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1
In S. Bhargava (Ed.), Transformational leadership:
Value-based management for Indian organizations (pp. 82-100),
Response Books (Sage Publications), New Delhi (2003).
Transformational Leadership and Organizational Structure:
The Role of Value-Based Leadership
Garima Garg and Venkat R. Krishnan
Xavier Labour Relations Institute, Jamshedpur, India
Abstract. We developed a 20-item scale for values-based leadership and
looked at its relationship with transformational leadership and two
dimensions of organizational structure—formalization and decentralization—
using a sample of 100 employees of a leading software-consulting firm in
India. Results show that transformational leadership and values-based
leadership are positively related to each other and that both are positively
related to decentralization. The hypothesis that formalization would be
negatively related to both the leadership variables was not supported. Results
also reveal that when values-based leadership is controlled for,
transformational leadership is no longer related to decentralization. The
importance of values-based leadership in transforming organizations and
individuals is highlighted.
There has been growing interest in the study of transformational leadership. However,
the literature on transformational leadership in organizations has neglected the organizational
context in which such leadership is embedded. In fact, the extant literature gives an
impression that transformational leadership is equally applicable to all organizational
situations. Shamir and Howell (1999) presented a series of hypothesis linking contextual
variables to the emergence and effectiveness of transformational leadership. One context that
they considered was organizational structure. In this study, we examined the relationship
between organizational structure and transformational leadership. However, if
transformational leadership is not coupled with values-based leadership, it may lose its
effectiveness. The significance of values-based leadership cannot be overemphasized.
Therefore, this study also looked at the role of values-based leadership in the relationship
between organizational structure and transformational leadership.
Theory and Hypotheses
Burns (1978) defined leadership as a relationship between leader and follower that
seeks to address the goals of both of them. Such a relationship could take two forms—
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transactional and transformational. When leaders go by the current goals of followers, the
relationship becomes nothing more than an exchange process, and is therefore transactional
leadership. The relationship becomes transformational when leaders try to bring about a
change in followers’ motives and goals.
Transformational Leadership
Transformational leadership occurs when leaders and followers raise one another to
higher levels of motivation and morality. Leaders address themselves to followers’ wants,
needs, and other motivations, as well as to their own, and thus may serve as an independent
force in changing the makeup of the followers’ motive base through gratifying their motives
(Burns, 1978: 20). Transformational leadership is comprised of four interrelated dimensions:
charisma, inspiration, individualized consideration, and intellectual stimulation (Bass, 1985).
Transformational leaders attempt and succeed in raising colleagues, subordinates, followers,
clients, or constituencies to a greater awareness about the issues of consequence.
Transformational leaders bring about change, innovation, and entrepreneurship. They
describe the process of corporate transformations that recognize the need for revitalization,
create a new vision, and institutionalize change (Seltzer & Bass, 1990). Transformational
leaders build confidence in followers, encouraging them to reframe the future and question
the tried and true, and coaching them to develop their full capabilities (Avolio, Howell, &
Sosik, 1999). Transformational leaders integrate creative insight, persistence and energy,
intuition and sensitivity to the needs of others to forge the strategy-culture alloy for their
organizations (Bass, & Avolio, 1993).
Transformational leaders adopt a long-term perspective. Rather than focusing solely
on current needs of their followers or themselves, they also focus on future needs; rather than
being concerned only with short-term problems and opportunities facing the organization,
they also concern themselves with long-term issues; rather than viewing intra-and extra
organizational factors as discrete, they view them from a holistic orientation (Dubinsky,
Yammarino, Jolson, & Spangler, 1995). Behling and McFillen (1996) built a model of
transformational leadership that sought to capture common threads running through many
important works on charismatic leadership. They identified six attributes of transformational
leadership: Displaying empathy, dramatizing the mission, projecting self-assurance,
enhancing the leader’s image, assuring followers of their competency, providing followers
with opportunities to experience success.
