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Antibiotic properties of porcupine quills
Abstract
Porcupine quills possess antibiotic properties. The antibiotic activity is associated with free fatty acids (but not neutral lipids) coating the quills. Extracts of quill fatty acids strongly inhibited the growth of six grampositive bacterial strains. No growth inhibition was observed against four gram-negative strains. Free fatty acids made up 18.6% of total quill lipids in samples collected in the summer, and 5.5% of total lipid in samples collected in the winter. The fatty acids were separated and identified (as the methyl esters) by gas-liquid chromatography and mass spectroscopy. Major components of a complex mixture included 14-methylpentadecanoic, 9-hexadecenoic, hexadecanoic, and 9-octadecenoic acids. It is suggested that porcupines benefit from the quill fatty acids: evidence from healed fractures of major skeletal components (35.1% incidence in 37 skeletons examined) suggests that porcupines fall relatively frequently from trees. Quill antibiotics may limit self-injury suffered in such falls.
... Meanwhile, several investigations have been conducted on the fatty acid content in quill of porcupine. For example, Roze et al. [30] in a study on the antibiotic properties in the quill of North American porcupine as well as Inayah et al. [12] on the nutritional content in the quill of Sunda porcupine. According to Inayah et al. [12], the quill of Sunda porcupine consists of 0.44% crude fat and 18.6% is mainly fatty acids. ...
... The composition of sebum is specific to each species of animal [18,30], in the sebaceous glandular part, GCMS was used to identify C12 to C25 chains with oleic (C18:1), palmitic (C16:0), stearic (C18:0), linoleic (C18:1), 14-methylhexadecanoic (C17:0), lignoceric (C24:0), and lauric acid (C12:0) being the most abundant with greater relative content than other fatty acids. This composition is specific compared to other rodents such as mice, rats, and guinea pigs [34]. ...
... Several saturated fatty acids with C6-C18 are known to have antibacterial activities at certain temperatures, concentrations, and time [2,5,[14][15][16]21]. Palmitic (C16:0), 14-methylpentadecanoic (iso C16:0) and oleic acid (18:1) are the major fatty acid in the quil of North American porcupine, Erethizon dorsatum, with confirmed antibacterial activity against some Gram-positive bacteria, such as S. aureus and Bacillus cereus [30]. These types of fatty acids were also found in the skin of Sunda porcupine. ...
The fatty acid composition in the skin of Sunda porcupine (Hystrix javanica) is an interesting topic due to the special features of quills, especially in the dorsal region. Therefore, this study aims to analyze the composition of fatty acids in the dorsal region of Sunda porcupine skin. It was conducted using skin samples of the thoracodorsal and lumbosacral regions taken by biopsies and from frozen specimens. The skin lipid was extracted and then derivatized into fatty acid methyl ester before analyzing with gas chromatography mass spectrometry. The results showed that the skin is composed of up to 25 fatty acids ranging from C12 to C25 with various types but only 16 were found in both regions and sexes. Fatty acids with an antibacterial effect were found abundantly, such as oleic, palmitic, stearic, and linoleic acids. The total abundance in the thoracodorsal region was higher than lumbosacral, while the composition in male was higher than in female. Based on the results, the fatty acid composition in the dorsal skin region of Sunda porcupine consists of at least 16 types ranging from C12-C25. Additionally, the region and sex were observed to contribute significantly to the variation in skin fatty acid composition.
... Aside from bats, information on the antimicrobial properties of wild mammal sebum is available for only two other species. The free fatty acid portion of lipids that coat porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum) quills inhibits some bacteria strains in vitro (Roze, Locke & Vatakis, 1990). Some fatty acids from northern fur seal (Callorhinus ursinus) skin, such as oleic acid and stearic acid, inhibited growth of five dermatophyte species in vitro (Waldorf & Vedros, 1978). ...
... For example, the amounts of myristic, stearic, and linoleic acids on the wing of Myotis lucifugus decreases over the hibernation season while pentadecanoic, palmitoleic, and oleic acid levels increase (Frank et al., 2016;Ingala et al., 2017). Sebum composition also changes in porcupines (Erethizon dorsatum) as the free fatty acid portion of lipids coating the quills is higher in summer compared to winter (Roze, Locke & Vatakis, 1990). Sebum quantity is generally higher in summer than winter. ...
Diseases vary among and within species but the causes of this variation can be unclear. Immune responses are an important driver of disease variation, but mechanisms on how the body resists pathogen establishment before activation of immune responses are understudied. Skin surfaces of mammals are the first line of defense against abiotic stressors and pathogens, and skin attributes such as pH, microbiomes, and lipids influence disease outcomes. Sebaceous glands produce sebum composed of multiple types of lipids with species-specific compositions. Sebum affects skin barrier function by contributing to minimizing water loss, supporting thermoregulation, protecting against pathogens, and preventing UV-induced damage. Sebum also affects skin microbiome composition both via its antimicrobial properties, and by providing potential nutrient sources. Intra-and interspecific variation in sebum composition influences skin disease outcomes in humans and domestic mammal species but is not well-characterized in wildlife. We synthesized knowledge on sebum function in mammals in relation to skin diseases and the skin microbiome. We found that sebum composition was described for only 29 live, wild mammalian species. Sebum is important in dermatophilosis, various forms of dermatitis, demodicosis, and potentially white-nose syndrome. Sebum composition likely affects disease susceptibility, as lipid components can have antimicrobial functions against specific pathogens. It is unclear why sebum composition is species-specific, but both phylogeny and environmental effects may drive differences. Our review illustrates the role of mammal sebum function and influence on skin microbes in the context of skin diseases, providing a baseline for future studies to elucidate mechanisms of disease resistance beyond immune responses.
... Several investigations have been conducted regarding the antibacterial activity of porcupine quills. The free fatty acid extract from the quills of the American porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum) is reported to possess antibacterial action against numerous gram-positive bacterial species (Roze et al. 1990). Prawira's (Prawira 2019) research on the Sunda porcupine revealed that the porcupine's skin contains fatty acids that have antibacterial properties. ...
... Sunda porcupine quills are reported to contain 18.6% free fatty acids (Inayah et al., 2020). Sunda porcupine quills have the same percentage of free fatty acids as American porcupine quills (18.6 percent) (Roze et al. 1990). ...
Gifardi MD, Sutardi LN, Farida WR, Prawira AY, Agungpriyono S. 2022. Antibacterial activity of Sunda porcupine quill extract (Hystrix javanica) against Staphylococcus aureus. Biodiversitas 23: 4355-4360. The Sunda porcupine (Hystrix Javanica) is a rare mammal with quill-like hair covering its body. Because the Sunda porcupine has extensive sebaceous glands, the neutral carbohydrate content is well-distributed and is known to have excellent wound healing. In addition, the high acid content of porcupine quills is believed to influence wound healing by inhibiting the growth of bacteria that cause infection on the skin. This study aims to demonstrate the antibacterial activity of the Sunda porcupine quill extract, determine the antibacterial ability of the Sunda porcupine quill extract, and examine the influence of concentration variations on the growth inhibition of Staphylococcus aureus bacteria. Well-diffusion testing of the antibacterial activity of the Sunda porcupine quill extract (so that it is well-diffusion). The test findings demonstrated that the Sunda porcupine quill extract possessed antibacterial properties. The antibacterial activity of porcupine quill extract was indicated by the diameter of the clear zone (inhibition zone) based on the variation of the extract concentration used, namely 100%, 50%, 25%, 12.5%, 6.25%, 3.125%, 1.5625%. The antibacterial activity of the Sunda porcupine quill extract was seen at concentrations of 100%, 50%, and 25%, with the average diameter of the clear zone being 14.88 mm ± 2.43; 12.24 mm ± 2.59; and 12.74 mm ± 3.69. The test results showed an effect of variations in the concentration of Sunda porcupine quill extract on the diameter of the clear zone (P??=0.05) based on the one-way ANOVA test. Sunda porcupine quill extract with concentrations of 100%, 50%, and 25% is included in the category of strong antibacterial so that it can be used as an antibacterial agent.
