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Street racing and stunt driving in Ontario, Canada: Results of a web-based survey of car and racing enthusiasts
... According to Cohen (1988), the conventional interpretation for behavioral sciences is that an absolute value of r = 0.10 is a small effect size, a value of r = 0.30 is considered medium and r = 0.50 represents a large effect size. For comparative studies (i.e., O'Brien & Gormley, 2013;Vingilis et al., 2013) we extracted the means, standard deviations and sample sizes from each group (i.e., O'Brien & Gormley, 2013), or the means, sample sizes and independent t-test value (i.e., Vingilis et al., 2013) and used them to estimate the effect sizes in r (Borenstein, Hedges, Higgins, & Rothstein, 2009). Each independent sample was used as a unique study, thus as the unit of analysis. ...
... According to Cohen (1988), the conventional interpretation for behavioral sciences is that an absolute value of r = 0.10 is a small effect size, a value of r = 0.30 is considered medium and r = 0.50 represents a large effect size. For comparative studies (i.e., O'Brien & Gormley, 2013;Vingilis et al., 2013) we extracted the means, standard deviations and sample sizes from each group (i.e., O'Brien & Gormley, 2013), or the means, sample sizes and independent t-test value (i.e., Vingilis et al., 2013) and used them to estimate the effect sizes in r (Borenstein, Hedges, Higgins, & Rothstein, 2009). Each independent sample was used as a unique study, thus as the unit of analysis. ...
... Moreover, the sample types are also varied, and included young drivers (k = 12), people from the general population (k = 11), or professional drivers (k = 4). With few exceptions of samples skewed towards male participants (i.e., Martha & Delhomme, 2014;Vingilis et al., 2013;Yıldırım-Yenier, Vingilis, Wiesenthal, Mann, & Seeley, 2016), both males and females were represented in a balanced way across samples of young drivers and general population. But the studies on professional drivers included 100% male participants (i.e., Öz, Özkan, & Lajunen, 2010;Sümer, 2003). ...
Introduction:
The purpose of this review was to identify the most influential personality predictors of speeding.
Method:
Thus, this study analyzed the associations of Anger-Aggression and Impulsive-Sensation Seeking with Speeding. Research studies included in online databases and papers identified in previous reviews were considered for inclusion.
Results:
Using a random effects model, we found a small but significant effect for the relation between Anger-Aggression and Speeding (r = 0.12 [0.06-0.18],Z = 3.85,p < 0.001). We identified a significantly stronger effect for the relation between Impulsive-Sensation Seeking and Speeding, but still of low magnitude (r = 0.23 [0.16-0.29],Z = 6.54,p < 0.001). Moderator analysis revealed only one significant moderator: driver type. Namely, for professional drivers, the relation with Speeding was non-significant for both predictors (r = -0.004, p = 0.958 for Impulsive-Sensation Seeking and r = 0.02, p = 0.720 for Anger-Aggression, respectively) and significantly smaller than the associations for general population and young drivers.
Conclusions:
Overall, our results confirm Speeding's associations with both hypothesized most important predictors, but at a low magnitude.
... Despite the popularity of these websites, research on these high risk driving videos is limited. In a review article on YouTube and risky driving, Vingilis et al. (2017) found numerous experimental, correlational and longitudinal media studies indicating that exposure to mass media that promotes high risk driving is associated with risky driving behavioural intentions or behaviours (e.g., Beullens, Roe & Van den Bulck, 2008, 2011Deng, Chan, Wu & Wang, 2015;Fischer et al., 2009;Fischer, Greitemeyer, Kastenmüller, Vogrincic, & Sauer, 2011;Huesmann & Taylor, 2006;Hull, Draghici, & Sargent, 2012;Vingilis et al., 2013). Indeed, Vingilis et al. (2017) suggested that YouTube offers the perfect platform for influencing cognitions and attitudes, and modelling high risk driving behaviours through social learning theory. ...
... Additionally, positive rewards for producing and uploading risky driving videos could include financial rewards for videos with high viewership, in addition to psychological rewards, such as status and notoriety (Ferchaud, Grzeslo, Orme & LaGroue, 2018;Kim, 2012;Vingilis et al., 2017). Importantly, risky driving activities, such as street racing and stunt driving, have been associated with increased risk of driving offences and collisions (Vingilis et al., 2013;Wickens et al., 2017). ...
... Macnamera (2005) describes media content analysis as a scientific method to describe, code, and categorize information to identify key themes and patterns. Following the guidelines for content analysis established by Neuendorf (2002) and based on existing knowledge of street racing drivers and their behaviours (Leal, Watson, & King, 2007;Leal & Watson, 2011;Vingilis et al., 2009Vingilis et al., , 2013, a preliminary coding matrix was developed a priori to include primary categories such as age and sex of driver or bystander, time of day, type of road, etc., as well as codes standard to YouTube videos content analyses (i.e., number of likes, dislikes, and subscribers) (Briones, Nan, Madden & Waks, 2012;Caroll et al., 2013). A few additional coding categories were added after pilot-testing the matrix (Neuendorf, 2002), including additional types of stunts and consequences. ...
Objective
YouTube is a highly popular social medium that includes over a billion videos covering a wide range of topics, including high risk driving behaviours. Despite the popularity of these websites, published content analyses of high risk driving videos have been limited. Yet, research suggests that exposure to other media glorifying high risk driving is associated with risky driving behavioural intentions and behaviours (e.g., Fischer et al., 2011). This study aims to provide a snapshot of YouTube videos to: 1) describe the content of a sample of YouTube high risk driving videos, focusing on racing and stunts and 2) summarize the videos in relation to the video’s form characteristics, such as number of views, “likes” and “dislikes” by YouTube viewers.
Methods
Search procedures chose the first thirty videos that appeared on a university computer, on September 23, 2015 for a final sample of 65 videos: 25 for street racing, 21 for stunt driving, and 18 for ghost riding. Two primary researchers used an iterative approach to develop and refine definitions for the coding of variables in which a quantitative research matrix was developed for analysis of risky driving YouTube videos. They independently coded each video for content and inter-rater reliability was assessed.
Results
Street racing videos provided the highest median number of views, viewer comments, subscribers, viewer “likes”, and “dislikes” than both stunt driving and ghost riding videos. Street racing, stunt driving and ghost riding exhibited differing viewing patterns and possibly different types of viewers. A range of risky driving activities were portrayed, mostly by young men. Regardless of search term, the majority of sampled videos showed no consequences (69.8%). Bystanders were rarely at safe distances. Any comments made in the videos were most often instructions to the driver, passenger, or the audience. If an opinion was stated it was usually a positive comment about the driving or the nature of the event.
Discussion and Conclusions
This study is the first examination of YouTube risky driving videos through a content analysis. The analyses clearly show high risk driving and other risk-taking behaviours in the sampled videos. Results of the study support the need for educational interventions and highlight the need for further research to examine the potential impact of social media on driving attitudes and behaviours.
... Do mesmo modo, na pesquisa de Maxwell, Grant e Lipkin (2005), os resultados indicaram que os motoristas considerados com maiores níveis de raiva foram mais propensos a se envolver em atos agressivos, cometer violações, como excesso de velocidade, e seguir, mesmo quando o sinal estava vermelho. Vingilis et al. (2013) encontraram que os motoristas que gostam de exceder a velocidade e praticam manobras/ acrobacias apresentaram diferenças significativas com maiores médias em busca por emoção, competitividade, agressividade na direção, tendência de assumir riscos e infrações de trânsito. ...
... Com base nos resultados encontrados nos estudos, foi possível verificar que alguns traços de personalidade apresentaram relações com infrações de trânsito, violações e comportamentos de risco na direção. Dentre eles, altos escores em extroversão, busca por emoção, agressividade, hostilidade, ausência de normas, impulsividade, maior sensibilidade à recompensa, raiva, estresse e tendência em assumir riscos (Castellà & Pérez, 2004;Constantinou et al., 2011;Dahlen et al., 2012;Delhomme et al., 2012;Eensoo et al., 2007;Falco et al., 2013;Ge et al., 2014;Lev et al., 2008;Li et al., 2014;Lucidi Mallia, Lazuras, & Violani, 2014;Lucidi et al., 2010;Maxwell Grant, & Lipkin, 2005;Pearson et al., 2013;Renner & Anderle, 2000;Stephens & Ohtsuka, 2014;Oltedal & Rundmo, 2006;Ulleberg, 2001;Ulleberg & Rundmo, 2003;Vingilis et al., 2013), além de níveis baixos de altruísmo, de abertura e socialização (Eensoo et al., 2007;Lev et al., 2008;Ulleberg, 2001). ...