Effects of transformational leadership. A study by Howell and Frost (1989) concluded
that individuals working under a charismatic leader had higher task performance (in terms of
the number of courses of action suggested and quality of performance), higher task
satisfaction and lower role conflict and ambiguity in comparison to individuals working
under considerate leaders or under structuring leaders. Transformational leadership may
result ultimately in a higher level of satisfaction and effectiveness among the led (Bass,
1985). Transformational variables of charismatic leadership, individualized consideration,
and intellectual stimulation add to the variance of subordinates’ effectiveness, effort, and
satisfaction explained by initiation and consideration (Seltzer & Bass, 1990). Leader vision,
which is a characteristic of the transformational process (Bass, 1985), plays an important role
in motivating followers. It affects employees’ performance by inspiring them toward new
goals and by raising their self-efficacy. Kirkpatrick and Locke (1996) found that the content
of charismatic communication style (vision and task cues) led to higher performance quality
and quantity. Leader’s articulation of vision emphasizing quality improved followers’
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attitudes and perception and that of the task cues increased followers’ task clarity and
intellectual stimulation. Baum, Locke, and Kirkpatrick (1998) found additional support for
this finding in their study. They concluded that vision and vision communication have
positive effects upon organizational level performances.
Context and transformational leadership. While charismatic leadership is potentially
applicable to most organizational situations, it is not equally applicable to all situations.
Waldman, Ramirez, House, and Puranam (2001) found that charisma predicted financial
performance only under conditions of perceived environmental uncertainty. Organizations
will be more receptive to transformational leadership during adaptation rather than during
efficiency orientation (Pawar & Eastman, 1997). Shamir and Howell (1999) argued that
charismatic leaders are more likely to emerge under conditions of turbulence and crisis than
under conditions of stability and continuity. Charismatic leadership is more likely to emerge
and be effective in dynamic organizational environments that require and enable the
introduction of new strategies, markets, products, and technologies. Charismatic leadership is
more likely to emerge and be effective when the tasks of organizational members are
challenging and complex, and require individual and group initiative, responsibility,
creativity and intense effort. Charismatic leadership is also more likely to emerge and be
effective when performance goals are ambiguous and extrinsic rewards cannot be strongly
linked to performance. Organizations with dominant boundary-spanning units will be more
receptive to transformational leadership than will be organizations with dominant technical
cores (Pawar & Eastman, 1997).
Organizational Structure
The primary structural variables are as follows:
1. Specialization: This is of two types—functional specialization, the extent to which
official duties are divided between discrete, identifiable functional areas; and role
specialization, the extent to which official duties are divided within discrete identifiable
positions (Child, 1972).
2. Standardization: The extent to which activities are subject to standard procedures
and rules (Child, 1972), and the proportion of jobs that are codified, or range of variation
allowed within jobs (Hage, 1965).
3. Formalization: The extent to which procedures, rules, and instructions are written
down (Hage, 1965).
4. Centralization: The extent to which the locus of authority to make decisions
affecting the organization is confined to the higher levels of the hierarchy (Child, 1972) or the
proportion of levels that participate in the decision making (Hage, 1965).
5. Configuration: A composite concept embracing various dimensions of the shape of
the organization. One such dimension vertical span, concerns the number of levels in the
organizational hierarchy (Child, 1972).
6. Stratification: Differences in income and prestige among jobs or the rate of
mobility between low and high-ranking jobs or status levels (Hage, 1965).
7. Span of control, which is a measure not just of direct supervision (total number of
subordinates as a ratio of total number of superiors) but also of total supervision (i.e. taking
into consideration the time spent by the supervisors and by the customer) (Ouchi & Dowing,
1974).
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Structural configurations. Burns and Stalker (1961) outlined two kinds of
organizational structures that represent the two polar extremities in terms of their ability to
adapt to environmental change. Mechanistic organizations are characterized by high
complexity, formalization, and centralization. They perform routine tasks, rely heavily on
programmed behaviors, and are relatively slow in responding to the unfamiliar. Organic
structures are relatively flexible and adaptive, with emphasis on lateral rather than on vertical
communication, influence based on expertise and knowledge rather than on authority of
position, loosely defined responsibilities rather than rigid job definitions, and emphasis on
exchanging information rather than on giving instructions..