... The presence of lower fatty acids like caprylic acid (C 8:0 ), capric acid (C 10:0 ) and lauric acid (C 12:0 ) in adult porcupine and hedgehog may have a pheromonal importance considering their low volatility. It has been reported that different fatty acids of the porcupine quill also serve as antibacterial agents for repairing wounds (Roze et al. 1990). This is valid for any hair ⁄quill. ...
... For a few years, we are concentrating our work on the ultrastructure and chemical analysis of epidermal structures of mammalian hair like lion mane -porcupine quill -and hedgehog spine to assess their role as putative sources of communicatory signals. Of these, the ultramorphology and chemical analysis of lion mane hair as a putative source of pheromone (Poddar-Sarkar et al. 2008) has been reported earlier, while a hint of greasy appearance of porcupine quill employed for individual recognition (Roze et al. 1990) and functional osmetrichia of the rosette quills of the North American porcupine (Li et al. 1997) also suggest a similar possibility. Certain American bear species rub their back on tree trunks, leaving communicatory (territorial) semiochemicals (Burst and Pelton 1983;Pelton et al.1999). ...
Ultrastructure and lipid chemistry of specialized epidermal structure of Indian porcupines and hedgehog
... Upon being impaled, the quills are readily released from the porcupine's skin through a mechanism of rupture in the anchoring tissue near the quill root (Chapman and Roze 1997;Roze 2002). The quills can progressively enter into the opponent's muscular tissue, becoming difficult to remove and causing considerable damage to the tissue owing to the backward orientation of the microscopic barbs (Cho et al. 2012;Roze 2009;Roze, Locke, and Vatakis 1990). ...
New World porcupines (Erethizontidae) exhibit behaviors and possess integumentary structures, including the quills, that are used for self‐defense. The North American porcupine ( Erethizon dorsatum ) has been well studied regarding these features; however, information is lacking for the South American Coendou species. We describe the defensive behavior and integumentary morphology of Coendou spinosus to understand the defensive strategies of this species and to compare with those reported for other species. We assessed the behaviors related to warning, defense, and escape of eight porcupines, as well as the characteristics of their pelage and quills. Furthermore, we microscopically analyzed skin samples of a roadkill adult male specimen. Similar to E. dorsatum , C. spinosus exhibited omnidirectional quill erection, revealing an aposematic color and, with their backs toward the perceived human threat, they performed quick tail and body movements to strike the hands of the human trying to capture them by the tail. Furthermore, C. spinosus presented an integumentary structure similar to that of E. dorsatum , and mechanisms to facilitate quill release when touched, penetration, and fixation in the opponent. The most distinct warning behavior noted was the vibration of the quills, which has not been reported for Erethizon . Our study confirms that, like other erethizontids, C. spinosus does not attack but exhibits warning, defense, and escape mechanisms and behaviors when threatened or touched. The dissemination of such information helps to counter the negative stigma associated with porcupines, as they can be the victims of attacks by dogs and humans, and to promote their conservation.
... Another body part believed to be used in traditional medicine was quills which can be collected easily without killing the porcupine since they can relinquish the quills periodically. The North American porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum) quills were reported that have antibiotic properties associated with free fatty acids (but not neutral lipids) coating the quills [9]. Extracts of quill fatty acids strongly inhibited the growth of six strains of gram-positive bacteria. ...
... To the best of our knowledge, studies inspiny animals such as porcupine (Hystricidae and Erethizontidae), tenrec (Tenrecidae), hedgehog, and others received more attention in the aspect of the spine structure (Roze et al., 1990;Zherebtsova, 2000), while the skin biochemical aspect received less attention. Alpha tocopherol has an important role in the physiology and defense of the body in the skin. ...
Alpha tocopherol, as the most active component of Vitamine E, is identified as antioxidant present in some parts of the skin and the concentration is variesdepends on regions of the body due to differences of the skin characteristic of the region. Sunda Porcupine (Hystrix javanica) is one of the indigenous rodents of Indonesia with quill as its spesific skin characteristic. The porcupine quills are distributed in various shapes and sizes in body, while dorsal region and the tail are the body part that have the most developed forms. This study aimed to measure alpha tocopherol content in the dorsal region skin of male and female Sunda porcupine. The study used skin samples of thoracodorsal and lumbosacral regions of 4 males and 4 females of Sunda porcupine. Samples were prepared and processed for analysis through high performance liquid chromatography. The results showed that the level of alpha tocopherol in the thoracodorsal region of males and females is significantly higher than in the lumbosacral region.In conclusion, the results of this study suggested that characteristics of the dorsal skin region of Sunda Porcupine presumably contribute to the level of alpha tocopherol.
Keywords: antioxidant, dermis, epidermis, quill cluster, quill follicle, sebaceous gland
Copyright © 2018 JRVI. All rights reserved.
... When the above practices miscarry, the porcupine will attack to predators by running to sideward or rearward. Furthermore, porcupine's tail is capable of strike in the track of target and when connection is done, the quills might be pierced into the predator initiating wound or passing away [26]. ...
The goal of this article is to inform community regarding porcupines damage, and deliver guidelines for their harmless, real and liable elimination. The utmost apparent attribute of porcupines is their extensive, piercing and shakable quills, which shelter backs of the physiques that make them hit, as a threatening to probable raiders. In general, porcupines occur the maximum in mountainous and gravelly states, however these may adjust in many territories like extremely wet plantations and somewhat territory comprising of prairies, foothills, deserts and tropical forests. Porcupines can become a pest by eating of carrots and other root vegetables, clovers, roots, fruits as well as foraging on the farm crops. A definite indication of porcupine burrow is a mound of feces at entering site of cave or hollow tree. In this global region, Hystrix indica Kerr is most plentiful and scattered species, and has been familiarized as a severe pest of fruit orchards, vegetables, flowering plants, forage grasses in pastures or rangelands and traditional as well as non-traditional crops. When porcupines inflict optimum damage, then their control actions must be adopted. A pest controlling expert can provide skill to recognize the porcupines problematic and decide the superlative promising way out to decide the pest annoyance. Prior to executing a loss managing method, evaluate the porcupines incidence by means of watching for shattered quills, fecal masses beneath nourishing and sleeping plants, or distinctive injury marks to trees in a region. Manipulate habitat to attract more natural predators to control porcupine populations, place aluminum flashing around mature tree trunks and enclose small trees with wire baskets, and enclosure areas with electric or nonelectric fencing, to stop porcupines from gnawing at their bark. Implement forest management practices to reduce food supply and some wood preservatives applied to trees, and use of poison baits may provide partial damage relief. During late spring and summer activity periods, shooting of pest is most effective option, and use steel leg-hold traps lured by salt-soaked ingredients and placing proximate to alive burrows or else frequently used tracks.
