Article

Chemical characteristics combined with bioactivity for comprehensive evaluation of Panax ginseng CA Meyer in different ages and seasons based on HPLC-DAD and chemometric methods

November 2013
Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis 89C:76-82

DOI:10.1016/j.jpba.2013.10.030

Source
PubMed

Authors:

China Pharmaceutical University

Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer has been known as a valuable traditional Chinese medicines for thousands years of history. Ginsenosides, the main active constituents, exhibit prominent immunoregulation effect. The present study first describes a holistic method based on chemical characteristic and lymphocyte proliferative capacity to evaluate systematically the quality of P. ginseng in thirty samples from different seasons during 2-6 years. The HPLC fingerprints were evaluated using principle component analysis (PCA) and hierarchical clustering analysis (HCA). The spectrum-efficacy model between HPLC fingerprints and T-lymphocyte proliferative activities was investigated by principal component regression (PCR) and partial least squares (PLS). The results indicated that the growth of the ginsenosides could be grouped into three periods and from August of the fifth year, P. ginseng appeared significant lymphocyte proliferative capacity. Close correlation existed between the spectrum-efficacy relationship and ginsenosides Rb1, Ro, Rc, Rb2 and Re were the main contributive components to the lymphocyte proliferative capacity. This comprehensive strategy, providing reliable and adequate scientific evidence, could be applied to other TCMs to ameliorate their quality control.

Development and Validation of a High-Performance Liquid Chromatography Method for Quality Assessment of Oriental Medicine, Dokhwalgisaeng-Tang

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2021

Dokhwalgisaeng-tang (DHGST) is an herbal medicine formula that is frequently used in the treatment of arthritis in Korea and consists of 16 medicinal herbs. In this study, a simultaneous analysis method for quality assessment of DHGST by universal and widely used high-performance liquid chromatography was developed and validated. Twenty-four marker components were separated on a reverse-phase SunFire C18 column (4.6 × 250 mm, particle size; 5 μm) maintained at 40 °C using a gradient elution of two mobile phase systems (0.1% aqueous formic acid and 0.1% formic acid in acetonitrile). The developed method was validated via linearity, limit of detection, limit of quantification, recovery, and precision. Using the developed method, 24 marker components in DHGST were founded at 0.23–14.68 mg/g, and this method will be used as basic data for the quality assessment of DHGST or other herbal medicine prescriptions.

Quality Assessment of Insamyangpye Decoction by Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry Multiple Reaction Monitoring

Article

Full-text available

May 2021

Insamyangpye decoction (ISYPD) is an oriental herbal prescription used in Korea to treat lung-related diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. ISYPD is a complex prescription consisting of 13 herbal medicines, and ISYPD sample was obtained by adding 50 L of distilled water to a mixture (5 kg) of 13 herbal medicines, extracting at 100 °C for 2 h using an electric extractor, and freeze-drying. In this study, an accurate and sensitive liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) method based on multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) was developed and verified for quality assessment of ISYPD using 10 marker components: mulberroside A (1), amygdalin (2), liquiritin apioside (3), naringin (4), poncirin (5), platycodin D (6), ginsenoside Rb1 (7), glycyrrhizin (8), saikosaponin A (9), and schizandrin (10). These marker compounds were separated using an Acquity UPLC BEH C18 column (2.1 mm × 50 mm, 1.7 μm) maintained at 30 °C with a mobile phase elution gradient of acetonitrile in distilled water, both containing 0.1% (v/v) trifluoroacetic acid. Marker components were quantified using the LC–MS/MS MRM method developed and validated, and found at 0.09–7.47 mg/g.