The present study reviewed publications on driver personality assessments published between 2000-2015, using the descriptors personality and traffic or traffic accidents or traffic violations in the CAPES database. Searches yielded 141 matches, of which 108 did not meet the established inclusion criteria or were duplicates. The remaining 33 studies were inspected. Overall results revealed that several personality traits correlated positively to traffic violations and unsafe driving, including extraversion, sensation-seeking, aggressiveness, hostility, non-conformity, impulsivity, anger, stress and risk-proneness. Further research on the role of personality in traffic psychology is encouraged, and the findings are discussed in light of the implications of adopting mandatory personality assessment as a standard procedure in obtaining or renewing driver licenses in Brazil
... Data provided in internet surveys are at least as good in quality as those provided by traditional methods (Gosling, Vazire, Srivastava, & John, 2004). Web-based survey techniques have been similarly used in previous studies to assess driving behavior (Horswill, Waylen, & Tofield, 2004;Ivers, et al., 2009;Vingilis, et al., 2013). ...
... The latent driver characteristics scales developed by this study are useful not only for speed selection studies, but also for other studies about driving behaviors. These scales could enable researchers to find interactions between demographic characteristics and latent factors that promote other risky driving behaviors (such as in Ivers, et al., 2009;Vingilis, et al., 2013). It should be noted that while other questionnaires ask drivers to confess their own driving misdemeanors, which may put them in an uncomfortable position, the terminology of the questionnaire used in this study (specifically regarding risky driving behaviors) is more indirect yet nonetheless revealing, thereby avoids creating a spotlight that alienates the participants. ...
The diversity of drivers’ speed selection in free flow conditions has been assumed to originate from various human factors, mainly differences in driver characteristics and preferences. This study uses a stated-preference web-based survey with a sample of 290 participants to investigate the diversity of speed selection in relations to driver characteristics. The survey included newly developed scales of estimating driving risks and estimating personal difficulty of performing vehicle-related technical tasks. Also included were items on performing spatial tasks, and drivers’ own self-assessments. The analysis of the survey results revealed that newly developed latent driver characteristics, such as risk awareness and technical aversion, were found to strongly affect individual drivers’ speed selection in a daily trip - Daily Speed Selection [DSS]. The perceived speed of the average driver, or Average Driver Perception [ADP], also had a significant effect on drivers’ own speed selection. In addition, some latent characteristics were found to have stronger effects in certain demographic groups. Implications for further speed-selection researches and road safety policies are discussed.
... Person factors 3.1.1. High risk and/or vulnerable groups Recent news stories have suggested that speeding and stunt driving, common behaviours among young males (Vingilis et al., 2013;Wiesenthal and Singhal, 2012), have been occurring with greater frequency during COVID-19 in jurisdictions internationally (Australian Road Safety Foundation, 2020;BBC, 2020;Bellon, 2020;Bergal, 2020;City News, 2020;Dickinson, 2020), as well as speeding-related collisions (Paparella, 2020;Thompson, 2020). Concurrently, many social media video posts with titles such as "Covid-19 INFECTS the streets", "Covid can't shut this down!", ...
In March 2020, the World Health Organization declared COVID-19 a world-wide pandemic. Countries introduced public health measures to contain and reduce its spread. These measures included closures of educational institutions, non-essential businesses, events and activities, as well as working from and staying at home requirements. These measures have led to an economic downturn of unprecedented proportions. Generally, as economic activity declines, travel decreases and drivers are exposed to a lower risk of collisions. However, research on previous economic downturns suggests economic downturns differentially affect driver behaviours and situations. COVID-19 pandemic effects on road safety are currently unknown. However, preliminary information on factors such as the increased stress and anxiety brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic, more “free” (idle) time, increased consumption of alcohol and drugs, and greater opportunities for speeding and stunt driving, might well have the opposite effect on road safety. Using an interactionist model we identify research questions for researchers to consider on potential person and situation factors associated with COVID-19 that could affect road safety during and after the pandemic. Collaborative efforts by researchers, and public and private sectors will be needed to gather data and develop road safety strategies in relation to the new reality of COVID-19.
... Nevertheless it is important to use them with caution because of potential pitfalls such as sample framework availability and uncertainty regarding who is answering the survey, deriving in potential biases. However, the advantages currently outweigh the disadvantages (Roztocki and Morgan, 2002;Converse et al., 2008;Kaplan et al., 2012;Vingilis et al., 2013). Two major concerns remain unresolved: low response rates and bias in the sample selection. ...
This paper presents a surveying method developed and tested in several data collection campaigns for different purposes in the field of urban mobility. The method combines the advantages of personal intercept interviews and online questionnaires to meet the basic requirements of a survey: good data quality, representativeness and minimal costs. Five application case studies in European cities are presented to evaluate and demonstrate the validity of the method and to study people’s willingness to complete a survey. The successful application of the method in a variety of research projects proves its validity for survey campaigns to assess different transport policies. The results evidence the validity of the methodology. The response rates obtained were quite high compared with merely online surveys – between 14 and 22% – and the data collected met the quality requirements for each research project where the method was applied. The method combines low cost, reliability and high response rates and therefore clearly contributes to mobility survey performance and sampling practices in transport research.
... 10 Novice drivers are most likely to indulge in risk-taking adventures and feel so excited to drive the vehicle as this enhance the chances of RTAs. Studies by Hatfield et al. 11 and Vingilis et al. 12 shows that high levels of thrill and adventure seeking can be associated with the persons who need to seek unusual experiences through exciting and risk-taking activities like speeding, overtaking. ...
Background
Sensation Seeking is one of the complex behaviors among novice drivers, which leads to road traffic injuries. Globally, road traffic crashes are a leading cause of death among young people, the main cause of death among those who fall in the age group of 15–29 years. Road traffic injuries are currently estimated to be the ninth leading cause of death across all age groups globally and are predicted to become the seventh leading cause of death by 2030. As per the World Health Organization (WHO) report, low and middle-income countries lose approximately 3% of GDP as a result of road traffic crashes.
Objective
To assess the sensation-seeking behavior among novice drivers in Udupi Taluk.
Methodology
The cross-sectional study was conducted to assess the sensation-seeking behavior among novice drivers with an estimated sample size of 150. The study participants were selected by using the Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS) form V questionnaire developed by Zuckerman. The questionnaire includes 40 questions which are divided into four sub-scales which include boredom susceptibility, disinhibition, experience-seeking, thrill and adventure-seeking. Each sub-scale contains ten items and scoring is given with two options as High and Low. Data collected is analyzed by using Microsoft Excel, SPSS and presented as descriptives i.e., frequency and percentage.
Results
The results were examined according to the levels of sensation seeking scale. Sensation seeking for boredom susceptibility is 22.3% (High), disinhibition is 27.27% (High), experience seeking is 28.6% (High), thrill and adventure-seeking is 60.6% (High). Cross-tabulating the questions with age, gender, education was statistically significant (p < 0.05) associated with risky driving behavior among novice drivers.
Conclusion
Thus, this study reveals that most of the participants are showing a high percentage of thrill and adventure-seeking compared to the remaining three sub-scales, which calls for localized intervention targeting it.
... Actually most of these issues have been resolved and the advantages have won over the disadvantages, so webbased surveys are increasingly used (Converse et al. 2008;Kaplan et al. 2012;Vingilis et al. 2013). Response rates in online survey will increase as the percentage of 'digital natives' in the population is higher (Couper 2008;Couper and Miller 2008) and meanwhile, LaRose and Tsai (2014) recommend combining traditional modes (mail, phone, faceto-face) with new ones. ...
This paper summarizes the discussions held during an in-depth six-hour workshop on the challenges of using web for transport surveys. Survey response rates are decreasing worldwide and household travel surveys follow the same trend. To reduce respondent burden and encourage respondents to complete the survey, it may be helpful to improve the questionnaire design or to use web-based surveys. This new media presents some advantages for surveyors and respondents (less costly, always available, etc.), but also some methodological limits, which should be considered (selection bias, data comparability, etc.). The aim of the workshop was to present good practices for implementing web-based surveys. It also summarizes discussions on conditions under which using the web can increase survey data quality. This is a particularly relevant issue, when several media are combined to recruit respondents and collect travel data.
... However web-based surveys also involve potential bias and limitations due to incomplete or unacceptable responses, lack of online experience/expertise by the respondents, non-response rate, multiple submissions, unclear instructions on how to answer, impersonal, possibility that an unintended person will reply, and data security and integrity (Evans and Mathur, 2005). However web-based surveys have more advantages than disadvantages (Converse et al., 2008;Kaplan et al., 2012;Roztocki and Morgan, 2002;Vingilis et al., 2013). Respondents were recruited by handing out flyers with a personal access code and all the information required to enter the survey: website address, personal password for completing the survey, information about the project and the option of entering a draw for a gift voucher if the survey was completed. ...