... Berdasarkan penelitian Roze (1990) ...
Porcupine is a rodent that has widespread distribution from Africa to Southeast Asia for old world porcupine and America for new world porcupine. Porcupine has economic value that potentially develop. The utilization of porcupine tends to increase in recent year. Most of the part of porcupine can be used for various things. Porcupine quills are known to be used for decorative and aesthetic elements. Its meat is nutritious and considered as healthier than beef. It also has been used for medication. Therefore, considering that porcupine has high economic value, it is important increase the captive breeding effort and facilities.
... Though not thoroughly explored, the thin-spined porcupine' quills have a place in traditional medicine, and like other popular knowledge, it might not be just the common imagination. Roze [41] found that the quills of the North American Porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum) are coated by antibiotic substances that prevent infection if an animal is hurt by its own quills. So the popular use of quills of the thin-spined porcupine may have an actual therapeutic basis and could be proven effective by science. ...
The thin-spined porcupine, Chaetomys subspinosus, is an endemic mammal of the Atlantic forest of northeastern Brazil. With its population declining, it has been listed as "vulnerable" in the Brazilian Red List. Its National Action Plan, published in 2011, intended to develop awareness projects about the species in local communities, to implement alternative income projects and protein consumption, and to evaluate hunting pressure. This study investigates rural residents' knowledge of the thin-spined porcupine and its uses within two protected areas. We also examine residents' behaviour and perceptions about wildlife conservation. One hundred twenty-five semi-structured interviews were conducted with rural residents of the Una Wildlife Refuge and the Serra do Conduru State Park. Local knowledge was higher among males with lower levels of formal education who were current or past hunters. Negative behaviour occurs among residents in both protected areas. There is a need for greater control of potential threats such as hunting, use of fire and deforestation, which are inconsistent with the existence of protected areas and conservation of the thin-spined porcupine. Information provided by this study can improve and promote actions within the National Action Plan for the conservation of C. subspinosus. © Luciana C. Castilho, Romari A. Martinez, Gastón A. F. Giné, Gabriela C. Ribeiro, Alexandre Schiavetti.
... The main differences compared to the straight chain analogues are the lower melting temperature combined with an inherent resistance to oxidation which double bonds would engender, 44 a larger area per molecule when forming a tightly packed monolayer, 43 which may lead to a better match of the limited number of cystein residues available to anchor the fatty acid to the molecular structure, 44 and finally a possible bacteriostatic effect. 47 The number of reported investigations concerning the molecular conformation and other monolayer properties is substantially scarcer for branched chain fatty acids than for their straight chain analogues. Previous investigations encompass for instance ATR-FTIR measurements and com-pression isotherms of 18 and 19-MEA, 48 compression isotherms of iso fatty acids of various chain lengths, 49 molecular dynamics simulations of 18-MEA, 50, 51 and tribological measurements 52,53 . ...
Monolayers of molecules are capable of completely changing the nature of sur-faces and their interactions with the surroundings despite their almost negligible thickness. In the research presented in this doctoral thesis the surface specific technique Vibrational Sum Frequency Spectroscopy (VSFS) was combined with the Langmuir trough to investigate various manifestations of monolayers, such as biomimetic membranes, mono methyl branched long chain fatty acids in contact with air, and hydrophobic silane monolayers in contact with water.
VSFS was applied to in situ studies of the oxidative degradation of Langmuir mon-olayers of 1,2-diacylphosphocholines with identical C-18 chains featuring various degrees of unsaturation. The monolayer area and vinyl CH signal intensity were probed at constant surface pressure to monitor the degradation. The rapid deg-radation of the unsaturated lipids in contact with the ambient air is attributed to oxidation of the C=C bonds mediated by reactive species in the air and can be inhibited by purging the compartment surrounding the monolayer with nitrogen.
The molecular structure and order of Langmuir monolayers of 1,2-distearoyl-phosphocholine (18:0 PC) and their hydrating water were investigated at different surface pressures using VSFS. The monolayers are conformationally well ordered at all surface pressures and the signal intensity increases due to larger molecular number density at increasing surface pressures. Also, water signals with different vibrational frequencies are observed in different polarization combinations.
Additionally, a selection of common phospholipids (18:0 PC, 18:0 PC-D83 and 18:0 PS) were Langmuir-Blodgett (LB) deposited on CaF2 substrates and the CH- and OH-stretching regions as well as lower wavenumber regions were probed using VSFS. The orientation of the conformationally well ordered aliphatic chains was determined to be approximately perpendicular to the sample surface.
Monolayers of eicosanoic acid, its iso (19-MEA), and anteiso (18-MEA) analogues were investigated with VSFS, AFM imaging, and the Langmuir trough. The EA forms smooth, featureless monolayers when deposited on silica, while 19-MEA and 18-MEA form 10 -50 nm large domains with homogeneous size distribution. It was not possible to discriminate between the monolayers of racemic and chiral 18 MEA using any of the techniques employed
The influence of the experimental geometry on the SF spectral shape and en-hancement at and near total internal reflection conditions (TIR) were systemati-cally investigated by comparing simulations with recorded data from a hydro-phobized silica / water interface. The data agree qualitatively, but not quantita-tively, with the simulations, and the reasons were critically discussed.
The water structure next to ordered and disordered hydrophobic silane monolay-ers on silica was investigated using VSFS. The results indicate that the structure of water next to a well ordered hydrophobic monolayer, with the exception of the first layer of water molecules, is not much different from that in the isotropic bulk. This is in contrast to the previous notion where such monolayers were assumed to induce a more ordered interfacial water structure.
... The main differences compared to corresponding straight chain fatty acids appears to be the lower melting temperature without the inherent oxidation instability which double bonds would engender, 2,5,6 together with the different packing structure due to the space requirements of the methyl branch. 1 In addition, the inhibition of bilayer formation and a better match of the area per molecule to the limited number of cysteine residues available for anchoring the fatty acids to the macromolecular structure have been proposed. 2 Furthermore shorter chain anteiso fatty acids have proven to possess bacteriostatic properties 1,7 and because various iso and anteiso fatty acids are commonly found in bacteria they are even used as taxonomic indicators. 3,8 Both floating and deposited mono-and multilayers of straight chain saturated and unsaturated fatty acids have been extensively investigated by a wide variety of techniques such as X-rays, AFM, LB-experiments, and spectroscopic techniques. ...
The morphology and molecular conformation of Langmuir-Blodgett deposited and floating monolayers of a selection of straight chain (eicosanoic acid, EA), iso (19-methyl eicosanoic acid, 19-MEA), and anteiso (18-methyl eicosanoic acid, 18-MEA) fatty acids have been investigated by Vibrational Sum Frequency Spectroscopy (VSFS), AFM imaging, and the Langmuir trough. While the straight chain fatty acid forms smooth, featureless monolayers, all the branched chain fatty acids display 10-50 nm sized domains (larger for 19-MEA than the 18-MEA) with a homogeneous size distribution. A model is suggested to explain the domain formation and size in terms of the branched fatty acid packing properties and the formation of hemispherical caps at the liquid-air interface. No difference between the chiral (S) form and the racemic mixture of the 18-MEA is observed with any of the utilized techniques. The aliphatic chains of the straight chain fatty acids appear to be oriented perpendicular to the sample surface, based on an orientational analysis of VSFS data and the odd/even effect. In addition, the selection of the subphase (neat water or CdCl2 containing water buffered to pH 6.0) used for the LB-deposition has a profound influence on the monolayer morphology, packing density, compressibility, and conformational order. Finally, the orientation of the 19-MEA dimethyl moiety is estimated, and a strategy for performing an orientational analysis to determine the complete molecular orientation of the aliphatic chains of 19-MEA and 18-MEA is outlined and discussed.