Effect of organizational structure. Ivancevich and Donnelly (1975) found that
salespersons in flat organizations perceived more satisfaction and less anxiety stress than
salespersons in medium and tall sales groups. It was found that salespersons in flat
organizations were better performers than those in medium and tall organizations. Teachers
in flat organizations have higher job satisfaction than their counterparts in tall and medium
organizational types in three areas—community prestige, professional authority, and
participation in determining school goals (Carpenter, 1971). Organizational size has some
effect on the relative effectiveness of flat versus tall structures. For smaller organizations,
managerial satisfaction seems somewhat greater in flat rather than in tall organizations. For
larger companies this effect is reversed. The effects of organization structure on satisfactions
appear to vary with the type of psychological need being considered. A tall type of structure
seems especially advantageous in producing security and social need satisfactions, whereas a
flat structure has superiority in influencing self-actualization satisfactions (Porter & Lawler,
1964).
Transformational leadership and organizational structure. Burns and Stalker (1961)
defined organic structure to be the one that is appropriate to changing conditions that give
rise constantly to fresh problems and unforeseen requirements for action which cannot be
broken down or distributed automatically arising from the functional roles defined within a
hierarchical structure. Organic structures are more loosely structured, more flexible and
innovative and less specialized. They have decentralized decision-making processes, less
formalization and standardization, lateral rather than vertical communication, fewer
hierarchical distinctions, and a less strict division of labor. Shamir and Howell (1999)
proposed that charismatic leadership is more likely to emerge and be effective in organic
organizations than in mechanistic organizations. According to them organic organizations
impose fewer constraints on members' activities, and offer fewer cues as to the appropriate
behaviors. They enable and encourage the expression of individual behavior by both leaders
and potential followers. Thus they provide both a greater need and a greater scope for the
emergence of charismatic leaders who influence behaviors by frame-alignment, exemplary
behavior, appeal to shared values and identities and linking members' self-concepts to the
organization and its mission. Mechanistic organizations, in contrast, are "stronger"
psychological situations for leaders and members since they provide fewer opportunities for
organizational members to exercise discretion and suppress the expression of individual
differences by both leaders and followers. Exchange-based leadership, which relies on clear
specification of duties and rewards, is more relevant in mechanistic organizations. Some
linkages between transformational leadership and organizational structure can be understood
in terms of their amenability to change. A transformational leader serves as an independent
force in changing the makeup of the followers’ motive base (Burns, 1978) and an
organizational structure that is organic in nature is more appropriate for change (Burns &
Stalker, 1961). Hence, we had the following two hypotheses.
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Hypothesis 1(a). Transformational leadership would be negatively related to the
degree of formalization in an organization.
Hypothesis 1(b). Transformational leadership would be positively related to the
degree of decentralization in an organization.
Ethics and transformational leadership. Those who argue that transformational
leadership is unethical fail to distinguish between transformational and pseudo-
transformational leadership. Rather than being immoral, transformational leadership has
become a necessity in the post-industrial world of work. Self-aggrandizing pseudo-
transformational leaders can be branded as immoral. But truly transformational leaders, who
engage in the moral uplifting of their followers, who move them to share in the mutually
rewarding visions of success, who enable and empower them to convert the visions into
realities, should be applauded, not chastised (Bass & Steidlmeier, 1999). Charismatic
leadership is more likely to emerge and be effective when the organizational goals and
primary tasks are consistent with dominant social values, and offer both leader and followers
an opportunity for moral involvement (Shamir & Howell, 1999).