The disutility of transfers in multimodal public transport goes beyond the additional walking and waiting times. Although the magnitude of this pure transfer penalty has been proven to be an essential element in the structural design of public transport lines, the scarce available research reveals a wide range of values. The aim of this paper is to develop and apply a framework to estimate the value perceived and assigned by commuters to this penalty. This framework includes all the other elements considered by users in the case of a trip involving (potential) transfers, in order to obtain the impact of each one. The framework is based on the discrete choices paradigm and applied to data collected in Madrid, Spain. The results show that the pure transfer penalty is comparable to a 15.2-17.7 equivalent increase in in-vehicle minutes; i.e. longer trips may be preferred to faster alternatives with transfers, even if the additional walking and waiting times are zero. As well as the pure transfer penalty, the model also captures the effects of habit, crowding, walking, waiting and in-vehicle times, information, and the additional effect of intermodality on transfers.
... Forty present of the studies do compare the information with data sources of some sort. Nine studies compare the information to police records Arthur Jr et al., 2005;Boufous et al., 2010a;Hoggarth et al., 2009;Hunter et al., 1993;Laapotti et al., 2001;Ross et al., 2012;Vingilis et al., 2013). Two studies compare information from self-reports to insurance records (Dalziel & Job, 1997;Salminen et al., 2009). ...
The main idea behind the self-reporting of accidents is to ask people about their traffic accidents and gain knowledge on these accidents as a supplement to the official records kept by police and/or hospitals. The ways of getting information from people can vary; people may be asked to fill out written questionnaires (either online or paper-based), interviews may be performed (either face-to-face or via telephone) and people may be asked to report their accident via an app on their mobile device. The method for gaining self-reported information thus varies greatly – and so does the information that people are asked to give. In most studies, only the number of accidents in which the respondent was involved is relevant for the researcher. In other studies, respondents are asked about possible accident causation factors, and some studies deal with respondents’ recall of the accident details. In other words, self-reporting can have many different aims depending on the research question that is being investigated.
... Li, Braver, & Chen, 2003;Mata, Josef, & Hertwig, 2016;Miller, Spicer, & Levy, 1999). Some individuals plainly do not follow this pattern however (Gotham et al., 2003;Vingilis et al., 2013), and in the case of risky driving, this is despite repeated arrests, punishing sanctions and the danger of injury. The reasons why this occurs are uncertain -a gap that contributes to the heterogeneity problem in the risky driving population (Nochajski & Stasiewicz, 2006;Vassallo, Lahausse, & Edwards, 2016). ...
Background We previously reported that in traffic offenders aged 19–39 years, different risky driving profiles were associated with unique personality, cognitive, and neurobiological characteristics. However, many of these characteristics evolve significantly with age. Secondary analysis on these data explored whether the characteristics associated with different risky driving profiles were influenced by driver age. Methods Data (N = 138) on three driving groups (i.e., alcohol impaired [DWI], reckless [SPEED], and impaired and reckless [MIXED]), and a low-risk control group [CTL] were stratified by age (younger: 19–28; older: 29–39). Younger and older drivers of each risky driving group were compared to their age-matched CTLs on driving simulation, personality, and cognitive control. Results In DWI, elevated behavioural disinhibition was observed only in older drivers. In MIXED, elevated reward sensitivity and risky driving behaviour were seen only in older drivers. In SPEED, greater risky driving and lower agreeableness personality were only seen in young drivers, while elevated sensation seeking and risk taking were observed only in older drivers. Discussion Unique processes predominate in distinct forms of risky driving behaviour at different developmental stages. More effective prevention strategies may require intervention tailoring based on both risky driving preference and age.
... year old males with incomes of $25,000-$75,000, with at least a high school education who offered frequent advice on or information about how to repair or modify automobiles (YouTube 2011). 9 Young men also report engaging in the most risky driving behaviours, such as speeding, no seatbelt use, stunt driving, driving after drinking, and leaving less distance between their and other vehicles, particularly when driving with peer passengers compared to older cohorts (Petridou et al. 1997;Simons-Morton et al. 2005;Vingilis and Wilk 2010;Vingilis et al. 2013b). Thus, the cohort of individuals who are most likely to engage in risky driving are also the ones most likely to use YouTube. ...
Objective:
Entry of terms reflective of extreme risky driving behaviours into the YouTube website yields millions of videos. The majority of the top 20 highly subscribed automotive YouTube websites are focused on high performance vehicles, high speed and often risky driving. Moreover, young men are the heaviest users of online video sharing sites, overall streaming more videos and watching them longer than any other group. The purpose of the paper is to review the literature on YouTube videos and risky driving.
Methods:
A systematic search was performed using the following specialized database sources: Scopus, pubmed, Web of Science, ERIC and Google Scholar for the years 2005-2015 for articles in the English language. Search words included: YouTube AND driving, YouTube AND speeding, YouTube AND racing.
Results:
No published research was found on the content of risky driving videos or on the effects of these videos on viewers. This literature review presents the current state of our published knowledge on the topic, which includes a review of the effects of mass media on risky driving cognitions, attitudes and behaviour, similarities and differences between mass and social media, information on the YouTube platform, psychological theories that could support YouTube's potential effects on driving behaviour and two examples of risky driving behaviours ("sidewalk skiing" and "ghost riding the whip") suggestive of varying levels of modelling behaviour in subsequent YouTube videos.
Conclusions:
Every month about 1,000,000,000 individuals are reported to view YouTube videos (ebizMBA Guide, 2015) and young men are the heaviest users, overall streaming more YouTube videos and watching them longer than women and other age groups (Nielsen 2011 ). This group is also the most dangerous group in traffic, engaging in more per capita violations and experiencing more per capita injuries and fatalities (e.g. Reason et al. 1990 ; Parker et al. 1995 ; Transport Canada 2008 , 2015; World Health Organization 2015 ). YouTube also contains many channels depicting risky driving videos. The time has come for the traffic safety community to begin exploring these relationships.
... Studies conducted so far in examination of drivers' speed selection have used a number of research methods. Many have used stated-preference surveys (Leandro, 2012;Lheureux, Auzoult, Charlois, Hardy-Massard, & Minary, 2015;Vingilis, et al., 2013;Walton & Bathurst, 1998), while others have employed field and naturalistic data observations (Haglund, 2001;Hauer, Ahlin, & Bowser, 1982;Janz, 2000;Mackie, Charlton, Baas, & Villasenor, 2013;Recarte & Nunes, 2002;Reagan, Bliss, Van Houten, & Hilton, 2013), or a combination of both (Warner & Aberg, 2006). In addition, Pasetto and Barbati (2011) and Pasetto et al. (2012) compared speeds measured in both the virtual and real environment, showing that the driving simulator is a powerful instrument that can be used to forecast drivers' behaviour in different real-life situations. ...
Drivers' speed selection has been a great interest to road safety researchers. In this study, a driving simulator (STISIM) was used to explore drivers' speed choices, and how they are influenced by infrastructure, traffic, risk/benefit, and driver characteristics. Drivers also filled out a stated-preference survey, which included speed selection items and demographic characteristics. The experimental design included four scenarios of a specific risk or benefit to the driver: A daily trip, a higher speed enforcement scenario, a higher crash risk scenario, and a scenario with high time pressure. The driver sample included 111 drivers from different ages between 20 and 65, with 44% women. The database included 9768 observations.
The largest effect on drivers' speed was under time-saving benefits with an average increase of 10 km/hr. Infrastructure effects included horizontal curves, longitudinal slope changes and design speed. Age and gender also influenced speed selection. Thus, the most effective measures for speed reduction may be a) enforcement, b) design speed, and c) horizontal curves, in contrast to a) time-saving benefits, and b) a high average speed of close-by vehicles, which both motivated drivers to increase their speed, but may be reduced by counteracting policies.
... Aggressive violations, which theoretically refer to interpersonally aggressive roadway behaviors, mainly included frustration-aggression related acts in this study such as honking horn or swearing out of frustration. It is known that thrill seeking and competitiveness on the road are correlates of high risk driving among car/racing enthusiasts (Vingilis et al. 2013). Positive attitudes toward high risk driving, likely to be influenced by such personality traits, may lead to frustration when one`s mobility is interrupted, resulting in aggressive violations (see frustration-aggression model adapted to road user behaviors; Doob and Gross 1968;Shinar 1998). ...
Objective:
Attitudes and individual difference variables of car and racing enthusiasts regarding high-risk behaviors of street racing and stunt driving have recently been investigated. Positive attitudes toward high-risk driving, personality variables such as driver thrill seeking, and other self-reported risky driving acts were associated with these behaviors. However, probable relationships among high-risk driving tendencies, everyday driving behaviors, and negative road safety outcomes have remained largely unexamined. This study aimed to investigate the associations among car and racing enthusiasts' high-risk driving attitudes, self-reported everyday driving violations (i.e., ordinary and aggressive violations), and self-reported negative outcomes (i.e., collisions and driving offense citations).