... Thus, because porcupines routinely fall out of trees, they risk self-impalement (Hale and Fuller 1996;Roze 1989). Risks of infection in such accidents are reduced by the quill surface coating of free fatty acids, which have antibiotic properties (Roze et al. 1990). By evolving quill adaptations for olfactory and visual aposematic signaling, adaptations for reducing self-infection risk, and adaptations for enhancing quill separation after a predator strike, the porcupine quill has maintained its effectiveness against predators while reducing incidental costs to its owner. ...
Quill-withdrawal experiments confirm a hypothesis proposing that North American porcupines (Erethizon dorsatum) give up a quill more easily if the quill's root is first thrust back sharply into the porcupine's skin. The hypothesis was
tested in 8 porcupines. When quills are impacted in a way that mimics contact with a predator, the tension required to remove
an impacted quill from the porcupine's skin was reduced from 90.3 g ± 16.8 SD by 38.1%. The phenomenon was observed only in quills that had been erected by porcupines. This tension-reducing mechanism
allows a porcupine to separate more readily from an attacking predator and adds to the effectiveness of porcupine quills as
smart weapons.
... The presence of a branched chain fatty acid does not seem essential for these purposes but it could be required to avoid oxidative or bacterial degradation. Branched chain fatty acids found in porcupine quills, are reported to have a bactericidal role (Rose et al. 1990). Further work is needed to determine the role of 18-methyleicosanoic acid esters in keratin fibres. ...
The wool fibre contains a fatty acid component which can only be liberated from the fibre by treatment with alcoholic alkali solutions. The major fatty acid from this component has been isolated in quantity and purified. Using GC/MS and NMR, the fatty acid was identified as 18-methyleicosanoic acid. The results obtained from transesterification experiments suggest that the fatty acid is covalently bound to the fibre protein by an ester linkage.
... Anecdotal accounts of individual wild mammals surviving limb fractures (e.g., Glander, 1930;Gilbert and Hill, 1956) and even amputations (Barkalow, 1956) abound. In a study of porcupines (Erethizon dorsatum), raccoons (Procyon lotor), and woodchucks (Marmota monax), the incidence of healed fractures was 7-35% (Roze et al., 1990). Few studies, however, report the incidence of fractures in specific populations of smaller terrestrial mammals. ...
X-rays of the deformed femur of a least shrew (Cryptotis parvus) revealed an ossified callus enclosing a greatly displaced, spiral fracture. Based on models of fracture healing, this shrew lived for at least 28 days postfracture. Survival of major fractures in the wild may not be uncommon.
... It has been noted that wounds, including human wounds, inflicted by the porcupine quills are rarely inflammated if dirt does not come into them: the quills are covered by fatty acids, rather by neutral fat like hairs of most mammals. Fatty acids have bactericide properties (Roze et al., 1990). The transport of these substances appears to be enhanced by many gapscavities in the cortical layer ("fusi" after Hausman, 1932) and a peculiar cuticle of the furrows-which is characteristic or quills, but not for hair even with furrows (guard hair of Tokudaia, Leopoldamys, Maxomys, Niviventer, and Acomys). ...
The architectonics of spines and hair was studied in Neacomys spinosus, Tokudaia osimensis, Arvicanthis somalicus, Leopoldamys sabanus, L. edwardsi, Maxomys moi, M. surifer, Niviventer fulvescens, N. confucianus, N. cremoriventer, Acomys cahirinus, A. somalica, Hystrix indica, H. cristata, Atherurus macrourus, Erethizon dorsatum, Proechimys steerei, and Lonchotrix emiliae. The presence of a dorsal longitudinal furrow covered by a modified cuticle is a common structural feature of spines in all studied species except E. dorsatum, H. indica, and H. cristata. The frontal surface of the mosaic (scales located side by side) and terrace cuticle (steps between scales) varies in different species from smooth to rib-folded. A terminology has been proposed to describe the main structures of spine and hair. The adaptive significance of the spine architectonics in rodents is discussed.
... This fatty acid is therefore a very good marker for comparative studies of covalently° bound lipids in keratinized tissues. A related fatty acid, 14-methylpentadecanoic acid, has been found in the wax coating of porcupine quills (Rose et al., 1990). Wertz and Downing (1989) confirmed the presence of strongly bound lipids in the hair taken from five different Eutherian mammals. ...
1. Covalently-bound fatty acids were characterized in keratinous tissues obtained from a wide range of animals. 2. 18-Methyleicosanoic acid was a major component in all the mammalian fur samples examined except monotreme fur. In monotreme fur 26-carbon fatty acids predominated. 3. Fatty acids from feather keratin and reptile skin had different profiles to the alpha-keratins of mammalian fur. 4. The major forms of covalently-bound fatty acids are very similar in species that diverged up to 125 million years ago.
... It has been noted that wounds, including human wounds, inflicted by the porcupine quills are rarely inflammated if dirt does not come into them: the quills are covered by fatty acids, rather by neutral fat like hairs of most mammals. Fatty acids have bactericide properties (Roze et al., 1990). The transport of these substances appears to be enhanced by many gapscavities in the cortical layer ("fusi" after Hausman, 1932) and a peculiar cuticle of the furrows-which is characteristic or quills, but not for hair even with furrows (guard hair of Tokudaia, Leopoldamys, Maxomys, Niviventer, and Acomys). ...
The architectonics of spines and hair was studied in Neacomys spinosus, Arvicanthis somalicus, Leopoldamys sabanus, L. edwardsi, Maxomys moi, M. surifer, Niviventer fulvescens, N. confucianus, N. cremoriventer, Acomys cahirinus, A. somalica, Hystrix indica, H. cristata, Atherurus macrourus, Erethizon dorsatum, Proechimys steerei, and Lonchotrix emiliae. The presence of a dorsal longitudinal furrow covered by a modified cuticle is a common structural feature of spines in all studied species except E. dorsatum, H. indica, and the frontal surface of the mosaic (scales located side by side) and terrace cuticle (steps between scales) varies in different species from smooth to rib-folded. A terminology has been proposed to describe the main structures of spine and hair. The adaptive significance of the spine architectonics in rodents is discussed.
The North American (NA) porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum) is a rodent species with specialized hair structures called quills designed to detach and penetrate into tissues of any human or animal coming into contact with them. The objective of this study was to characterize the fungal flora of the quills in the region of the rosette in wild NA porcupines to further define health risks to NA porcupines and any animal coming into contact with the quills. A total of 17 adult NA porcupines were sampled, and fungal culture was performed. Fungal organisms were cultured from 15 (88.2%) of 17 samples. Thirty-three isolates of 10 different fungal genera were cultured. The most frequently isolated fungi were Lodderomyces elongisporus (n = 7, 41.2%), Candida spp. (n = 3, 17.6%), and Penicillium spp. (n = 2, 11.8%). Eleven (64.7%) individuals grew multiple fungal organisms. In humans and animals quilled by porcupines, fungal culture should be considered in cases of infection, and if isolates resembling Candida spp. are isolated, matrix-assisted laser desorption-ionization time of flight or molecular methods are necessary to rule out L. elongisporus.