Values-Based Leadership
Burns (1978) claimed that moral leadership emerges from, and always returns to, the
fundamental wants and needs, aspirations and values, of the followers. It is a kind of
leadership that can produce social change that will satisfy followers’ authentic needs. Such
leadership is not to be confused with the too common political practice of pandering to the
base wishes of the lowest common denominator—promising whatever the masses think they
want, even if that might be inherently evil. Instead, the leaders must discern the true interests
of the public from their stated desires and learn to address the underlying needs that people as
a body are unable to articulate. An effective democratic leader must refine the public views in
a way that transcends the surface noise of pettiness, contradiction, and self-interest. All
values-based and effective leaders illuminate their followers’ better sides, revealing what is
good in them and thus ultimately giving then hope. In the end, the leader’s vision becomes
their vision because it is built on the foundation of their needs and aspirations (O’Toole,
1996: 9-10). Leaders appeal to the minds and hearts of their followers and the leadership goal
is to change the beliefs and behavior of the followers.
The leadership of change does not depend on the circumstances, but rather it depends
on the attitudes, values, and action of the leaders. To be an effective leader, one must become
a leader of leaders. In complex, democratic settings, effective leadership will entail the
factors and dimensions of vision, trust, listening, authenticity, integrity, hope, and especially,
addressing the true needs of the followers. Without these factors, the likelihood of
overcoming the ever-present resistance to change is minimal. If this is correct, what is
required to guide effective change is not contingency theory but, rather, a new philosophy of
leadership that is always and at all times focused on enlisting the hearts and minds of
followers through inclusion and participation. Such a philosophy must be rooted in the most
fundamental of moral principles—respect for people. In this realm of morality, there are no
contingencies. Values-based leadership, by definition, cannot be situational or contingent
(O’Toole, 1996: 11-12).
Evidence indicates that leaders who understand why change is resisted and are willing
to make personal investment required to overcome their resistance are likely to achieve the
goal they seek. Leaders overcome this chronic and inevitable pattern of resistance in only
one-way—by building an alternative system of belief and allowing others to adopt it as their
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own. That is the essence of values-based leadership. Value-based leadership is an attitude
about people, philosophy, and process. To overcome the resistance to change, one must be
willing, for starters, to change oneself. In essence, then, values-based leadership is unnatural
(O’Toole, 1996).
The following are some characteristics of values-based leadership:
1. Integrity: Leadership requires integrity. Integrity has at least two meanings relevant
to a discussion of leadership. It is synonymous with truth telling, honesty, and moral
behavior. It goes without saying that a true leader must behave with integrity in this sense by
being an honest and ethical individual, someone whose every word and deed is consistent. In
addition, the leader needs that related type of integrity that has to do with selfness, with the
integration of one’s personality. Integrity in this sense refers to the much-admired trait of
wholeness or completeness that is achieved by people who are said to have healthy self-
confidence and self-esteem. People with integrity know who they are. Their self-esteem
allows them to esteem and respect others. Such leaders’ ease with themselves allows others to
esteem and respect them. In spite of odds, they never lose sight of their goals or compromise
on their principles. They are simultaneously principled and pragmatic. The long- term courses
they adopt are based on what is morally right. They are pragmatic, as they are willing to lose
on this or that immediate issue because they would not be distracted from the ultimate
objective. Successful completion of one’s short-term mission is not the clearest sign of
effective leadership, but lifelong consistency of high moral purpose is. Values-based
leadership also manifests itself in its assertion of a natural right of all individuals to pursue
happiness (O’Toole, 1996: 23-27).
2. Vision: The values-based leadership is based on an inspiring vision. The only
course for the leader is to build a vision that the followers are able to adopt as their own
because it is their own. In the end, the leader’s vision becomes the vision of the followers
because it is built on their needs and aspirations. Leadership is teaching and dedicating lives
to finding ways to communicate their visions to their followers, recognizing that no one
understands the need for change the first time it is presented (O’Toole, 1996).
3. Trust: Values-based leaders inspire trust and hope in their followers, who in turn
become encouraged to serve, to sacrifice, to persevere, and to lead change. They win the
loyalty of the followers through deeds and by example. The trust in the leaders also grows out
of their manifest integrity; their ability to lead emanating from their willingness to serve and
the leader’s manifest respect for the followers (O’Toole, 1996: 27-29).