A classification of liquid chromatography mass spectrometry techniques for evaluation of chemical composition and quality control of traditional medicines

Article

Aug 2019
J CHROMATOGR A

A. N. Stavrianidi

Natural products (NPs) and traditional medicines (TMs) are used for treatment of various diseases and also to develop new drugs. However, identification of drug leads within the immense biodiversity of living organisms is a challenging task that requires considerable time, labor, and computational resources as well as the application of modern analytical instruments. LC-MS platforms are widely used for both drug discovery and quality control of TMs and food supplements. Moreover, a large dataset generated during LC-MS analysis contains valuable information that could be extracted and handled by means of various data mining and statistical tools. Novel sophisticated LC-MS based approaches are being introduced every year. Therefore, this review is prepared for the scientists specialized in pharmacognosy and analytical chemistry of NPs as well as working in related areas, in order to navigate them in the world of diverse LC-MS based techniques and strategies currently employed for NP discovery and dereplication, quality control, pattern recognition and sample comparison, and also in targeted and untargeted metabolomic studies. The suggested classification system includes the following LC-MS based procedures: elemental composition determination, isotopic fine structure analysis, mass defect filtering, de novo identification, clustering of the compounds in Molecular Networking (MN), diagnostic fragment ion (or neutral loss) filtering, manual dereplication using MS/MS data, database-assisted peak annotation, annotation of spectral trees, MS fingerprinting, feature extraction, bucketing of LC-MS data, peak profiling, predicted metabolite screening, targeted quantification of biomarkers, quantitative analysis of multi-component system, construction of chemical fingerprints, multi-targeted and untargeted metabolite profiling.

Dynamic Changes in Neutral and Acidic Ginsenosides with Different Cultivation Ages and Harvest Seasons: Identification of Chemical Characteristics for Panax ginseng Quality Control

Article

Full-text available

May 2017
MOLECULES

In this study, dynamic changes in ginsenoside content and ratios in the Panax ginseng root were investigated with different cultivation ages and different collection months, using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Our data indicate that changes in ginsenoside Ro and malonyl ginsenosides content were dependent on the ginseng cultivation age (p < 0.05); especially, the Ro content varied from 0.16 to 4.91 mg/g, with a difference about 30-fold. Further, we found that the samples of 5 and 6-year-old P. ginseng had high Ro/Re ratio, whereas two and three-year-old P. ginseng possessed low Ro/Re ratio. Thus, the Ro/Re ratio can be used as a characteristic marker for differentiating the age of the root. The relative content of ginsenosides Rg1 and Re were affected by the ginseng's harvest season. The Re content was higher than the Rg1 content in May and June, but lower than the Rg1 content from August to October. Thus, the Rg1/Re ratio can be used as a characteristic marker for differentiating the ginseng's harvest seasons. These results indicate that the chemical characteristics of P. ginseng at different cultivation ages and harvest seasons are clearly different, which may cause differences in pharmacological activities and therapeutic effects. In addition, we developed HPLC coupled with hierarchical cluster analysis and principal component analysis methods to identify the cultivation age and harvest season of P. ginseng using characteristic ginsenosides. Our results showed that this method can be used to discriminate the cultivation age and harvest season of P. ginseng.

Novel Growth Age Characterization for Fresh Herbal Ginseng Based on Quantitative Counting of the Calcium Oxalate Crystals through FEG-ESEM

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2021

To reveal the accumulation of the calcium oxalate crystals (COH Crystals) during the growth and development of the taproot of Panax ginseng, and develop a novel and rapid characterization method to evaluate the growth age of commercial ginseng, multiple methods in micro characterization techniques of SAXS, Micro-CT, FEG-ESEM and Micro-Raman were used to identify the COH Crystals and establish a quantitative counting method for growth age identification. In this study, a cross-analysis with multiple methods proved for the first time with a Raman and Energy spectrum that the high-density particles widely distributed in the parenchyma cells of the xylem and cortex are COH Crystals; we also first realized quantitative counting of the COH Crystals on the cross-section of fresh ginseng samples. Moreover, catering to the testing requirements of the modern trading of fresh ginseng products, we also specifically established an interesting and useful mathematical equation (Y = 2.3797X − 1.2404) for growth age identification. The technology and strategy in this study effectively compensated for the shortcomings of chemical testing and other methods in technical limitations; hence, the application of more ginseng varieties to perform the technical optimization is expected.