Sarcoptic mange causes pruritic and crusting dermatitis in a large number of mammalian species with varying population impacts. Between 2016 and 2022, 15 North American porcupines (Erethizon dorsatum) were diagnosed with sarcoptic mange at Cornell University's Janet L. Swanson Wildlife Hospital in Ithaca, New York. Disease severity varied among individuals but all shared a similar unique presentation with thick, pale tan to yellow crusts limited in distribution to the ventral, nonquilled areas of the body, including the ventral abdomen and thorax, distal limbs, and face. The thick, hard nature of the crusts resulted in additional complications in many individuals, including inability to move the jaw and cracking and fissuring of the crusts and skin over joints of the limbs. Mites were plentiful within the crusts, with some burrowing into the epidermis as deep as the stratum spinosum. Secondary bacterial and/or fungal dermatitis were common, resulting in sepsis and death in three of the porcupines. Treatment with avermectins (ivermectin and/or selamectin) for 4–5 wk was successful in 12 cases in combination with other supportive care measures, including subcutaneous fluids, antimicrobials, and analgesics. Porcupines were hospitalized for an average of 18 d (ranging from 7 to 50 d) prior to transfer to a licensed wildlife rehabilitator for continued treatment and eventual release back into the wild.
A structural protein called keratin is often employed in the medical industry to create medication carriers. Process improvement, antioxidant, antibacterial, and adjuvant drug studies of synthetic bioactive keratin microparticles made from lipids and keratin derived from porcupine (Hystrix indica) quills are the main objectives of this study. After coating the keratin microparticles with lipids which were obtained from the same porcupine quills, the bioactive keratin microparticles were produced. The response surface technique was applied to optimize the conditions for extraction of the keratin protein and sizing of the keratin microparticles. An infrared spectroscopy was used to analyze the chemical shifts in compositions of keratin microparticles while the optical microscopy was used to measure the size of the keratin microparticles. The results of this work revealed that a yield 27.36 to 42.25% of the keratin protein could be obtained from porcupine quills. The keratin microparticles were sized between 60.65 and 118.87 µm. Through response surface optimization, mercaptoethanol and urea were shown to be the main variables which positively affected the yield and the size of the keratin protein. The lipid stacking on the keratin microparticles' surface was confirmed by infrared spectroscopy. The 2,2-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonate) assay confirmed the keratin microparticle's antioxidant activity of 29.83%. Compared to lipid alone, the antibacterial properties of the keratin microparticles against Escherichia coli-a gram-negative-and Staphylococcus aureus-a gram-positive-bacteria enhanced How to cite this article Majeed Z, Farhat H, Ahmad B, Iqbal A, Faiz AH, Mahnashi MH, Alqarni AO, Alqahtani O, Ali AA, Momenah AM. 2023. Process optimization, antioxidant, antibacterial, and drug adjuvant properties of bioactive keratin microparticles derived from porcupine (Hystrix indica) quills. PeerJ 11:e15653 http://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.15653 by up to 55% following the coating of the microparticles with the lipids. The pharmacological action against these bacterial species was further improved by the lipid-loaded erythromycin that was carried on the surface of keratin microparticles. This work has demonstrated the design and uses of the keratin microparticles obtained from porcupine quills for clinical applications.
It is shown that the air–liquid interface can be made to display the same rich curvature phenomena as common lyotropic liquid crystal systems. Through mixing an insoluble, naturally occurring, branched fatty acid, with an unbranched fatty acid of the same length, systematic variation in the packing constraints at the air–water interface could be obtained. The combination of atomic force microscopy and neutron reflectometry is used to demonstrate that the water surface exhibits significant tuneable topography. By systematic variation of the two fatty acid proportions, ordered arrays of monodisperse spherical caps, cylindrical sections, and a mesh phase are all observed, as well as the expected lamellar structure. The tuneable deformability of the air–water interface permits this hitherto unexplored topological diversity, which is analogous to the phase elaboration displayed by amphiphiles in solution. It offers a wealth of novel possibilities for the tailoring of nanostructure.
Porcupine quill injuries are common in more northern parts of North America. Quills should be removed under heavy sedation or anesthesia. Quill migration can cause a variety of problems, including pneumothorax, ocular, neurological, cardiac or musculoskeletal complications.
Background: It has recently been demonstrated that human hair also contains lipids. On the hair surface, the lipid layer is attached to the outer surface of hair covalently bonded to hair proteins. However, there have been no reports on lipid distribution in human hair follicles yet. Objective: The purpose of this study was to demonstrate the lipids of the hair follicle and its distribution and also to examine the lipid composition of the hair follicle. Material and Methods: Follicles were obtained from the occipital region of the scalp which were not under the influence of anagen hormone. The specimens were stained using typical methods of oil red O, Holzinger's copper-rubeanic acid modification, perchloric acid-naphthoquinone reaction. Results: 1. Oil red O staining that could be used to stain all lipids was well detected in the area, Henle's layer of inner root sheath (IRS), IRS cuticle, and hair cuticle, which were keratinzed earlier in the hair follicle. 2. The hair cuticle and the IRS were stained dark green on Holzinger's copper-rubeanic acid modification that could be used to stain free fatty acids. 3. The IRS was stained gray-blue on perchloric acid-naphthoquinone reaction method that could be used to stain cholesterol and its esters. Conclusion: The present results demonstrate that the lipids of the hair follicle are located on the hair cuticle and the keratinized area of the IRS. They can act as a barrier of the hair follicle.
Could a porcupine make a good pet? Do they ever stick themselves or other porcupines with their quills? In this latest addition to the Animal Answer Guide series, we learn about these mysterious animals' "pincushion defense" along with the following facts: porcupines survive on a diet of leaves, bark, and fruit quills are actually modified hairs there are 26 species of porcupines (and counting) Old World and New World porcupines have a common ancestor but evolved independently New World males will gather to fight ferociously over a single female Porcupines: The Animal Answer Guide presents solid, current science of porcupine biology. Uldis Roze compares porcupines in terms of body plan, behavior, ecology, reproduction, and evolutionary relationships. He examines the diversity of porcupines from around the world-from North and South America to Africa and Asia. This guide explores the interactions between humans and porcupines, including hunting, use of quills by aboriginal societies, efforts to poison porcupines, and human and pet injuries (and deaths) caused by porcupines. Roze also highlights the conservation issues that surround some porcupine species, such as the thin-spine porcupine of Brazil, which is so rare that it was thought to be extinct until its rediscovery in the 1980s. © 2012 The Johns Hopkins University Press. All rights reserved.