4. Listening: Values-based and effective leaders listen to their followers because they
respect them and because they honestly believe that, the welfare of the followers is the end of
leadership. They encourage dissenting opinion among their closest advisers. While values-
based leaders listen to the opinion of the people they serve, they are not prisoners of public
opinion (O’Toole, 1996: 29-31).
5. Respect for followers: The sine qua non of morality is respect for people. Effective
leadership of change usually begins with commitment by leaders to the moral principles of
respect for the followers. Those who succeed at brining about effective and moral change
believe in and act on the inherent dignity of those they lead—in particular, in their natural,
human capacity to reason. In bringing about change, these leaders of leaders include the
people affected in the change process. All employees have certain inalienable rights,
particularly that all are entitled to be treated with respect and as ends and not means
(O’Toole, 1996: 31-34).
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6. Clear thinking: The leaders must be clear about their own beliefs. They must have
thought through their assumptions about human nature, the role of the organization, the
measurement of performance, and so on. They listen to the needs, ideas, and aspirations of
their followers, and then, within the context of their well-developed systems of belief, they
respond to these in the appropriate fashion. That is why leaders must know their own minds.
That is why leadership requires ideas (O’Toole, 1996).
7. Inclusion: Values-based leadership requires full inclusion of followers. Inclusive
leaders enable others to lead by sharing information, by fostering a sense of community, and
by creating a consistent system of rewards, structure, process, and communication. They are
committed to a principle of opportunity, giving all followers the chance to contribute to the
organization (O’Toole, 1996).
O’Toole (1996: 34-36) argued that leaders need not be saint-like in order to be
effective. While the leader’s relationship with the follower is a values-based one, it is not
essential that leaders should be Christ-like in their private lives. The morality of their
leadership is rooted in the goals they pursue and the nature of their relationship with those
they serve.
Values-based leaders grant ample authority to their subordinates, and lead by example
rather than power, manipulation, or coercion. They believe in the ideas of liberty, equality,
and natural justice. Such leaders are ambitious; but they are ambitious in the cause of
idealism. They bring about change by pursuing moral ends that their followers would
ultimately adopt as their own, ends that are derived from the real needs of followers. Leaders
must always keep faith with their followers; they must never lie to their followers or break
the laws they are charged with holding. In all dimensions, their public lives must meet the
highest standards of morality. The standard of excellence for a values-based leader is the two-
fold ability to lead change both morally and effectively. They serve not to aggrandize their
personal power but instead to realize the needs and the aspirations of their followers. Promise
keeping, service, and faithfulness—these are moral principles. Values-based leadership is
founded on a few clear, inviolable moral principles.
Transformational leadership and values-based leadership. Transformational leadership
occurs when one or more persons engage with others in such a way that leaders and followers
raise one other to higher levels of motivation and morality (Burns, 1978: 20). Various names
are used for such leadership, some of them derisory: elevating, mobilizing, inspiring,
exalting, uplifting, preaching, exhorting, and evangelizing. The leader’s relationship with the
follower can be moralistic, of course. However, transformational leadership ultimately
becomes moral in that it raises the level of human conduct and ethical aspiration of both the
leader and the led, and thus it has a transforming effect on both. We therefore had:
Hypothesis 2. Transformational leadership would be positively related to values-based
leadership.
Values-based leadership and organizational structure. Values-based leadership can
produce social change that will satisfy followers’ authentic needs. Such kind of leadership
can effect change in the beliefs and behavior of the followers. The leader needs to keep
information flowing back and forth rather than to give decisive commands to do this and that.
In a practical, business sense, values-based leadership provides for internal, strategic unity
while at the same time encouraging independent entrepreneurial initiative. The kind of
organizational structure that is appropriate to changing conditions is the organic structure
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(Burns & Stalker, 1961). Such structures have decentralized decision-making processes and
less formalization. Hence, we had the following two hypotheses.