Development of a Reverse-Phase High-Performance Liquid Chromatography and Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry Methods for Quality Control of Daegunjoong-Tang

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2021

Daegunjoong-tang (DGJT) is an oriental medicine consisting of four medicinal herbs (Zingiber officinale Rosc., Panax ginseng C.A.Mey., Oryza sativa L., and Zanthoxylum schinifolium Sieb. et Zucc.) that is used to treat intestinal- and cancer-related diseases. In this study, a protocol for quality control of DGJT based on reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) analysis were developed. In HPLC analysis, the marker analytes (hyperoside, quercitrin, ginsenoside Rg1, and 6-gingerol) were separated, verified, and quantified using a mobile phase of 0.1% (v/v) aqueous formic acid–0.1% (v/v) formic acid in acetonitrile system, and a C18 reverse-phase column (4.6 mm × 250 mm, particle size; 5 m) maintained at 40 °C. In LC–MS/MS analysis, all analytes were separated using a Waters Acquity UPLC BEH C18 column (2.1 mm × 100 mm, particle size; 1.7 μm). Using the developed HPLC and LC–MS/MS methods, the four marker analytes were found in the samples at 0.95–13.86 mg/g (HPLC) and 0.27–2.42 mg/g (LC–MS/MS). The assay will be useful for evaluating the quality of DGJT.

Changes in the Leaf Physiological Characteristics and Tissue-Specific Distribution of Ginsenosides in Panax ginseng During Flowering Stage Under Cold Stress

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2021

Panax ginseng is a valuable traditional herbal medicine material with numerous applications. Ginsenosides are the key bioactive compounds in ginseng. Cold stress can activate stress tolerance mechanisms that regulate biomass and biosynthesis in ginseng tissue. In this study, the effects of short- and long-term cold stress (5°C) on the physiological characteristics, tissue-specific ginsenoside distributions, and ginsenoside synthesis gene expressions of 3-year-old P. ginseng during the flowering period were investigated. Short-term cold stress significantly reduced ginseng biomass (root fresh weight and dry weight), and increased malondialdehyde, proline, soluble sugar, and soluble protein concentrations. Superoxide dismutase, peroxidase, and catalase activities also increased significantly under cold stress. With prolongation of the cold stress period, all antioxidant enzyme activity decreased. The protopanaxatriol-type ginsenoside concentrations in the taproots (phloem and xylem) and fibrous roots, as well as the protopanaxadiol-type ginsenoside concentrations in the leaves, increased significantly under short-term cold stress. The key genes (SE, DS-II, CYP716A52v2, and CYP716A53v2) involved in the ginsenoside biosynthesis pathway were significantly positively correlated with the ginsenoside accumulation trends. Thus, short-term cold stress can stimulate membrane lipid peroxidation, in turn stimulating the antioxidant enzyme system to alleviate oxidative damage and increasing the expression of key enzyme genes involved in ginsenoside biosynthesis. During agricultural production, protopanaxadiol/protopanaxatriol ratios could be manipulated by low-temperature storage or treatments.

Quality evaluation of Panax notoginseng using high‐performance liquid chromatography with chemical pattern recognition

Article

Mar 2020

Panax notoginseng (Burk.) F.H. Chen, also known as Sanqi, is a high‐value Chinese medicine with a hemostatic effect. It was mainly used to treat traumatic and ischemic cardiovascular diseases. According to different harvest times, Panax notoginseng is divided into “Chunqi” and “Dongqi.” To effectively classify them, a high‐performance liquid chromatography coupled with a chemical pattern recognition method was established. Similarity analysis, principal component analysis, and orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis were applied to classify and evaluate 35 batches of Panax notoginseng. The results showed that similarity analysis based on the peak area of 20 components could not achieve accurate classification. Principal component analysis and orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis methods could clearly classify Chunqi and Dongqi. In order to find definite chemical markers and simplify the established model of orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis, seven characteristic peaks with higher variable importance in projection values were selected. As a result, this method could be used for the classification of Chunqi and Dongqi, which showed an excellent potential application for quality evaluation of Panax notoginseng.