Negative ion time of flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) analysis of rigorously cleaned untreated, hydroxylamine and potassium hydroxide (KOH)-treated wool fabrics, produced with minimal finishing, has revealed the possible presence of hitherto unidentified bound acids at the surface of the wool fibre. Spectral peaks have been assigned to C8 through to C22 fatty acids, the odd numbered acids of which have been assigned to anteiso acids, (a), akin to the anteiso acid 18-methyleicosanoic acid known to be the dominant fatty acid bound to keratin fibre surfaces. This has included the assignment of some small peaks to hydroxylated aC18H36(OH)COS− and aC20H40(OH)COS− species, where the hydroxyl group is attached to the asymmetric 16 or 18 numbered carbon atom in the alkyl chain, respectively. The study has confirmed that many of the acids are bound to the fibre surface by thioester linkages (about 70%) and that the remainder is bound by oxygen ester acyl linkages. ToF-SIMS analysis of hydroxylamine-treated wool has confirmed the removal of all the thioester bound surface lipids, as well as lesser quantities but not all of the acyl bound lipids. In contrast, a 2 h KOH treatment removes all surface accessible bound lipids. Positive ion ToF-SIMS spectral analyses have not proved useful in characterising the possibly thiol rich fibre surface remaining after hydroxylamine treatment. The formation of characteristic immonium ions from surface cysteine residues after hydroxylamine treatment has been shown not to occur for free cysteine and so is unlikely to occur for such residues at the wool fibre surface. Scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy analyses have also been performed to assess the extent of the hydroxylamine reaction with the fibre. The implications of these findings for currently proposed models of the wool fibre surface, and for exploiting reactions of hydroxylamine followed by other electrophilic reagents to produce modified wool surfaces, are also discussed.
Poddar-Sarkar, M., Raha, P., Bhar, R., Chakraborty, A. and Brahmachary, R.L. 2011. Ultrastructure and lipid chemistry of specialized epidermal structure of Indian porcupines and hedgehog. —Acta Zoologica (Stockholm) 92: 134–140.
In the present study, we investigated the ultrastructural variations of specialized epidermal structure of Indian porcupines (Hystrix indica and Atherurus macrourus) and hedgehog (Hemiechinus collaris) as well as the variation in the fatty acid composition of total lipid fraction. Scanning electron microscope images reveal the usual scaly structure in surface view and network of channels in cross-section but with different orientation of partition walls. The lipid profile reveals the presence of free sterol, long-chain alcohol, free fatty acids, wax ester and sterol ester in all the three cases and trace amount of triglyceride, diglyceride and monoglyceride. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry analysis of fatty acid methyl ester of total lipid fraction indicates the presence of C8-C22 fatty acids in Hystrix indica, C8-C18 in Atherurus macrourus and C8-C20 fatty acids in Hemiechinus collaris. It is interesting to note that the total lipid fraction of hedgehog shows no branched-chain, unsaturated and odd-carbon fatty acids. Odd-carbon fatty acid and branched-chain fatty acids detected in the adult H. indica but were absent in juvenile H. indica as well as in A. macrourus. With the exception of C18:1, the other unsaturated fatty acids were also absent in both juvenile H. indica and A. macrourus.
Volatile compounds in the lipid coating of the lower-back quills of the North American porcupine,Erethizon dorsatum, were collected using headspace trapping on Tenax and analyzed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS), GC with organoleptic detection, and GC with a chiral stationary phase. Over 50 components were isolated, primarily oxygenated aliphatics, lactones, and isoprenoids. The most abundant constituent was tetradecyl acetate, which does not contribute significantly to the odor of the quill lipids. GC with a wide-bore capillary column and a human nose as detector was used to determine the retention time of the peak with the characteristic porcupine odor. Comparison of this organoleptic chromatogram with those obtained with a flame ionization detector and GC-MS showed the compound to be a -decalactone. The racemic mixture of this optically active substance does not possess the unique odor. Resolution of the enantiomers of -decalactone by GC with a chiral cyclodextrin phase shows that the isomer possessing the characteristic porcupine odor is the(R)--decalactone. We suggest the biological function of this compound is to serve as a warning odor, which, in conjunction with an initial quill strike, produces a conditioned aversion in potential predators.
Although branched chain fatty acids perform many functions in biological systems, the importance of the anteiso 18 methyleicosanoic acid (MEA) has only recently been recognized. In this first review on MEA its role and distribution is explored. MEA has been found in minor amounts in the fatty acid components of a wide range of biological materials, but the current interest results from it being the major covalently bound fatty acid in mammalian hair fibres, a finding which is unusual because protein-bound fatty acids are typically straight-chain, even-numbered acids (C14-C18). MEA is released by surface restricted reagents indicating that it is located exclusively in or on the surface of the cuticle cells, a conclusion that has been verified by analysis of isolated cuticle cells, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and secondary-ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS) studies support these results in that they show the surface of the cuticle to be predominantly hydrocarbon. When either neutral hydroxylamine or acidic chlorine solutions are applied to hair and wool fibres fatty acids are liberated, indicating the presence of thioester bonds. Calculations, based on fatty acid and amino acid analysis, indicate that approximately one residue in 10 of the cuticular membrane protein is a fatty acid thioester of cysteine. Removal of this covalently linked fatty acid renders the fibre hydrophilic, thus offering a chemical explanation for many technological and cosmetic treatments of mammalian fibres. Examination of the fibre surface and that of isolated cuticle cells by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) confirms the presence of a thin non-staining continuous layer surrounding the cuticle cells. Alkaline treatments which remove the bound fatty acids were found to disrupt this layer. TEM examination of developing hair fibres has indicated that the fatty acid layer on the upper surface and scale edges of the cuticle cell differs from that of the underside of the cell. Similar structural studies of hair from patients with maple syrup urine disease (MSUD) support the findings that thioester-bound MEA is limited to the upper surface of fibre cuticle cells. The current model proposed for the boundary layer consists of crosslinked protein with surface thioester-linked fatty acids, forming a continuous hydrophobic layer on the upper surface and scale edges of the cells.
Long-term radiotelemetry was used to study patterns of den use and winter movement in porcupines (Erethizon dorsatum) in New York. Six of eight animals used dens regularly; the rest spent most of their winters in the shelter of hemlock stands (Tsuga canadensis). Animals entered dens in October–November after minimum daily temperatures had fallen below 0 °C for 6.8 days. Before this period, animals used temporary dens in response to rain or cold weather. Dens were abandoned in April when minimum daily temperatures rose above 0 °C and snow cover melted. Animals that left dens early typically sought the shelter of hemlock stands. Animals changed dens, on average, every 23 days. A single den-using adult male changed dens every 9.3 days. Den change was stimulated by disturbance. Animals showed strong year to year den fidelity. Animals shared dens 12% of the time. In all cases where sharing animals could be identified, they constituted a male–female pair that had previously shared a summer territory. Animals denned only in ready-made cavities such as rock outcrops, live hollow trees, outbuildings, and hollow logs. Heat-conserving features of such dens and of hemlock shelters are discussed. For three of four winters of the study, winter range averaged 7.4 ha, 11.4% of the nonwinter range. During the fourth winter, when snowfall was only 40% of normal, winter range did not differ significantly from nonwinter range.