Method:
A web-based survey was conducted with members and visitors of car club and racing websites in Ontario, Canada. Data were obtained from 366 participants. The questionnaire included 4 attitude measures-(1) attitudes toward new penalties for Ontario's Street Racers, Stunt and Aggressive Drivers Legislation; (2) attitudes toward new offenses of stunt driving under the same legislation; (3) general attitudes toward street racing and stunt driving; (4) comparison of street racing with other risky driving behaviors-self-reported driving violations (i.e., ordinary and aggressive violations); self-reported collisions and offense citations; and background and driving questions (e.g., age, driving frequency).
Results:
Results revealed that attitudes toward stunt driving offenses negatively and general attitudes toward street racing and stunt driving positively predicted ordinary violations, which, in turn, predicted offense citations. Moreover, general attitudes toward street racing and stunt driving positively predicted aggressive violations, which, in turn, predicted offense citations.
Conclusion:
The findings indicate that positive high-risk driving attitudes may be transferring to driving violations in everyday traffic, which mediates driving offense citations.
... Vingilis et al. (2011) found through a survey of Ontario high school students with advanced level or full driver's licences that 20.4% of students in grades 11 and 12 reported street racing in the past year; adjusted odds for males racing was 12 times higher than for females. Moreover, a survey of car club members found that those who self-reported street racing and stunt driving were significantly more likely to be younger, to score higher on the Driver Behaviour Questionnaire, the Driver Thrill Seeking Scale, Competitive Attitude Toward Driving Scale, Self-Report Driver Aggression Scale, Risk-Taking Driving Scale and to have been stopped for a traffic offence in the past year ( Vingilis et al. 2013b). ...
Objective:
The purpose of this study was to conduct a process and outcome evaluation of the deterrent impact of Ontario's street racing and stunt driving legislation, introduced in September 2007, on extreme speeding convictions. It was hypothesized that because males are much more likely to engage in speeding, street racing, and stunt driving, the new law would have more impact in reducing extreme speeding in males compared to females.
Methods:
Descriptive statistics and time series plots were used for the suspensions data. Interrupted time series analysis with autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) modeling was applied to the monthly extreme speeding convictions in Ontario for the period of January 1, 2003, to December 31, 2011, to assess the impact of the new legislation, separately for male drivers (intervention group) and female drivers (comparison group).
Results:
The results indicated that per licensed driver, 1.21 percent of 16- to 24-year-old male drivers and 0.37 percent of 25- to 64-year-old male drivers had their licenses suspended between September 2007 and December 2011. This is in contrast to female drivers: 0.21 percent of 16- to 24-year-old female drivers and 0.07 percent of 25- to 64-year-old female drivers had their licenses suspended during the same time period. A significant intervention effect of reduced extreme speeding convictions was found in the male driver group, though no corresponding effect was observed in the female driver group. The findings of this study are consistent with previous research on demographics of street racers and stunt drivers.
Conclusions:
These findings are congruent with deterrence theory that certain, swift, and severe sanctions can deter risky driving behavior and support the hypothesis that legal sanctions can have an impact on the extreme speeding convictions of the intervention group.
Stunts are one of the main reasons for traffic accidents, particularly among male adolescent bicyclists (ABs). Nonetheless, there are limited data about the theoretical framework of its contributing factors. Moreover, the theoretical frameworks explaining the factors contributing to other risky behaviors have not been used in the area of risky bicycle stunts. The aim of this qualitative study was to explore the factors contributing to risky stunts among male ABs in Iran. This qualitative study was conducted from September 2019 to December 2020 using conventional content analysis. Participants were 29 male ABs purposively selected from Isfahan, Iran. Data were collected through eighteen interviews with sixteen ABs and three focus group discussions with thirteen ABs. Data analysis was conducted concurrently with data collection through conventional qualitative content analysis. The mean of participants’ age was 16.4 ± 1.1 years. Factors contributing to their engagement in risky stunts were grouped into three main themes, namely predisposing personal factors (such as risk underestimation, perceived superiority, sensation seeking, emotional condition, and previous stunt-related experiences), reinforcing social factors (such as supportive social norms and weaknesses of traffic regulations), and environmental conditions (such as time conditions and structural factors). This study provides a new classification of the facilitators to risky stunts among male ABs and reveals new facilitators to these stunts, namely perceived superiority and police non-deterrent reactions to stunts. Therefore, programs on the improvement of safe bicycling should focus not only on perceptual and emotional factors and correction of false perceived superiority through education, but also on social norms and beliefs, regulations, and environmental factors.
The spread of the new coronavirus COVID-19, has led to unparalleled global measures such as lockdown and suspension of all retail, recreation and religious activities during the first months of 2020. Nevertheless, no scientific evidence has been reported so far with regards to the impact on road safety and driving behavior. This paper investigates the effect of COVID-19 on driving behavior and safety indicators captured through a specially developed smartphone application and transmitted to a back-end platform. These indicators are reflected with the spread of COVID-19 and the respective governmental countermeasures in two countries, namely Greece and Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), which had the most completed routes for users of the smartphone applications. It was shown that reduced traffic volumes due to lockdown, led to a slight increase in speeds by 6–11%, but more importantly to more frequent harsh acceleration and harsh braking events (up to 12% increase) as well mobile phone use (up to 42% increase) during March and April 2020, which were the months where COVID-19 spread was at its peak. On the bright side, accidents in Greece were reduced by 41% during the first month of COVID-19-induced measures and driving in the early morning hours (00:00–05:00) which are considered dangerous dropped by up to 81%. Policymakers should concentrate on establishing new speed limits and ensure larger spaces for cycling and pedestrians in order to enlarge distances between users in order to safeguard both an enhanced level of road safety and the prevention of COVID-19 spread.
Objective:
YouTube features millions of videos of high risk driving behaviours and negative consequences of high risk driving ("fails"), such as injuries or deaths. Unfortunately, no information is available on YouTube viewership of these types of sites or on the effects of these videos on viewers. The purpose of this study was to examine young male drivers' perceptions of and experiences with YouTube videos of risky driving behaviours.
Methods:
Using an exploratory qualitative descriptive approach, three 2-hour focus groups were conducted with young men 18-30 years of age to determine: (i) if they watch and share YouTube videos, including high risk driving videos; (ii) what effects high risk driving videos have on them and others and whether YouTube videos of negative consequences discourage high risk driving.
Results:
Participants indicated three uses for YouTube; it has replaced television watching and provides entertainment and information. Motivations of both risky drivers in videos and viewers to engage in high risk driving activities included person characteristics (e.g., sensation seeking and responsivity to financial rewards for high view count videos) and socio-environmental factors (e.g., peer pressure). Most indicated that they would not try to imitate the risky behaviours exhibited in videos, although a few had tried to copy some risky driving moves from videos.
Conclusions:
Social, not mass media is now the common information and entertainment source for young people. YouTube videos of high risk driving are common and ubiquitous. Findings from these focus groups suggest that viewers could influence subsequent content of social media videos and reciprocally, videos could influence behaviours of some viewers, particularly young male viewers.
Purpose: A traffic safety analysis that is based on registered crashes often suffers from underreporting, which may result in biased conclusions and lead to misguided crash-prevention strategies. Self-reporting traffic crashes is a complementary method to obtain crash information that is often not available in official databases. By surveying studies from around the world, this paper aims to map the current practices in the collection of data from self-reporting traffic crashes. Method: A systematic literature search was carried out in three databases, ScienceDirect, Scopus and Transport Research International Documentation (TRID), resulting in 134 reviewed studies. Results: Self-reported crash studies were found to be more common in Europe, North America and Australasia, but there are few studies in developing countries. The reviewed studies mostly focused on adult road users (i.e. legal age of obtaining driving license and with no upper limit) and car users. Questionnaires (either paper based or online) were the most often used method, and 1 year was the most common recall period used. Regardless of its drawbacks, the reviewed studies showed that researchers 'trust' self-reports. Conclusion: More studies should be conducted, especially targeting adolescent and young adults (age of 15-30 years) and vulnerable road users (VRUs). Developing countries should increase their efforts when it comes to using self-reporting to better assess the actual traffic safety situation and produce knowledge-based appropriate safety measures. Utilisation of smartphone application to assist data collection in self-reporting study for in-depth crash analysis should be explored further.
Road crashes and environmental degradation are among the prominent issues of concern today in most of the developing economies particularly India. Buses, which are key mode of public transit in India, are unfortunately involved in a significant number of crashes in recent time. Bus driver's attitude and his ability to comprehend traffic situations aptly contributes largely to passenger safety. In this study the effect of sensation seeking behavior on crash involvement rates of bus drivers in India was investigated. Study was conducted to assess sensation seeking behaviors of sample bus drivers from Karnataka State Road Transport Corporation (KSRTC). Assessment was conducted using a modified Zuckerman's Sensation seeking scale (ZSSS) form V questionnaire that included sub scales such as boredom susceptibility, disinhibition, experience seeking, and thrill and adventure seeking. The survey results were further related to their crash involvement histories through ratio analysis. Further a Generalized Linear Model with log link and Poisson error was developed to ascertain the influence of these traits on their crash involvement propensity.