High-Sensitivity Determination of Nutrient Elements in Panax notoginseng by Laser-induced Breakdown Spectroscopy and Chemometric Methods

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2019
MOLECULES

High-accuracy and fast detection of nutritive elements in traditional Chinese medicine Panax notoginseng (PN) is beneficial for providing useful assessment of the healthy alimentation and pharmaceutical value of PN herbs. Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) was applied for high-accuracy and fast quantitative detection of six nutritive elements in PN samples from eight producing areas. More than 20,000 LIBS spectral variables were obtained to show elemental differences in PN samples. Univariate and multivariate calibrations were used to analyze the quantitative relationship between spectral variables and elements. Multivariate calibration based on full spectra and selected variables by the least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (Lasso) weights was used to compare the prediction ability of the partial least-squares regression (PLS), least-squares support vector machines (LS-SVM), and Lasso models. More than 90 emission lines for elements in PN were found and located. Univariate analysis was negatively interfered by matrix effects. For potassium, calcium, magnesium, zinc, and boron, LS-SVM models based on the selected variables obtained the best prediction performance with Rp values of 0.9546, 0.9176, 0.9412, 0.9665, and 0.9569 and root mean squared error of prediction (RMSEP) of 0.7704 mg/g, 0.0712 mg/g, 0.1000 mg/g, 0.0012 mg/g, and 0.0008 mg/g, respectively. For iron, the Lasso model based on full spectra obtained the best result with an Rp value of 0.9348 and RMSEP of 0.0726 mg/g. The results indicated that the LIBS technique coupled with proper multivariate chemometrics could be an accurate and fast method in the determination of PN nutritive elements for traditional Chinese medicine management and pharmaceutical analysis.

Mass Spectrometry Based Profiling and Imaging of Various Ginsenosides from Panax ginseng Roots at Different Ages

Article

Full-text available

May 2017
INT J MOL SCI

(1) Background: Panax ginseng root is one of the most important herbal products, and the profiling of ginsenosides is critical for the quality control of ginseng roots at different ages in the herbal markets. Furthermore, interest in assessing the contents as well as the localization of biological compounds has been growing. The objective of this study is to carry out the mass spectrometry (MS)-based profiling and imaging of ginsenosides to assess ginseng roots at different ages; (2) Methods: Optimal ultra performance liquid chromatography coupled to quadrupole time of flight/MS (UPLC-QTOF/MS) was used to profile various ginsenosides from P. ginseng roots. Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization (MALDI)-time of flight (TOF)/MS-based imaging was also optimized to visualize ginsenosides in ginseng roots; (3) Results: UPLC-QTOF/MS was used to profile 30 ginsenosides with high mass accuracy, with an in-house library constructed for the fast and exact identification of ginsenosides. Using this method, the levels of 14 ginsenosides were assessed in P. ginseng roots cultivated for 4, 5, and 6 years. The optimal MALDI-imaging MS (IMS) was also applied to visualize the 14 ginsenosides in ginseng roots. As a result, the MSI cross sections showed the localization of 4 ginsenoside ions ([M + K]+) in P. ginseng roots at different ages; (4) Conclusions: The contents and localization of various ginsenosides differ depending on the cultivation years of P. ginseng roots. Furthermore, this study demonstrated the utility of MS-based profiling and imaging of ginsenosides for the quality control of ginseng roots.