Hypothesis 3(a). Values-based leadership would be negatively related to the degree of
formalization in an organization.
Hypothesis 3(b). Values-based leadership would be positively related to the degree of
decentralization in an organization.
Transformational leadership, organizational structure, and values-based leadership.
Various studies relate transformational leadership to their context. According to such views,
charismatic leadership is not equally applicable to all situations. Dynamic organizational
environments are more conducive for charismatic leadership. These environments are
supported by organizations that are organic in structure (Burns & Stalker, 1961). However,
the facilitating structural factors are themselves not enough to enhance transformational
leadership. Environmental factors being conducive has to first result in values-based
leadership, which in turn could enhance transformational leadership. Therefore:
Hypothesis 4(a). Values-based leadership would mediate the relationship between the
degree of formalization in an organization and transformational leadership.
Hypothesis 4(b). Values-based leadership would mediate the relationship between the
degree of decentralization in an organization and transformational leadership.
Methods
The data for this study was collected from a leading software consulting firm in India.
The organization was involved in executing innovative projects for over 800 clients across 50
countries. It had around 60,000 person years of experience in providing end-to-end solutions
in diverse business areas and technology domains. The organization had around 14,000
employees.
The sample size of the study was 100. The sample consisted of 67 males and 33
females. The designations of the respondents were ASE Trainee, ASE, or Project leaders
(PL). Their work experience ranged from 1 year to 5 years. A large majority was, however,
with work experience between 1 and 3 years, with only a small number of people in the
sample beyond this range.
Respondents answered questions on transformational leadership and values-based
leadership of their leaders, and the degree of formalization and centralization in their
organization. Transformational leadership was measured by the 20-items taken from the
Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Bass & Avolio, 1995). Four items were used to
measure each of the five dimensions of transformational leadership—idealized influence
(attributed), idealized influence (behavior), inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation
and individualized consideration.
To measure the two dimensions of organizational structure—formalization and
decentralization—the method enumerated by Robbins (1990) was used. We chose this
method as it measures the two relevant dimensions of formalization and decentralization
separately. Seven items were used to measure formalization. The response to the first item in
this set of seven items was recorded on a 4-point scale, while a 5-point scale was used for the
other items. Therefore, the response to the first item was converted into a 5-point scale by
multiplying by 5/4. Similarly, seven items were used to measure decentralization.
9
We developed a scale for values-based leadership using the characteristics
enumerated by O’Toole (1996). Seven dimensions of values-based leadership were identified
and 20 items were developed for these dimensions. The items are included in the Appendix.
Respondents were asked to answer these items by judging the extent to which they agreed
with each statement with respect to their manager (their immediate supervisor). Responses
were recorded on a 5-point scale: 0=Not at all; 1=Slightly agree; 2=Somewhat agree;
3=Fairly agree; 4=Completely agree. The Cronbach Alpha for the scale was 0.98. Therefore,
the scale for values-based leadership was not broken down into dimensions and all the items
were considered to constitute a single dimension.
Results
Table 1 presents the means, standard deviations, Cronbach Alphas, and correlations
between all variables in the study. All the five dimensions of transformational leadership—
idealized influence (attributed), idealized influence (behavior), inspirational motivation,
intellectual stimulation and individualized consideration were positively related to
formalization. Our hypothesis 1(a) was thus not supported. The four transformational
leadership dimensions other than inspirational motivation were significantly positively
related to decentralization, thus supporting hypothesis 1(b). Values-based leadership was
significantly positively related to all the five transformational leadership dimensions thus
supporting hypothesis 2. Values-based leadership was also significantly positively related to
both dimensions of organizational structure. Thus hypothesis 3(b) was supported while
hypothesis 3(a) was not supported.
Insert Table 1 here
Partial correlations controlling for values-based leadership are given in Table 2. The
positive and significant relationships that existed between transformational leadership and
organizational structure previously ceased to exist. Thus, hypotheses 4(a) and 4(b) were
supported.