Purpose The mediating relationship of self-conceptions as a risky driver on self-reported driving violations was examined for players of “drive'em up” and “circuit” racing video games using an Internet survey of automobile and racing club members. Structural equation modelling (SEM) tested Fischer et al. (2012) extended socio-cognitive model on the effects of risk-glorifying media on cognitions and actions. Method An Internet questionnaire was developed and relied upon validated instruments or questions derived from previous surveys. Driver club members were asked about: (1) their frequency of video game playing, (2) self-perceptions as a risky driver and (3) self-reported driving violations. SEM was performed to examine mediating effects of racing video game playing on self-reported driving violations. Results Playing “drive‘em up” video games positively predicted risky self-concept (β = .15, t = 2.26), which in turn, positively predicted driving violations (β = .73, t = 8.63), while playing “circuit racing” games did not predict risky self-concept, although risky self-concept did predict driving violations (β = .72, t = 8.67). Conclusions Self-concept as a risky driver mediated the relationship between racing video game playing and self-reported driving violations for “drive'em up”, but not for “circuit racing” video games. These findings are congruent with Fischer and colleagues’ experimental model that self-concept as a reckless driver mediated the relationship between racing video game playing for “drive'em up”, but not for “circuit racing” games and risk-taking behavior in a video of road traffic scenarios.
Background:
Traffic offences have been considered an important predictor of crash involvement, and have often been used as a proxy safety variable for crashes. However the association between crashes and offences has never been meta-analysed and the population effect size never established. Research is yet to determine the extent to which this relationship may be spuriously inflated through systematic measurement error, with obvious implications for researchers endeavouring to accurately identify salient factors predictive of crashes.
Methodology and principal findings:
Studies yielding a correlation between crashes and traffic offences were collated and a meta-analysis of 144 effects drawn from 99 road safety studies conducted. Potential impact of factors such as age, time period, crash and offence rates, crash severity and data type, sourced from either self-report surveys or archival records, were considered and discussed. After weighting for sample size, an average correlation of r = .18 was observed over the mean time period of 3.2 years. Evidence emerged suggesting the strength of this correlation is decreasing over time. Stronger correlations between crashes and offences were generally found in studies involving younger drivers. Consistent with common method variance effects, a within country analysis found stronger effect sizes in self-reported data even controlling for crash mean.
Significance:
The effectiveness of traffic offences as a proxy for crashes may be limited. Inclusion of elements such as independently validated crash and offence histories or accurate measures of exposure to the road would facilitate a better understanding of the factors that influence crash involvement.
Problem: The Manchester Driver Behaviour Questionnaire (DBQ) is the most commonly used self-report tool in traffic safety research and applied settings. It has been claimed that the violation factor of this instrument predicts accident involvement, which was supported by a previous meta-analysis. However, that analysis did not test for methodological effects, or include contacting researchers to obtain unpublished results. Method: The present study re-analysed studies on prediction of accident involvement from DBQ factors, including lapses, and many unpublished effects. Tests of various types of dissemination bias and common method variance were undertaken. Results: Outlier analysis showed that some effects were probably not reliable data, but excluding them did not change the results. For correlations between violations and crashes, tendencies for published effects to be larger than unpublished ones and for effects to decrease over time were observed, but were not significant. Also, analysis using the proxy of the mean of accidents in studies indicated that studies where effects for violations are unknown have smaller effect sizes. These differences indicate dissemination bias. Studies using self-reported accidents as dependent variables had much larger effects than those using recorded accident data. Also, zero-order correlations were larger than partial correlations that controlled for exposure. Similarly, violations/accidents effects were strong only when there was also a strong correlation between accidents and exposure. Overall, the true effect is probably very close to zero (r<.07) for violations versus traffic accident involvement, depending upon which systematic tendencies in the data are controlled for. Conclusions: Methodological factors and dissemination bias have inflated the mean effect size of the DBQ in the published literature. Strong evidence of various artefactual effects is apparent. Practical applications: A greater level of care should be taken if the DBQ continues to be used in traffic safety research..
Illegal street racing has received increased attention in recent years from road safety professionals and the media as jurisdictions in Australia, Canada, and the United States have implemented laws to address the problem, which primarily involves young male drivers. Although some evidence suggests that the prevalence of illegal street racing is increasing, obtaining accurate estimates of the crash risk of this behavior is difficult because of limitations in official data sources. Although crash risk can be explored by examining the proportion of incidents of street racing that result in crashes, or the proportion of all crashes that involve street racing, this paper reports on the findings of a study that explored the riskiness of involved drivers. The driving histories of 183 male drivers with an illegal street racing conviction in Queensland, Australia, were compared with a random sample of 183 male Queensland drivers with the same age distribution. The offender group was found to have significantly more traffic infringements, license sanctions, and crashes than the comparison group. Drivers in the offender group were more likely than the comparison group to have committed infringements related to street racing, such as speeding, “hooning,” and offenses related to vehicle defects or illegal modifications. Insufficient statistical capacity prevented full exploration of group differences in the type and nature of earlier crashes. It was concluded, however, that street racing offenders generally can be considered risky drivers who warrant attention and whose risky behavior cannot be explained by their youth alone.
The first aim of the present study was to investigate the applicability of the three-factor structure (aggressive violations, ordinary violations, and errors) of the Manchester Driver Behaviour Questionnaire (DBQ) and then to compare these driving behaviours across the six countries (Finland, Great Britain, Greece, Iran, The Netherlands, and Turkey). The third aim of the present study was to evaluate the role of driving styles in the relationship between traffic cultures (countries) and the number of traffic accidents utilizing a mediational framework. The fourth aim of this paper was to investigate the relationship between the three factors of DBQ and the number of traffic accidents in each country. Two hundred and forty-two drivers were chosen from each of the six countries, matched for age and sex. The results of confirmatory factor analyses showed that the fit of the three-factor model of DBQ was partially satisfactory in each country. Exploratory factor analyses together with target (Procrustes) rotation and factorial agreement indexes showed that the “ordinary violations” factor was fully congruent and the “errors” factor was fairly congruent across countries. Reliabilities of the scales were at the same level as in the original British data. ANOVA results revealed differences between drivers from “safe” Western/Northern European and Southern European/Middle Eastern countries on DBQ items and scales. Results demonstrated that driving style mediates the relationship between traffic culture (i.e. country) and the number of accidents. Poisson and negative binomial regression analyses also showed that the importance of driver characteristics and behaviours in predicting the number of traffic accidents varies from country to country.
A total of 93 drivers (46 female, 47 male) from Toronto, Canada, with at least 5 years’ driving experience, completed a battery of self-report questionnaires assessing the likelihood of engaging in mild driver aggression, frequency of past driver violence, driving vengeance, and willful violations. All were recruited as voluntary participants through posted signs, personal contact, and referrals. Mild driver aggression increased independently with elevated vengeance and elevated violations. Driver violence was predicted by the three-way interaction of Vengeance × Violations × Gender such that violence increased in male drivers with a vengeful attitude, especially in combination with higher levels of violations. The data indicated that driver aggression and violence were more prevalent among drivers who held clusters of other dangerous driving attitudes and behaviors as part of their typical behavior routine.
The purpose of this study was to examine self-reported motor vehicle injury prevention strategies, speeding and impaired driving, and the effects of speeding and impaired driving on subsequent motor vehicle collision injuries, using the Canadian National Population Health Survey (NPHS). Strategies commonly reported were preventing impaired drivers from driving, using designated drivers, and requiring passengers to use seatbelts. Yet a substantial minority, particularly young males, reported engaging in risky driving behaviours such as speeding and impaired driving. Self-reported speeders and impaired drivers had significantly higher odds of reporting injuries from subsequent motor vehicle collisions. Specifically, those who reported sometimes/rarely or never obeying the speed limits were two and a half times more likely to report a subsequent motor vehicle injury, while those who reported impaired driving one or more times in the past 12 months were two times more likely to report a subsequent motor vehicle injury. These findings support the need for continued focus on speeding, drinking and driving, and other risky driving behaviours to reduce collisions in Canada.
Drivers completed a questionnaire assessing the likelihood of engaging in mild forms of driver aggression, the frequency of past driver violence, and a disposition toward driver stress. Both male and female drivers reported similar levels of mild driver aggression, supporting the notion that context is important in arousing female aggression. In contrast, driver violence was more frequent among male drivers, demonstrating the relevance of behavioral form within gender linked aggression research. Suggestions for the existence of a gender difference in driver violence, but not mild driver aggression are offered. Finally, driver stress susceptibility was linked to both mild driver aggression and driver violence.