Antimicrobial Activity of Serbian Propolis Evaluated by Means of MIC, HPTLC, Bioautography and Chemometrics

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2016
PLOS ONE

New information has come to light about the biological activity of propolis and the quality of natural products which requires a rapid and reliable assessment method such as High Performance Thin-Layer Chromatography (HPTLC) fingerprinting. This study investigates chromatographic and chemometric approaches for determining the antimicrobial activity of propolis of Serbian origin against various bacterial species. A linear multivariate calibration technique, using Partial Least Squares, was used to extract the relevant information from the chromatographic fingerprints, i.e. to indicate peaks which represent phenolic compounds that are potentially responsible for the antimicrobial capacity of the samples. In addition, direct bioautography was performed to localize the antibacterial activity on chromatograms. The biological activity of the propolis samples against various bacterial species was determined by a minimum inhibitory concentration assay, confirming their affiliation with the European poplar type of propolis and revealing the existence of two types (blue and orange) according to botanical origin. The strongest antibacterial activity was exhibited by sample 26 against Staphylococcus aureus, with a MIC value of 0.5 mg/mL, and Listeria monocytogenes, with a MIC as low as 0.1 mg/mL, which was also the lowest effective concentration observed in our study. Generally, the orange type of propolis shows higher antimicrobial activity compared to the blue type. PLS modelling was performed on the HPTLC data set and the resulting models might qualitatively indicate compounds that play an important role in the activity exhibited by the propolis samples. The most relevant peaks influencing the antimicrobial activity of propolis against all bacterial strains were phenolic compounds at RF values of 0.37, 0.40, 0.45, 0.51, 0.60 and 0.70. The knowledge gained through this study could be important for attributing the antimicrobial activity of propolis to specific chemical compounds, as well as the verification of HPTLC fingerprinting as a reliable method for the identification of compounds that are potentially responsible for antimicrobial activity. This is the first report on the activity of Serbian propolis as determined by several combined methods, including the modelling of antimicrobial activity by HPTLC fingerprinting.

Camptotheca acuminata Decne

Chapter

Jul 2023

Boswellia serrata Roxb

Chapter

Jul 2023

Dynamic changes in terpenoids metabolisms of mountain-cultivated ginseng harvested at different months and ages

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2023
PLANT GROWTH REGUL

The quality of mountain-cultivated ginseng (Panax ginseng Meyer; MCG) was closely related to the terpenoids metabolism which was significantly affected by harvest months and cultivation years. In this study, the metabolisms of terpenoids and carbohydrates in the MCG harvested at different months and cultivation years were elucidated using a transcriptomic approach. Based on the RNA-Seq analysis, 42 and 41 genes related to terpenoids metabolism were identified in the MCG of different harvest months (August, September, and October) and cultivation years (5, 10, and 15 years), respectively. In August, the biosyntheses of terpineol, valencene, germacrene, solavetivone, and brassinolide were more active, and those of valencene and brassinolide were less active than in September and October, while those of gibberellin (GA), campesterol, and strigol gradually became active from September through October in the 10 years’ MCG. Terpenoids metabolisms in MCG were repressed in October, except for the biosyntheses of neomenthol, stigmasterol, and abscisic acid. Besides, one of the reasons why MCG does not like high temperature or is not suitable for high temperature survival were explained. By comparing the difference in terpenoids metabolism in MCG harvested in September) of different cultivation years, it was found that the biosyntheses of neomenthol, germacrene, GA, and brassinolide were more active in the 5th year. In the 10th year, only the biosyntheses of terpineol, solavetivone, and campesterol were activated. Surprisingly, all these pathways associated with terpenoids metabolisms became inhibited at the 15th year. In addition, in the process of carbohydrates metabolisms, the growth environment has greater influence, whereas there is little correlation between cultivation years and carbohydrates metabolisms. These findings will deepen our understanding of the complicated but important biosynthesis and regulation of terpenoids in the plant species.