The spines or quills of hedgehogs and porcupines are morphologically and mechanically different. In simple terms, it seems that the quills of porcupines are proportioned to be as long as possible without bending too easily when loaded axially. By contrast, the spines of the hedgehog are as short as possible while still able to bend when loaded axially. In addition, the hedgehog spines have an internal morphology which delays the onset of local buckling under these loads, thus enabling the spines to absorb larger amounts of mechanical energy. By contrast, the quills of Hystrix are designed to break at the tip. Thus, whilst the quills of the porcupine seem to be well adapted for keeping an enemy as far away as possible, the spines of the hedgehog probably have this as an incidental function. Their main function is much more likely to be that of a shock absorber or storage of impact energy when the animal falls from a height, a behavioural attribute which is reportedly common.
The mass of
13Be has been measured with the reaction
13C(14C,14O)13Be at E
Lab
=337 MeV. A Q-value of Q
0=−37.02(5) MeV was obtained and the mass excess is M.E.=35.16(5) MeV. If the observed line corresponds to the ground state,13 Be is particle unstable with respect to the oneneutron emission by 2.01 MeV. The observed line width of 0.3(2) MeV supports an assignment ofJ
π=5/2+ or 1/2−, but excludesJ
π=1/2+. An excited state is seen at 3.12(7) MeV; there are indications of a second excited state at 6.5(2) MeV.
Populations, movement patterns and denning of raccoons (Procyon lotor), and relationships between raccoons and nesting waterfowl were studied on a managed waterfowl marsh on western Lake Erie. Density of raccoons per square mile was estimated to be 45.3. Nine raccoons were instrumented with radio transmitters to determine movements, home ranges, and denning habits. These animals were radio-tracked 87 nights during fall and spring. The average home range included 119.6 acres but varied greatly depending on sex and age-class. Eighty-seven percent of the average home range was marsh, 8 percent woodlot, 4 percent wet meadows, and 1 percent farmland. During nocturnal hours, raccoons spent more time in the marsh than in the vicinity of the dikes. Females frequented wooded areas more than males. Seventy-three percent of all raccoon activity occurred in shallow water areas. Raccoons did not change their movements during the waterfowl nesting season as compared to other times of the year. There was no evidence of an influx of raccoons into the marsh from surrounding areas during the waterfowl nesting season. Muskrat (Ondatra zibethica) houses were used extensively as dens by 89 percent of the radio-tagged raccoons. Of 64 waterfowl nests found on the dikes of the study area during the 1967 and 1968 nesting seasons, only one was successful. Raccoons terminated 39 percent of the dike nests.
Several techniques were examined for age determination of 247 specimens of porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum dorsatum). Molariform teeth consistently showed cementum annuli when sectioned with a cryostat and stained with Harris' hematoxylin. This technique was the most dependable but was the most time consuming. Tooth replacement and wear estimates traditionally have been the most rapid technique, but showed only fair accuracy. Selected cranial measurements, body weight, and sections from digits, femurs, and bacula were not useful in differentiating ages of adults. The least costly and most rapid approach used cementum annuli counts from a subsample to quantify tooth replacement and wear patterns. Linear regression analyses of log-transformed data showed that 84.3 to 91.8% of the variation in ages estimated by this hybrid approach could be explained by the variation in ages predicted from the number of cementum annuli.
Sixty-four cougar {Felis concolor) stomachs and 41 intestinal tracts were examined for food items in northeastern Oregon from 1976 through 1979. Food items, in order of decreasing frequency, were mule deer {Odo-coileus hemionus). North American elk (Cervus elaphus), porcupine (Erethizon dorsattim), snowshoe hare [Lepus americanus), and deer mouse {Peromijsciis maniciilatus).
1.1. The skin surface lipids of 46 species of mammals were extracted from fur samples with chloroform and analysed by thin layer chromatography.2.2. Within the families Canidae, Bovidae and Equidae, there was much similarity in composition of the surface lipids among species. In other families, including Procyonidae, Sciuridae and Mustelidae, there were considerable differences among related species.3.3. Between families there were profound differences in surface lipid composition, such that quite different classes of lipids were present.4.4. Only three species, the otter (Lutra canadensis), beaver (Castor canadensis) and kinkajou (Potos flavus) produce surface lipids containing squalene, one of the principal constituents of human sebum.
1. An account of two common West Indian echinoderms is given.
2. Pathological effects, resulting from penetration of the spines and following ingestion of the ova, are described.
I first read the Manual of Skin Diseases as an intern in an attempt to teach myself the fundamentals of dermatology before I entered my formal residency. I remember, then reading the third edition, that Dr Sauer had a unique gift for explaining the bewildering concepts of skin disease in a wonderfully clear and concise manner. Even a physician with no prior knowledge of dermatology could feel instantly comfortable with this textbook.Many years later, reading the fifth edition of this classic, I am pleased to see that the new and improved version is an even better introduction to the fundamentals of dermatology. This is not meant to be a comprehensive textbook but rather an "intermediate type book in the field," as Dr Sauer intended.One of the unique teaching tools in this text is the use of silhouettes showing the anatomic distribution of the most common diseases of the
Typescript. Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Massachusetts, 1967.
Synopsis
Qualitative examination of human surface lipids collected using a surfactant solution shows that there are no significant differences between individuals when the samples are collected after one day, starting from clean hair and scalp. On the contrary, samples collected after 4 days reveal discrepancies within the population, related to the oily hair symptom.
An evolution in the composition of the recovered mixture occurs during the 1–4 days accumulation period, which mainly results in an increased unsaturation of the total (free + glycerides) fatty acids fraction isolated after saponification.
A two‐step mechanism is proposed to account for the observed evolution: in a first step, free fatty acids are cleaved from glycerides by the well known enzymatic hydrolysis. Analytical determinations show that this process is structure dependant, the straight chain saturated acids being more readily hydrolyzable than the unsaturated and branched chain species. In a second step, free fatty acids are immobilized on the keratinic fibers, by a process which involves the formation of Ca salts.
This evolution results in a decreased viscosity of the skin surface lipids and in an increase of the low temperature melting fraction of the mixture. Its extent is more or less pronounced, depending upon the individuals. Subjects who exhibit extensive evolution are affected by the oily hair symptom.
Evolution de la composition des lipides superficiels humains durant leur accumulation sur le scalp et les cheveux
Orthopaedic teaching suggests that long-bone fractures in wild animals are not uncommon and that they can heal naturally. This paper investigates this statement. The unsystematic collection of specimens for museums has perpetuated the idea that these fractures are not uncommon. Many fractures in adult skeletons seem to have occurred while the animal was still young. A review of the original skeletons in two museums does not support the view that major long-bone fractures in adult wild animals heal well. Contemporary observations on primates in the wild over long periods show that fractures of long bones in adult wild primates are rare and usually fatal, while falls which might be associated with juvenile fractures are much more common and may well be the source of the many well-healed fractures found in museum collections.
Two key words characterize the uniqueness of skin lipids: complexity and perversity. Each suggests a function. Complexity manifests itself in the large number and variety of both saturated and unsaturated fatty chains synthesized by human skin. Functionally, this allows each individual to have a distinct odor or chemical fingerprint. Perversity manifests itself when one compares the lipids synthesized by skin with those synthesized by internal tissues. For example, skin makes odd instead of only even chains, branched instead of only straight chains, free instead of only esterified acids, places double bonds in unusual positions in the fatty chains, extends chains to extreme lengths, and accumulates intermediates in the synthesis of a biologically valuable compound such as cholesterol. Functionally, these products may pose metabolic problems to potential pathogens and thus contribute to the survival of only compatible microorganisms.
