelor,
Bd. Ion Ionescu de la Brad, nr. 8, 013813 Bucureºti, România
e-mail: traian_manole@yahoo.com
394 GABRIEL CHIªAMERA, TRAIAN MANOLE
... Studies of Sand Martin colonization patterns (Garrison et al. 1987;Jones 1987a;Heneberg 2001) and diet (Waugh 1979;Chişamera & Manole 2005;Nakano et al. 2007) have shown that habitat structure influences foraging behavior, nesting pattern and colony size, which may in turn influence morphometric traits. However, there have been few studies of Sand Martin morphometric variation, all of which were based on a comparatively small number of measured characters (Jones 1985(Jones , 1987bMacBriar 1988;Bryant & Jones 1995;MacBriar 1995;Szabó & Szép 2010;Kovalevsky et al. 2012), rather than multivariate analysis. ...
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This study describes the morphometric variation among Sand Martin Riparia riparia populations in Serbia and assesses the relationship between breeding habitat characteristics and morphometric traits. Univariate and multivariate morphometric analyses based on 11 morphometric characters were performed on 233 adult Sand Martins from five populations. The populations showed differences in five morphometric traits: claw length, bill length, bill width, sternum length, and body weight. The differences were most pronounced in populations breeding at high densities in habitats under least human impact compared with urban habitats. Individuals from the Deliblato Sands Special Nature Reserve differed from all other populations in having distinctive characteristics (lower body weight, longer claws and wider bills). The morphological traits we analyzed are related to nesting, foraging and predator avoidance. Thus observed morphological variation might reflect differences in habitat characteristics.
... All species of swallow (family Hirundinidae) predominantly forage on the wing (Turner & Rose 1989; Turner 2004; Higgins et al. 2006), although some species very occasionally come to the ground to forage (e.g. Wolinski 1980; Sealy 1982; Erskine 1984; Hobson & Sealy 1987; Turner 2004; Chişamera & Manole 2005). ...
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All species of swallow primarily forage on the wing although occasionally come to ground to take prey. There are only a few documented cases of Australian swallow species foraging while on the ground, and descriptions of foraging techniques in these instances are limited. Here we provide details of observations on ground-foraging of the Welcome Swallow Hirundo neoxena in south-eastern Australia, as well as an instance of.kleptoparasitism.
... Then the BLC make polysaccherides if this scenario is happening in a semi-arid environment and the birds have problems making new holes and leave the site. The upper parts of the loess exposures may be attractive to the birds not only because the conditions of the Heneberg compromise are satisfied, and the BLC situation is satisfactory but also because of a desirable local diversity of insect population that provides food(Chiamera & Manole 2005). Relatively recently, according toHeneberg(2001Heneberg( , 2003), large numbers of birds have left their mature nest sites on river banks and moved their colonies, perhaps because better (loess) ground became available. ...
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Sand martins/bank swallows (Riparia riparia Linnaeus 1758) nest in tunnels excavated in loess deposits. Loess is particularly suitable because of its cohesive properties, its ease of excavation, its ability to form vertical faces, its ready availability in small scale brick works. A low clay content is a requirement for suitable ground (palaeosols appear to have too much clay), and in sand deposits a low level of cementation. The selective nature of nesting behaviour may have some stratigraphic value, and it may be that loess availability affects the distribution of sand martins (they move away from river banks to brick pits). Soil crust formation may affect the inhabitability of nest tunnels (the same phenomenon may be important in loess deposit formation). Penetration resistance of the ground is required to be in a middle-range, not too hard, not too soft. This is the Heneberg compromise: a compromise between tunnel stability and ease of excavation and construction.
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Behavioral shifts can initiate morphological evolution by pushing lineages into new adaptive zones. This has primarily been examined in ecological behaviors, such as foraging, but social behaviors may also alter morphology. Swallows and martins (Hirundinidae) are aerial insectivores that exhibit a range of social behaviors, from solitary to colonial breeding and foraging. Using a well‐resolved phylogenetic tree, a database of social behaviors, and morphological measurements, we ask how shifts from solitary to social breeding and foraging have affected morphological evolution in the Hirundinidae. Using a threshold model of discrete state evolution, we find that shifts in both breeding and foraging social behavior are common across the phylogeny of swallows. Solitary swallows have highly variable morphology, while social swallows show much less absolute variance in all morphological traits. Metrics of convergence based on both the trajectory of social lineages through morphospace and the overall morphological distance between social species scaled by their phylogenetic distance indicate strong convergence in social swallows, especially socially foraging swallows. Smaller physical traits generally observed in social species suggest that social species benefit from a distinctive flight style, likely increasing maneuverability and foraging success and reducing in‐flight collisions within large flocks. These results highlight the importance of sociality in species evolution, a link that had previously been examined only in eusocial insects and primates.
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Dietary samples from nestling Tree Swallows (Tachycineta bicolor) in northwestern Minnesota were compared to invertebrate availability as measured by aerial tow nets. The majority of the biomass in the nestlings' diet was adult insects with larval stages of aquatic origin, while absolute numbers of insects of both aquatic and terrestrial origin were similar. Orders of invertebrates in the diet and available were similar in number but not in biomass. Diet showed little variation by time of day, date of sampling or the age of the nestling. The mean number of odonates in the nestling Tree Swallows' diet increased exponentially as the percentage of open water and open water + cattail marsh increased within a 400-m foraging radius.
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Phaeoprogne tapera at Guanare, Venezuela, have a clutch size of 4.0 + or - 0.2 eggs, smaller than that reported for purple martin Progne subis, a temperate species. The eggs are incubated for 62.4% of the daylight hours; incubation periods are longer at low ambient temperatures. Nestling brown-chested martins do not lose weight near fledging; the growth rate constant is 0.284. On a biomass basis, brown-chested martins bring more dragonflies to the nest than reported for purple martins; relatively more dragonflies are brought as the nestlings grow. Cool, wet and cloudy weather reduces feeding activity and the rate at which food is gathered by the tropical martin, as has been reported for the temperate species. -Author
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Grigore Antipa" ªos. Kiselelff 1, 011341 Bucureºti 2, România e-mail: gabriel_chisamera@antipa.ro Traian Manole Institutul de Cercetare Dezvoltare pentru Protecþia Plantelor
  • Muzeul Naþional De Istorie
  • Naturalã
Muzeul Naþional de Istorie Naturalã " Grigore Antipa" ªos. Kiselelff 1, 011341 Bucureºti 2, România e-mail: gabriel_chisamera@antipa.ro Traian Manole Institutul de Cercetare Dezvoltare pentru Protecþia Plantelor, Bd. Ion Ionescu de la Brad, nr. 8, 013813 Bucureºti, România e-mail: traian_manole@yahoo.com