Quantitative Analysis of Eight Compounds in Traditional Korean Medicine, Gongjindan Using HPLC, UPLC–MS/MS, and GC–MS/MS Systems

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2023

Gongjindan (GJD) is a traditional Korean medicine consisting of four herbal medicines and two animal-derived medicines, and is taken as a tonic in Republic of Korea. In this study, the goal was to develop and validate a simultaneous analytical method to quantify eight compounds in commercially available GJD samples using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), ultra-performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC–MS/MS), and gas chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (GC–MS/MS) systems. In HPLC and UPLC–MS/MS, seven components (gallic acid, 5-(hydroxymethyl)furfural, morroniside, loganin, nodakenin, decursin, and decursinol angelate) were separated and quantified using a distilled water–acetonitrile mobile phase system on a Capcell Pak UG80 C18 column and an Acquity UPLC BEH C18 column, respectively. Muscone was quantified using GC–MS/MS. The developed assays were validated by evaluating the linearity, limit of detection, limit of quantitation, recovery, and precision. In the regression equations of all compounds, the coefficient of determination was ≥0.9917, showing good linearity. The recovery was 93.70–108.17%, and the relative standard deviation values in the precision test were all <1.50%. Using the developed analysis methods, GJD samples were determined to contain the eight target compounds in concentrations from non-detected to 10.75 mg/g. The analytical assays developed and validated in this study can be used to obtain data for the quality control of commercially available GJDs and for the further expansion of efficacy and clinical studies.

Identification of anti-inflammatory components in Panax ginseng of Sijunzi Decoction based on spectrum-effect relationship

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2022

Objective This study aimed to identify the main medicinal active components of Panax ginseng in the compatibility environment of clinical application. For this purpose, the anti-inflammatory ingredients of P. ginseng were investigated based on its therapeutic effect in Sijunzi Decoction (SJD) which is a widely used traditional Chinese formula. Methods The fingerprints of 10 batches of SJD consisting of different sources of P. ginseng were established by UPLC technique to investigate the chemical components. At the same time, the anti-inflammatory effects of these components were evaluated by dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced ulcerative colitis (UC) mouse model. Grey relational analysis (GRA) was applied to explore the correlation degree between fingerprints and anti-inflammatory effects in SJD. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 murine macrophages were established to evaluate anti-inflammatory action of the screened effective substances of P. ginseng. Results According to grey relational analysis, notoginsenoside R1, ginsenoside Rg2, ginsenoside Rb3 of P. ginseng were the major anti-inflammatory contributions in SJD. They had been proven to be closely associated with the anti-inflammatory process of SJD and displayed a close effect compared with SJD by LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 murine macrophages. Conclusion Our work provides a general strategy for exploring the pharmacological ingredients of P. ginseng in traditional Chinese formulas which is beneficial for establishing the quality standards of traditional herbs in traditional Chinese medicine prescription based on their clinical therapeutic effect.

Quantitative Analysis and Differential Evaluation of Radix Bupleuri Cultivated in Different Regions Based on HPLC-MS and GC-MS Combined with Multivariate Statistical Analysis

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2022
MOLECULES

The quality of Radix Bupleuri is greatly affected by its growing environment. In this study, Radix Bupleuri samples that were harvested from seven different regions across northwest China were examined by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and gas chromatography (GC) coupled with mass spectrometry (MS) to reveal significant differences in quality contributed by the cultivation region. An HPLC-MS method was firstly established and used in the multiple reaction monitoring mode for the quantitative analysis of five saikosaponins in Radix Bupleuri so as to evaluate the difference in the absolute content of saikosaponins attributable to the cultivation region. The effect on the components of Radix Bupleuri was further investigated based on the profiles of the representative saponins and volatile compounds, which were extracted from the Radix Bupleuri samples and analyzed by HPLC-MS and GC-MS. Multivariate statistical analysis was employed to differentiate the Radix Bupleuri samples cultivated in different regions and to discover the differential compositions. The developed quantitative method was validated to be accurate, stable, sensitive, and repeatable for the determination of five saikosaponins. Further statistical tests revealed that the collected Radix Bupleuri samples were distinctly different from each other in terms of both saponins and volatile compounds, based on the provinces where they were grown. In addition, twenty-eight saponins and fifty-eight volatile compounds were identified as the differentially accumulated compositions that contributed to the discrimination of the Radix Bupleuri samples. The Radix Bupleuri samples grown in Shouyang county showed the highest content of saikosaponins. All of the results indicated that the cultivation region significantly affected the accumulation and diversity of the main chemical components of Radix Bupleuri. The findings of this research provide insights into the effect of the cultivation region on the quality of Radix Bupleuri and the differentiation of Radix Bupleuri cultivated in different regions based on the use of HPLC-MS and GC-MS combined with multivariate statistical analysis.