Insert Table 2 here
Discussion
Transformational leadership is significantly positively related to decentralization. The
implication of this finding is that transformational leadership is more likely to emerge within
the context of decentralized organizational structures. Studies have shown the dependence of
transformational leadership on contextual factors. According to Shamir and Howell (1999),
charismatic leadership is more likely to emerge and be effective in organic organizations than
in mechanistic organizations. Organic organizations are characterized by decentralized
structures. Thus, this finding is in agreement with what Shamir and Howell proposed. A
decentralized structure gives greater flexibility to member’s activities, and enables and
encourages the expression of individual behavior by both leaders and potential followers.
Thus, it is more conducive to the emergence of transformational leadership.
Contrary to what we hypothesized, results suggest that transformational leadership is
positively related to formalization. A possible explanation for this relationship is that the
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organization that was studied might have had a peculiar feature. The work of employees in
the organization was centered on specific projects in which they were involved. They were
made part of a certain project team and there onwards they worked for that project. These
teams were usually small depending on the size of the project. The employees that constituted
our sample generally regarded the project leaders as their leaders. On the other hand, since
the organization that was studied is a large organization, there are rules that are formed
centrally and that govern the functioning of the employees. Thus, the followers may not
attribute formalization in the organization to their leaders. In addition, these teams function
like a unit and they have a lot of autonomy. Therefore, while they may perceive the
organization to have a formalized structure, they may still regard their leader as
transformational.
Another possible explanation for this comes from the nature of the software industry.
A high level of abstractness characterizes the work in this industry. The task of developing
software entails a lot of instructions and guidelines. These instructions and guidelines are
generally codified in writing. Thus, the employees may associate formalization with these
written instructions. Hence, more of these instructions would always be welcome for the
employees. Thus, they may associate a transformational leader with high level of
formalization.
Values-based leadership is positively related to both decentralization and
formalization. Since there is a high positive correlation between values-based leadership and
transformational leadership, the relationship between values-based leadership and
organizational structure variables shows the same pattern as that of transformational
leadership and structure variables. The positive relationship between values-based leadership
and transformational leadership opens another dimension of leadership for managers to
consider. Working on some aspects that constitute values-based leadership can enhance the
development of transformational leadership. Managers could increase their transformational
leadership capabilities by being truthful and honest. Being values-based leaders requires that
the leaders have a willingness to serve and do not lose sight of their goals or compromise on
their principles.
Findings show that once the effect of values-based leadership is removed,
transformational leadership is no longer related to either of the structure variables. The
implication of the finding is that a decentralized structure would not directly enhance
transformational leadership; decentralization would enhance values-based leadership, which
in turn would enhance transformational leadership. This is a significant finding from the point
of view of future research and highlights the importance of a values-based approach to
transforming organizations and individuals.
Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research
The questionnaire for structure that was used in this study was possibly inadequate.
The questions perhaps did not capture the two dimensions of formalization and
decentralization comprehensively. A more comprehensive questionnaire for measuring
formalization and decentralization could further our understanding of their relationship with
leadership. Another limitation of the study is that the two dimensions of structure that were
studied are probably not adequate to capture organizational structure comprehensively.
Therefore, a better understanding of the relationship between structure and transformational
leadership can be had by studying the entire range of organizational structure variables that
define an organization to be mechanistic or organic.
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A significant finding of the study is the one relating to the role played by values-based
leadership in the relationship between transformational leadership and organizational
structure. This finding is significant since most of the previous studies regarding
transformational leadership ignored values-based leadership. According to this study, there is
a high positive correlation between values-based leadership and transformational leadership,
and relationship between transformational leadership and structural variables might cease to
exist if values-based approach is missing. Thus, future studies can reexamine some of the
findings about transformational leadership by studying the contribution of values-based
leadership in those relationships.