The core aim of the current research was to investigate whether attitudes towards traffic safety issues are predictors for future risk behaviour in traffic. Examination of identical item pools measuring attitude and behaviour among the same drivers (n=1604) at two data collection points enables investigation of consistency of measurements, and also a study of the relationship between the two variables. Results show a high correlation between the dimensions of attitudes and behaviour at the two data collection points. Attitudes measured at the first survey had consistent effects on risky driving behaviour measured at the second survey. Drivers who were involved in traffic accidents or crashes in the last year took more risks when driving.
Within psychology, different research traditions have attempted to explain individual differences in risky driving behaviour and traffic accident involvement. The present study attempts to integrate two of these research traditions, the personality trait approach and the social cognition approach, in order to understand the mechanisms underlying young drivers' risk-taking behaviour in traffic. The study was based on a self-completion questionnaire survey carried out among 1932 adolescents in Norway. The questionnaire included measures of risk perception, attitudes towards traffic safety and self-reported risk-taking in traffic. Personality measures included aggression, altruism, anxiety and normlessness. The results of a structural equation model suggested that the relation between the personality traits and risky driving behaviour was mediated through attitudes. On this basis it was concluded that personality primarily influences risky driving behaviour indirectly through affecting the attitudinal determinants of the behaviour. Practical implications for traffic safety campaigns are also discussed.
In considering the human contribution to accidents, it seems necessary to make a distinction between errors and violations; two forms of aberration which may have different psychological origins and demand different modes of remediation. The present study investigated whether this distinction was justified for self-reported driver behaviour. Five hundred and twenty drivers completed a driver behaviour questionnaire (DBQ) which asked them to judge the frequency with which they committed various types of errors and violations when driving. Three fairly robust factors were identified: violations, dangerous errors, and relatively harmless lapses, respectively. Violations declined with age, errors did not. Men of all ages reported more violations than women. Women, however, were significantly more prone to harmless lapses (or more honest) than men. These findings were consistent with the view that errors and violations are indeed mediated by different psychological mechanisms. Violations require explanation in terms of social and motivational factors, whereas errors (slips, lapses, and mistakes) may be accounted for by reference to the information-processing characteristics of the individual.
The use of vehicles in an antisocial, 'loutish' and dangerous manner constitutes the phenomenon of hooning, a risky behaviour with heightened concern for Australian roads (Folkman, 2005; Jarred, 2002). The concern has been highlighted by extensive media attention particularly from local newspapers within Australian states and territories (see 'Hoons need for speed and danger', 2006; Ferguson, 2006; 'Hoons go for a joyride', 2006). There has also been general observations made by police and traffic groups as to the related components of hooning (e.g. Folkman, 2005; Jarred, 2002) although the amount of accessible published documents is minimal. Thus, hooning may lead to on road accidents and warrants research to identify its related factors.
Street racing and associated (hooning) behaviours have attracted growing community concern in Australia, and internationally, over recent years. Governments have responded by introducing legislation designed to address the behaviours, and allocating significant police resources to managing the problem. All Australian states and territories, and New Zealand, have now implemented “anti-hooning” countermeasures, typically involving impounding the vehicles of offenders for increasing periods of time for subsequent offences, ultimately leading to forfeiture of the vehicle. For example, among other sanctions imposed, the vehicles of drivers charged with an offence under this legislation in Queensland are impounded for 48 hours for a first offence, three months after a second offence within three years, and may be forfeited to the state after a third offence within three years. Since the introduction of the legislation in November 2002 and until the end of 2006, 3,221 vehicles have been impounded for a period of 48 hours. A small number of vehicles have been impounded for a second (72, 2.2%), third (4, 0.1%) or fourth (1, 0.03%) hooning offence. Although most hooning offenders are young males, a group known to be over-represented in crash statistics, hooning offenders have not been profiled in a systematic way, and the possibility that sub-groups of drivers exist has not been explored. This paper aims to address these research needs to inform future research and management of "anti-hooning" legislation.
Street racing can take the form of spontaneous one-to-one racing or highly organised
events, while "hooning" generally refers to activities such as burnouts or excessive
acceleration. Recent media reports have highlighted the potential for fatalities or injuries and the public nuisance caused by these behaviours. Subsequently, formal "anti-hooning"legislation has been passed in four Australian states and New Zealand. In the last two years since the introduction of Queensland’s 'anti-hoon' legislation, over 1500 vehicles have been impounded and over 4100 disturbance complaints registered. Official Queensland police reports have registered 169 ‘hooning’ or racing crashes involving 12-24 year olds in the period 1999-2004. Current research suggests those involved are typically young males aged between 16 and 25. The current investigation used a combination of focus groups, e-mail responses and message board feedback to conduct an examination of the experiences and perceptions of young people in regards to ‘hooning’ behaviour and legislative reforms. It is proposed that the results can be used to inform existing legislation and the assist in the development of interventions from both a youth and Queensland Police Service perspective.
To outline various sources of crash risk among young drivers that are developmental (age based) factors.
First, a distinction is made between adolescence (ages 10-18) and emerging adulthood (ages 18-25) in order to shed light on the reasons for especially high crash rates among 16-17 year old drivers relative to 18-25 year olds. Then various developmental sources of risk in adolescence are described, including the power of friends, the optimistic bias, and adolescent emotionality. The reasons for especially high crash rates among young males are discussed, with an emphasis on how American ideas about manhood promote driving risks. Finally, a cross national comparison between adolescents in the United States and Denmark shows how developmental risks interact with driving policies.
The high crash rates of adolescents relative to emerging adults and of emerging adults relative to older drivers can be explained in part by developmental factors.
Evolutionary psychologists have argued that young men are particularly prone to risktaking in the formation of dominance hierarchies, which arise in an effort to secure resources to attract and keep females. Wilson and Daly (1985) have termed this effect the "young male syndrome". Risk-taking involves a variety of behaviours ranging from criminal activities and extreme sports to dangerous driving. By examining data from the Canadian census and comparing it to national driving statistics related to crash and alcohol-related injuries and deaths, the following relationships were described: (1) the Canadian population has dramatically increased in the three decades following 1970, but the proportion of young males in the population has declined, (2) roadway deaths and injuries have decreased despite the increase in the number of vehicles on the road, (3) young men from 16-29 years of age are disproportionately involved in collisions causing deaths and injuries whether as drivers, passengers, or pedestrians, (4) young men are disproportionately involved in alcohol-related crashes causing death and injury. A model was developed to illustrate the effect of demographic factors, evolutionary principles, situational factors, societal influences, and media effects to explain risky male activities. Alternative explanations based on brain maturation and the effects of stress, producing aggression, are discussed.
Background
Young motorists engaging in anti-social and often dangerous driving manoeuvres (which is often referred to as “hooning” within Australia) is an increasing road safety problem. While anecdotal evidence suggests that such behaviour is positively linked with crash involvement, researchers have yet to examine whether younger drivers who deliberately break road rules and drive in an erratic manner (usually with peers) are in fact over represented in crash statistics. This paper outlines research that aimed to identify the characteristics of individuals most likely to engaging in hooning behaviours, as well as examine the frequency of such driving behaviours and if such activity is linked with self-reported crash involvement.
So-called ‘boy racers’ form a subculture, which is subject to ongoing public scrutiny and media attention, usually negative. This study aimed to deconstruct the term ‘boy racer’ and to explore the subculture in detail, within the context of Christchurch, New Zealand, using a phenomenological ethnographic approach. This included conducting semistructured interviews and observing the activities of participants. Results show the subculture has a relatively diverse membership and a range of associated behaviours, activities and attitudes. Moreover, performances within the subculture are linked to place, and are seen by other members of the community as threats to normative boundaries.
One of the most commonly used frameworks for investigating the relationship between self-reported driving behaviour and crash involvement is the Manchester Driver Behaviour Questionnaire (DBQ). However, in spite of the fact that Spain has a relatively large road safety problem (annually more than 5000 people die and over 150,000 are injured in traffic accidents), only one study could be found using the DBQ to measure aberrant driving behaviour in this country. In addition that research solely reported the frequencies of the different driving behaviours they measured. The current research attempted to fill this gap by administering a translated Spanish version of the DBQ to a sample of drivers in Spain. Although factor analysis produced a four factor solution, there were a number of departures from the expected factor structure. The most unusual finding was that the first factor contained a mixture of lapses and errors. This may indicate that either some of the meaning was lost in the translation into Spanish, or that the distinction between these two factors may not apply to Spanish drivers. The second factor was a strong violations factor and was constructed of violations and aggressive violations to do with getting somewhere in a hurry. The third factor once again confirmed that interpersonal violations are a separate entity from the other aggressive violations, meaning that this research did not support the “aggressive violations” factor. The fourth factor had very low internal reliability and contained only three lapses. However, in agreement with previous research, it was the violations factor which was predictive of crash involvement after the contributions of the demographic and descriptive variables had been partialled out.