Growth characteristics of American Ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) woods and field -cultivated at Northern Europe

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2022

In Latvia, Northern Europe, American ginseng was grown in three forest types with different dominant species, as well as in agricultural field conditions-cultivated under artificial shade with three different types of mulches. Field cultivation yielded higher yields, root length, and root weight than wood cultivation under dominant species and. Mulching had a positive impact on ginseng growth in the field. Mulching with straw and buckwheat hulls resulted in longer and heavier roots. In American ginseng roots, the contents of six ginsenosides were determined: Rg1, Re, Rb1, Rc, Rb2, and Rd. Re was the most abundant ginsenoside, followed by Rb1 > Rd > Rg1 = Rb2 > Rd. The total content of ginsenosides in our study did not reach the 4 percent threshold set by US Pharmacopeia. These findings show that Panax quinquefolium can be grown in Northern Europe at 57°N, but it takes more than four years to achieve adequate yields and ginsenoside content.

Comparative Investigation for Raw and Processed Products of Euodiae Fructus Based on High‐Performance Liquid Chromatography Fingerprints and Chemical Pattern Recognition

Article

Jun 2021

As a traditional Chinese medicine, Euodiae Fructus is widely used due to its analgesic, anti‐inflammatory, and antihypertensive effects. However, Euodiae Fructus has also been documented to be toxic, and the toxic effects can be reduced by processing. To distinguish Euodiae Fructus from its processes products and study the changes of raw and processed products before and after processing, we evaluated four auxiliary material processing methods including vinegar, Zingiberis Rhizoma, Coptidis Rhizoma, and Glycyrrhizae Radix et Rhizoma. The raw Euodiae Fructus and four processed Euodiae Fructus samples were analyzed and compared based on the high‐performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) fingerprints combined with chemometrics, including principal component analysis (PCA), partial least squares‐discriminant analysis (PLS‐DA), and principal component analysis‐class (PCA‐Class). A total of 27 common peaks were obtained by fingerprint analysis. The fingerprint similarity of raw and processed samples was between 0.86–0.999. We also determined the contents of main active ingredients ‐ Evodiamine and Rutaecarpine. PCA and PLS‐DA analyses were used to distinguish between the raw and processed samples of Euodiae Fructus, and 14 chemical markers were screened out. Four kinds of processed products were further analyzed and the results showed that they could be successfully distinguished under the established models, and 12 chemical markers were labeled. PCA‐Class results revealed that the classification models constructed in this study had adequate discrimination ability. The method combined with HPLC fingerprinting and multi‐component chemical pattern recognition technology could be used to differentiate raw and processed Euodiae Fructus with adequate predictive power. Our findings confirmed the rationality of the pharmacopoeia method and provided a reference for the quality control of the Glycyrrhizae Radix et Rhizoma processed Euodiae Fructus.

Simultaneous Analysis to Evaluate the Quality of Insamyangpye–Tang Using High-Performance Liquid Chromatography–Photo Diode Array Detection

Article

Full-text available

May 2021

Insamyangpye–tang (ISYPT) is a traditional medicinal formula comprised of 13 herbs and has been used in East Asia to treat lung-related diseases. However, to our knowledge, no method of analysis for its quality control has been reported. In this study, a method of analysis for quality control of ISYPT was developed using high-performance liquid chromatography. Chromatographic separation, analysis, and assay verification were performed with a distilled water–acetonitrile mobile phase system, both containing 0.1% (v/v) trifluoroacetic acid, and a Gemini C18 analytical column (4.6 mm × 250 mm, 5 mm) using authentic standards for eight marker compounds. These marker constituents were detected simultaneously at 0.09–5.95 mg/g. The analysis method developed can be used for basic quality control of ISYPT.