Conclusion
In the new economy scenario of today, leadership is taking wider and newer
dimensions than ever before. Leadership is no longer the province of the anointed few. In the
digital organization, everyone is a leader, charged with creating an environment for collective
gain and success, and the mark of a leader would be to create other leaders within the
organization—disciples, of a sort, who are empowered to act. This is also the essence of
transformational leadership. The significance of transformational leadership has increased
manifold in the wake of these changes. The e-organizations are also more organic in nature.
Understanding the true nature of relationship between organizational structure and
transformational leadership would help the organizations meet their needs of right structure
and right leadership. This study was an attempt to empirically study how leadership is related
to the nature of organizational structures. Earlier studies have emphasized that an organic
structure was closer to the emergence and effectiveness of transformational leadership. This
study took these ideas further by considering two dimensions of an organic structure and
examining the previously mentioned relationships. While the environment in which the
organizations operate today may have undergone rapid and significant changes, the
importance of values-based leadership has only increased. True leadership cannot be said to
exist if it is not values-based and ethical in character. Thus, organizations must understand
that the effectiveness of transformational leadership exists only so long as it is also values-
based.
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References
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14
Appendix
Items for Measuring Values-Based Leadership
Your leader
1. Is truthful, honest, and displays moral behavior.
2. Has healthy self-confidence and self-esteem.
3. Does not lose sight of his or her goals or compromise on his or her principles.
4. Is pragmatic i.e. is willing to lose on this or that immediate issue because he or she would
not be distracted from the ultimate objective.
5. Has an inspiring vision.
6. Finds ways to communicate his or her vision to his or her followers.
7. Inspires trust and hope in his or her followers.
8. Has the loyalty of the followers.
9. Has a willingness to serve.
10. Listens to his or her followers.
11. Encourages dissenting opinion among his or her closest advisers.
12. Is committed to the moral principle of respect for the followers.
13. Includes the people affected in the change process.
14. Is clear about his or her own beliefs e.g. assumptions about human nature, the role of the
organization, the measurement of performance, and so on.
15. Listens to the needs, ideas, and aspirations of his or her followers and responds to them
within the context of his or her well-developed systems of belief in the appropriate
fashion.
16. Has ideas.
17. Shares information with his or her followers.
18. Fosters a sense of community.
19. Creates a consistent system of rewards, structure, process, and communication.
20. Is committed to a principle of opportunity, giving all followers the chance to make a
contribution to the organization.
15
Table 1
Means, Standard Deviations, Cronbach Alphas, and Correlations among variables Studied
a
N = 100 M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1. Idealized Influence (Attributed) 2.62 .83 (.87)
2. Idealized Influence (Behavior) 2.44 .81 ***.88 (.83)
3. Inspirational Motivation 2.64 .81 ***.87 ***.86 (.88)
4. Intellectual Stimulation 2.60 .79 ***.87 ***.84 ***.88 (.86)
5. Individualized Consideration 2.46 .81 ***.86 ***.80 ***.81 ***.86 (.82)
6. Formalization 3.59 .44 *.24 †.19 *.23 *.20 *.20 (.61)
7. Decentralization 3.38 .57 **.29 **.27 .16 *.21 **.26 **.32 (.76)
8. Values-Based Leadership 2.61 .81 ***.88 ***.87 ***.88 ***.84 ***.80 **.32 ***.33 (.98)
a
Cronbach alpha is in parentheses along diagonal.
† = p < .10. * = p < .05. ** = p < .01. *** = p < .001.
16
Table 2
Partial Correlations, Controlling for Values-Based Leadership
N = 100 1 2 3 4 5 6
1. Idealized Influence (Attributed)
2. Idealized Influence (Behavior) ***.50
3. Inspirational Motivation ***.41 ***.41
4. Intellectual Stimulation ***.50 ***.40 ***.53
5. Individualized Consideration ***.53 ***.36 ***.35 ***.58
6. Formalization -.10 †-.19 -.11 -.13 -.10
7. Decentralization -.01 -.04 **-.29 -.12 -.01 *.24
† = p < .10. * = p < .05. ** = p < .01. *** = p < .001.