A study is presented that explored the role of macho personality, age, and power of car as predictors of aggressive driving behavior. A total of 154 male motorists completed two subscales of the Hypermasculinity Inventory as a measure of macho personality and self-reports of aggressive driving behavior based on the Driver Behaviour Questionnaire. They also provided information about their age, annual mileage, horsepower of their car, and features that had guided their choice of a car. A multiple regression analysis showed that each of the predictors was significantly related to aggressive driving: Younger motorists, those driving powerful cars, and those showing macho personality were significantly more likely to report driving aggression. Together, the three predictors accounted for 35.8% of the variance. In addition, macho men assigned greater importance to speed and sportiness of a car and less importance to safety aspects than nonmacho men. The findings are discussed with reference to individual and situational explanations of driving aggression. Aggr. Behav. 28:21–29, 2002. © 2002 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
This study evaluated the relationships between sensation seeking and impulsivity, appraisal of risk in several areas including crime, financial, social violations, sports, and risk of AIDS from sexual activity, and risky behavior in the same areas. Subjects were 447 undergraduates who were given personality tests, and risk appraisal and risky behavior scales developed from factor analyses. Multiple regression analyses showed perceived peer behavior and sensation seeking to be strong predictors of risky behavior, particularly in the areas of criminal behavior and social violations. Personal risk appraisal was negatively related to risky behavior for all the areas except AIDS risk where it was positively related to risky sexual behavior for men. Structural equation modeling analyses showed that a model specifying that risk appraisal trait is a consequences of risky behavior was superior to a model with risk appraisal as a mediator of the relationship between sensation seeking and risky behavior.
The present study attempted to relate field dependence-independence (FDI) to accident involvement and perceived causes of accidents as well as to trace these relationships to the sensation-seeking (SS) tendency of the field-dependent driver. In addition, the concomittant effects of internal/external locus of control (IE) were studied. Subjects (N=285) filled out a questionnaire assessing their level of FDI, SS, IE, number of accidents, as well as the attributed importance of various possible causes of their last accident. The obtained results show no relationship between FDI and SS and either the number of accidents or the importance attributed to various causes of accidents. Significant relationships were, however, obtained between FDI and SS and seat-belt use and SS and speed on the highway.
This study examined the ‘risk-taking’ personality correlates of field measures of driver behaviour and driving records. Seventy-nine male taxi drivers were unobtrusively observed as they travelled a common route by two confederates presenting themselves as regular passengers. Fifty-one of these drivers (aged 20–60 yr, mean 37) responded to several questionnaires, and gave permission to have their driving records examined. Analyses suggested that subjects who report a need for more tension, risk and adventure in their lives (High Risk Personality) exhibit a driving style characterized by such actions as travelling at excessive speeds and carelessly changing lanes. Subjects who report taking more risks for its arousal and pleasurable sensation (Sensation Seeking) are more frequently convicted of speeding violations and other traffic violations. No relationship was found between collision history and personality or observed driving behaviour.
The current study adopted an approach, in which reckless driving is perceived as related to both personal and environmental factors. Young drivers (N = 295) reported on reckless driving related threat and challenge appraisals, their perceived control over reckless driving, their disregard for negative consequences of this specific behavior, positive feedback received on their driving, environmental driving-climate and negative driving modeling. The dependent measure was self-reported frequency of reckless driving. Findings indicated that challenge and self-efficacy appraisals, along with negative environmental influences were related to higher frequency of risky driving, whereas threat appraisals, as well as positive feedback, were related to a lower frequency of reckless driving. In addition, whereas for men, self-efficacy in driving strongly predicted reckless driving, disregard for negative consequences was an important predictor for women. The results are discussed in view of an evaluating process of personal cognitive-emotional resources and environmental support proposed by Lazarus. Recommendations are made regarding the potential effectiveness of using positive appeals in prevention interventions.
Sexual selection theory suggests that willingness to participate in risky or violent competitive interactions should be observed primarily in those age-sex classes that have experienced the most intense reproductive competition (fitness variance) during the species' evolutionary history, and in those individuals whose present circumstances are predictive of reproductive failure.Homicidal conflicts in the city of Detroit in 1972 are reviewed in the light of the above perspective. Homicide in Detroit, as elsewhere, is overwhelming a male affair. Victim and offender populations are almost identical, with unemployed, unmarried, young men greatly overrepresented. The most common conflict typologies are described, and it is suggested that many, perhaps most, homicides concern status competition.Other manifestations of “taste for risk,” such as daredevilry and gambling are briefly reviewed. The evidence suggests that such a taste is primarily a masculine attribute, and is socially facilitated by the presence of peers in pursuit of the same goals.Such dangerous, competitive acts as the classic “trivial altercation” homicide often appear foolhardy to observers. However, it remains unknown whether the typical consequences of such acts are ultimately beneficial or detrimental to the perpetrators' interests.
Sensation seeking and aggressiveness were hypothesized to contribute to the developmental basis of reckless behavior in adolescence. This hypothesis was investigated in two studies, one on high school students and the other on college students. Sensation seeking was found to be related to every type of reckless behavior, including five types of automobile driving, sex without contraception, sex with someone known only casually, number of sexual partners, alcohol and drug use, vandalism, and theft. Aggressiveness was related to several of the driving variables, as well as to vandalism and theft. For every type of reckless behavior, frequencies of reckless behavior were as high or higher for the college students than for the high school students. Findings are discussed in relation to socialization in the culture of the American middle-class.
When more than one statistical test is performed in analysing the data from a clinical study, some statisticians and journal editors demand that a more stringent criterion be used for “statistical significance” than the conventional P<0.05.1 Many well meaning researchers, eager for methodological rigour, comply without fully grasping what is at stake. Recently, adjustments for multiple tests (or Bonferroni adjustments) have found their way into introductory texts on medical statistics, which has increased their apparent legitimacy. This paper advances the view, widely held by epidemiologists, that Bonferroni adjustments are, at best, unnecessary and, at worst, deleterious to sound statistical inference.
#### Summary points
Adjusting statistical significance for the number of tests that have been performed on study data—the Bonferroni method—creates more problems than it solves
The Bonferroni method is concerned with the general null hypothesis (that all null hypotheses are true simultaneously), which is rarely of interest or use to researchers
The main weakness is that the interpretation of a finding depends on the number of other tests performed
The likelihood of type II errors is also increased, so that truly important differences are deemed non-significant
Simply describing what tests of significance have been performed, and why, is generally the best way of dealing with multiple comparisons
Bonferroni adjustments are based on the following reasoning.1-3 If a null hypothesis is true (for instance, two treatment groups in a randomised trial do not differ in terms of cure rates), a significant difference (P<0.05) will be observed by chance once in 20 trials. This is the type I error, or α. When 20 independent tests are performed (for example, study groups are compared with regard to 20 unrelated variables) and the null hypothesis holds for all 20 comparisons, the chance of at least one test being significant is no longer 0.05, but 0.64. …
The purpose of this study was to explore the road safety implications of illegal street racing and associated risky driving behaviours. This issue was considered in two ways: Phase 1 examined the descriptions of 848 illegal street racing and associated risky driving offences that occurred in Queensland, Australia, in order to estimate the risk associated with these behaviours; and Phase 2 examined the traffic and crash histories of the 802 male offenders involved in these offences, and compared them to those of an age-matched comparison group, in order to examine the risk associated with the driver. It was found in Phase 1 that only 3.7% of these offences resulted in a crash (none of which were fatal), and that these crashes tended to be single-vehicle crashes where the driver lost control of the vehicle and collided with a fixed object. Phase 2 found that the offender sample had significantly more traffic infringements, licence sanctions and crashes in the previous three years than the comparison group. It was concluded that while only a small proportion of racing and associated offences result in a crash, these offenders appear to be generally risky drivers that warrant special attention.
Through a meta-analysis, this study investigated the relation of errors and violations from the Driver Behaviour Questionnaire (DBQ) to accident involvement.
We identified 174 studies using the DBQ, and a correlation of self-reported accidents with errors could be established in 32 samples and with violations in 42 samples.
The results showed that violations predicted accidents with an overall correlation of .13 when based on zero-order effects reported in tabular form, and with an overall correlation of .07 for effects reported in multivariate analysis, in tables reporting only significant effects, or in the text of a study. Errors predicted accidents with overall correlations of .10 and .06, respectively. The meta-analysis also showed that errors and violations correlated negatively with age and positively with exposure, and that males reported fewer errors and more violations than females. Supplementary analyses were conducted focusing on the moderating role of age, and on predicting accidents prospectively and retrospectively. Potential sources of bias are discussed, such as publication bias, measurement error, and consistency motif.