The aerobic microflora of the scalp, predominantly cocci, was virtually eliminated by the daily application of 1% aqueous neomycin for one month. This was done to test whether these organisms are an important source of the lipases which liberate fatty acids from the sebaceous triglycerides.
This treatment had no effect on the proportion of free fatty acids in the surface lipids as determined by thin layer chromatography. The follicle-residing anaerobic C. acnes, was not attacked by neomycin and the yeast-like fungus P. ovale increased somewhat. The percentage of free fatty acids in any individual's sebum before and after treatment was positively correlated with the density of C. acnes. The latter organism is probably mainly responsible for lipolysis of triglycerides.
The wild bonobos (Pan paniscus) of Wamba, Zaire have an extremely high frequency of external abnormal traits. Out of 96 animals in a sample comprising all age and sex classes from two different natural groups, 46 individuals had at least one limb defect. The frequency of abnormalities was greater in males than in females, and increased directly with age. Almost all infants and juveniles had completely normal limbs, but virtually all males and over half the females which had reached their prime were found to have one or more limb defects. These findings indicate that congenital factors contribute little to the frequency of abnormalities in this sample. Survival rate is the same in individuals with defects as in those without defects. It appears that individual social status is far more important in procuring foods than locomotor ability. Thus, the operation of such abnormalities as a selective factor in intraspecific competition is minimized in the network of their social relations.
Fatty acids Biochem-ical Applications of Mass Spectroscopy How to select, climb, and eat a tree
- G Odham
- E Stenhagen
ODHAM, G., and STENHAGEN, E. 1972. Fatty acids, pp. 211-249, in G.R. Waller (ed.). Biochem-ical Applications of Mass Spectroscopy. Wiley-Interscience, New York. ROZE, U. 1985. How to select, climb, and eat a tree. Nat. Hist. 94(5):62-70.
The biology and life history of the porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum) in western Massachusetts Pathological effects of two West Indian echinoderms
- W E Dodge
- Amherst
- K V Earle
DODGE, W.E. 1967. The biology and life history of the porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum) in western Massachusetts. Ph.D. thesis, University of Massachusetts, Amherst. EARLE, K.V. 1940. Pathological effects of two West Indian echinoderms. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 33:447-452.
Indigenous and pathogenic microorganisms of humans Manual of Clinical Microbiology Observations of physical abnormalities among the wild bonobos (Pan paniscus) of Wamba, Zaire
- H D Isenberg
- D Amato
ISENBERG, H.D., and D'AMATO, R.S. 1985. Indigenous and pathogenic microorganisms of humans, pp. 24-35, in E.H. Lennette (ed.). Manual of Clinical Microbiology, 4th ed. American Soci-ety of Microbiologists, Washington, D.C. KANO, T. 1984. Observations of physical abnormalities among the wild bonobos (Pan paniscus) of Wamba, Zaire. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 63:1-11.
Accidental death of a porcupine Winter food habits of cougars from northeastern Oregon
- N H Marshall
- C Maser
MARSHALL, N.H. 1951. Accidental death of a porcupine. J. Mammal. 32:221. MASER, C., and ROHWEDER, R.S. 1983. Winter food habits of cougars from northeastern Oregon. Great Basin Nat. 43:425-428.
Natural history of Oregon coast mammals. USDA, Forestry Service Gen Skin lipids: Their biochemical uniqueness
- C Maser
- B R Mate
- J F Franklin
- C T Dyrness
MASER, C., MATE, B.R., FRANKLIN, J.F., and DYRNESS, C.T. 1981. Natural history of Oregon coast mammals. USDA, Forestry Service Gen. Tech. Report PNW-133. Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Exp. Stn., Portland, Oregon. NICOLAIDES, N. 1974. Skin lipids: Their biochemical uniqueness. Science 186:19-26.
Female reproductive success in a group of free-ranging howling monkeys (Alouattapalliata) in Costa Rica Female Primates: Studies by Women Primatologists Observations on the eastern porcupine
- M R Glander
- K E R Alan
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- J D Curtis
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CLARKE, M.R., and GLANDER, K.E. 1984. Female reproductive success in a group of free-ranging howling monkeys (Alouattapalliata) in Costa Rica, pp. 1 t 1-126, in M.F. Small (ed.). Female Primates: Studies by Women Primatologists. Alan R. Liss, New York. CURTIS, J.D., and KOZlCKY, E.L. 1944. Observations on the eastern porcupine. J. Mammal. 25:137-146.
Medical Microbi-ology New York. SHERRIS, J.C. 1984b. Skin and wound infections Medical Microbiology Pathogenesis of infection: Initial defenses, infectivity, viru-lence, and immune response Medical Microbiology
- I Sherris
SHERRIS, I.e. 1984a. Normal microbial flora, pp. 50-58, in J.C. Sherris (ed.). Medical Microbi-ology. Elsevier, New York. SHERRIS, J.C. 1984b. Skin and wound infections, pp. 555-561, in J.C. Sherris (ed.). Medical Microbiology. Elsevier, New York. SHERRIS, I.e., and RAY, e.G. 1984. Pathogenesis of infection: Initial defenses, infectivity, viru-lence, and immune response, pp. 59-74, in J.C. Sherris (ed.). Medical Microbiology. Elsev-ier, New York.
Wild Animals of North America Raccoons: Their habits and management in Michigan
- M A Strickland
- C W Douglas
- M Nowak
- N P Hunziger
STRICKLAND, M.A., DOUGLAS, C.W., NOWAK, M., and HUNZIGER, N.P. 1982. Fisher, pp. 586-598, in J.A. Chapman and G.A. Feldhamer (eds.). Wild Animals of North America. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore. STUEWER, F.W. 1943. Raccoons: Their habits and management in Michigan. Ecol. Monogr. 13:203-237.
Manual of Skin Diseases The occurrence and frequency of pathological and teratological conditions and of twinning among nonhuman primates
- G C Sauer
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- Lippincott
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SAUER, G.C. 1980. Manual of Skin Diseases, 4th ed. JB Lippincott, Philadelphia. SCHULTZ, A.H. 1956. The occurrence and frequency of pathological and teratological conditions and of twinning among nonhuman primates. Primatologia 1:965-1014.
Female reproductive success in a group of free-ranging howling monkeys (Alouatta palliata) in Costa Rica Female Primates: Studies by Women Primatologists
- M R Clarke
Echinoderm injuries in Nauru
- K V Earle
- K.V. Earle
Indigenous and pathogenic microorganisms of humans Manual of Clinical Microbiology
- H D Isenberg
- R S Amato
Normal microbial flora Medical Microbiology
- J C Sherris
Natural history of Oregon coast mammals. USDA, Forestry Service Gen
- C Maser
- B R Mate
- J F Franklin
Fatty acids Biochemical Applications of Mass Spectroscopy
- G Odham
Notes on skeletal variation, tooth replacement and cranial closure of the porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum).Tulane Stud
- J F Sutton
Wild Animals of North America
- M A Strickland
- C W Douglas
- M Nowak
Fisher, pp. 586?598 Wild Animals of North America
- M.A. Strickland
Winter food habits of cougars from northeastern Oregon
- C Maser
- R S Androhweder
- C. Maser
Normal microbial flora
- J C Sherris
- J.C. Sherris
Skin and wound infections
- J C Sherris
- J.C. Sherris