The DBQ is a prominent measurement scale to examine drivers' self-reported aberrant behaviors. The present study provides information about the validity of the DBQ and therefore has strong relevance for researchers and road safety practitioners who seek to obtain insight into driving behaviors of a population of interest.
This study reports on the utilisation of the Manchester Driver Behaviour Questionnaire (DBQ) to examine the self-reported driving behaviours of a sample of Australian fleet drivers (N = 443). Surveys were posted to participants who agreed to participate in the study. Factor analysis techniques identified a three factor solution which supports previous research that has demonstrated distinctions between different driving practices (e.g., errors, highway code violations and aggressive driving violations). However, a larger number of items traditionally related with highway code violations were found to be associated with aggressive driving acts among the current sample. Additional analysis revealed that the DBQ factors were negatively related with self-reported traffic offences, although at a multivariate level only the number of kilometres driven each year (i.e., exposure) proved to be predictive of incurring fines/demerit points. This paper further outlines the major findings of the study and highlights implications regarding the utilisation of the DBQ within fleet settings to examine on-road behaviour among professional drivers.
To review: (1) the extent and frequency of street racing and its consequences; (2) the characteristics of street racers; (3) explanatory theories for street racing; (4) the legal issues; and (5) the best methods of preventing street racing.
Review of academic and other literature.
Very limited official statistics are available on street racing offenses and related collisions, in part because of the different jurisdictional operational definitions of street racing and the ability of police to determine whether street racing was a contributing factor. Some data on prevalence of street racing have been captured through social surveys and they found that between 18.8 and 69.0 percent of young male drivers from various international jurisdictions have reported street racing. Moreover, street racing is found to be associated with other risky behaviors, substance abuse, and delinquent activities. The limited evidence available on street racing suggests that it has increased in the last decade.
Street racing is a neglected research area and the time has come to examine the prevalence and causes of street racing and the effectiveness of various street racing countermeasures.
Aggressive driving encompasses a continuum of behaviors that range from extreme acts, such as shootings, to less severe manifestations, such as arguments and gestures. It is clear from the available data that aggressive driving is not uncommon and very risky. However, little is known about the opinions and practices of drivers. The purpose of this study was to help bridge these gaps.
The data were gathered by means of a public opinion poll among a representative sample of 1,201 Canadian drivers. Univariate frequency distributions and 95% confidence intervals were calculated and logistic regression and generalized linear latent models were used to summarize the data.
It was found that the issue of aggressive driving is a significant one as a considerable percentage of drivers admits to it. The results coming from the logistic regression and the generalized linear latent model suggest that male and younger drivers are more likely to behave aggressively in traffic and that behaving more aggressively is associated with a history of traffic tickets.
When gauging people's attitudes, opinions, and behaviors, it becomes clear that aggressive driving is a considerable problem. There also seems to be a need for a better understanding of which specific behaviors respondents associate with the generic term "aggressive driving."
Results from this study further emphasize the need of increasing the aggressive driving knowledge base.
Interest in motor racing is investigated as a possible source of influence on driver attitudes toward speeding and driver behaviour. Previous studies have identified links between motor racing and road accidents on public roads. One study found that the level of interest in motor racing was positively correlated with risky driving behaviours of young male drivers. This paper outlines a conceptual framework for investigating the association between interest in motor racing and speeding violations on public roads. A sample survey of households in Queanbeyan, NSW, was used to examine the relationship between the level of interest in motor racing and attitudes to speeding and driving violations in a group of mature drivers. Results indicate that the level of interest in motor racing is significantly related to attitudes towards speeding, controlling for age, education level and sensation seeking propensity. Higher levels of interest in motor racing are associated with higher pro-speeding attitudes. Unlike the previous research on young male drivers, there was no significant relationship between interest in motor racing and speeding violations for this study of mature drivers. The implications of the study for road safety interventions are discussed.
The objective of this paper is to develop a model that can help explain the public's level of concern associated with six dangerous driving behaviours (drinking and driving, speeding, distracted driving, using a cell phone while driving, fatigued or drowsy driving, and using illegal drugs while driving). Understanding the genesis of concern can be useful in addressing it and leveraging it to improve safe driving. Building on a risk perception model that was developed previously, the study investigated the relationship between the level of concern about the unsafe driving behaviours and the perceived level of concern of others about the dangerous driving behaviours, the perception of the prevalence of the dangerous driving behaviours, the perception of the level of risk imposed by these dangerous driving behaviours, and the perception of the severity of injuries that can result from them. Data from two independent samples were modeled using multidimensional scaling and logistic regression analysis. Both samples come from telephone surveys; one was administered to a random sample of 750 drivers in the province of Ontario, Canada in November 2006, the other to a random sample of 1201 drivers across Canada in September 2006. Two dimensions in particular were found to fit the data well: perceived risk and the perceived level of concern of others. The results from these analyses are summarized using a perceptual map. The relevance of such a map is illustrated by explaining the factors that impact levels of concern regarding several of the unsafe driving behaviours.
Tests or measures in clinical medicine or the social sciences can be used for three purposes: discriminating between subjects, predicting either prognosis or the results of some other test, and evaluating change over time. The choices made at each stage of constructing a quality of life index will differ depending on the purpose of the instrument. We explore the implications of index purpose for each stage of instrument development: selection of the item pool, item scaling, item reduction, determination of reliability, of validity, and of responsiveness. At many of these stages, not only are the requirements for discriminative, predictive, and evaluative instruments not complementary, they are actually competing. Attention to instrument purpose will clarify the choices both for those developing quality of life measures and for those selecting an appropriate instrument for clinical studies.
Earlier bivariate findings suggested that diverse problem behaviors, including problem drinking, illicit drug use, delinquent-type behavior, and precocious sexual intercourse, may comprise a single behavioral syndrome in samples of normal adolescents. A multivariate test of this possible syndrome was carried out through a series of maximum likelihood factor analyses based on self-report data from several samples of adolescents and youth. Analyses were performed by sex on four waves of panel data from a high school cohort and a college-age cohort, using their adolescent/college-age data as well as their data from young adulthood, and on multiple random subsamples of adolescents who participated in the 1978 National Study of Adolescent Drinking (Rachal et al., 1980). Results of the analyses consistently showed that one common factor accounts for the correlations among the different problem behaviors. The findings lend support to the notion of a syndrome of problem behavior in both adolescence and young adulthood.
Health concerns of adolescents are important factors to consider when developing and implementing school health education programs. In addition, an understanding of adolescent concerns compared to their teachers' and parents' beliefs about adolescents' concerns may enhance communication between adolescents and adults. Despite the need to identify the health concerns of adolescents and beliefs about them among parents and teachers, few instruments exist. The inventory described in this article is one approach to assessing adolescent health concerns. Three forms of the Adolescent Health Concerns Inventory (AHCI) were developed to assess: (1) the health concerns of adolescents, (2) teachers' beliefs about adolescent health concerns, and (3) parents' beliefs about adolescent health concerns. The final version of the instrument contained 150 health-related items grouped into 12 topical subscales. Reliability estimates for the 12 subscales as measured by Cronbach's alpha ranged from .76 to .92. A panel of experts was used to assess content validity. Construct validity was assessed using principal components factor analysis. All items were positively loaded on factor 1. Readability was estimated at the eighth grade as measured by the SMOG readability formula. Psychometric characteristics of the instrument and recommendations for the use of the ACHI are presented.
Reckless driving practices were studied among 139 high school students aged 17-18. A majority of both boys and girls reported driving at high speeds, and a majority of boys reported racing in a car and passing in a no-passing zone. About one-quarter of boys and girls reported driving while intoxicated. Sensation seeking and aggressiveness were found to be related to reckless driving practices. Fifty-nine of the students kept a log of their driving episodes over a 10-day period. Analysis of these data indicated that the participants drove faster when in an angry mood than when in any other mood. Also, they drove faster when alone or with friends than when their parents were present.
The relationship between sensation seeking and risky behaviour has been observed since the 1970s. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, road safety researchers have examined the relationship between sensation seeking and risky driving (e.g. driving while impaired, speeding, following too closely), as well as its consequences (e.g. collisions, violations). There is also growing evidence that sensation seeking may also moderate the manner in which drivers respond to other factors such as alcohol impairment and perceived risk. This paper reviews and synthesizes the literature on sensation seeking as a direct influencer of risky driving and its consequences and as a moderator of the influence of other factors. The vast majority of the 40 studies reviewed showed positive relationships between sensation seeking (SS) and risky driving, with correlations in the 0.30-0.40 range, depending on gender and the measure of risky driving and SS employed. Of those studies that have looked at the subscales of Zuckerman's Sensation Seeking Scale, Thrill and Adventure Seeking appears to have the strongest relationship to risky driving. The biological bases of SS is discussed as are the implications for collision prevention measures.