Oral administration of Jinan Red Ginseng and licorice extract mixtures ameliorates nonalcoholic steatohepatitis by modulating lipogenesis

Article

Full-text available

May 2021
Ginseng Res

Background Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is one of the main chronic liver diseases. NASH is identified by lipid accumulation, inflammation, and fibrosis. Jinan Red Ginseng (JRG) and licorice have been widely used because of their anti-inflammatory and hepatoprotective effects. Hence, this study assessed JRG and licorice extract mixtures’ effects on NASH progression. Methods Palmitic acid (PA) and the western diet (WD) plus, high glucose-fructose water were used to induce in vitro and in vivo NASH. Mice were orally administered with JRG-single (JRG-S) and JRG-mixtures (JRG-M; JRG-S+licorice) at 0, 50, 100, 200 or 400 mg/kg/day once a day during the last half-period of diet feeding. Results JRG-S and JRG-M reduced NASH-related pathologies in WD-fed mice. JRG-S and JRG-M consistently decreased the mRNA level of genes related with inflammation, fibrosis, and lipid metabolism. The treatment of JRG-S and JRG-M also diminished the SREBP-1c protein levels and the p-AMPK/AMPK ratio. The FAS protein levels were decreased by JRG-M treatment both in vivo and in vitro but not JRG-S. Conclusion JRG-M effectively reduced lipogenesis by modulating AMPK downstream signaling. Our findings suggest that this mixture can be used as a prophylactic or therapeutic alternative for the remedy of NASH.

Metabolic Dynamics and Ginsenoside Biosynthesis

Chapter

Full-text available

May 2021

Panax ginseng, a medicinally important perennial herb, has been widely used as the medicinal plant in South East Asian countries such as Korea, Japan, and China. Various pharmacological efficacies of ginseng are mainly correlated to its unique triterpenoid saponins ginsenosides. The backbone of ginsenosides are synthesized as triterpene saponins via the isoprenoid pathway, and the various ginsenosides are formed by glycosyl transferases. Ginseng plant has a long life cycle over 4–6 years, and it is frequently exposed to environmental stresses during this long-term cultivation. Therefore, ginseng needs to activate an array of defense mechanisms controlled by defense-related genes to confer the enhanced resistance with minimal fitness cost. Infection, wound, irradiation, and other abiotic stresses induce several defense-related genes. Such responses are caused by salicylates and jasmonates, although their roles and interactions in development and signaling are not yet fully studied in ginseng. This chapter summarizes the genes involved in the synthesis of ginseng saponins and defense-related genes in ginseng in response to biotic and abiotic stresses. Moreover, this chapter discusses the kinetics of metabolic pathways throughout the ginseng development supporting the therapeutic significance and bioactive ingredients of ginseng during plant growth and development.

UHPLC-qMS spectrum-effect relationships for Rhizoma Paridis extracts

Article

Nov 2020
J PHARMACEUT BIOMED

Rhizoma Paridis (RP) with significant anti-tumor and haemostatic effects, has been used as the raw material of many Traditional Chinese preparations. However, its active ingredients are still unclear. The present study aimed to discover bioactive ingredients from RP based on spectrum-relationship and chemometric methods. Firstly, the saponins extract was prepared by phytochemical methods. Furthermore, UHPLC-QTOF-MS and UHPLC-qMS were incorporated to establish an efficient and sensitive method for obtaining the chemical profiles of RP. A total of 34 saponins were characterized in RP and 13 of them were assigned as common peaks in 25 batches of samples. After evaluation of the anti-tumor and haemostatic activities of samples, spectrum-effect relationships were investigated by the grey relational analysis (GRA), orthogonal projections to latent structures (OPLS) and back propagation artificial neural network (BP-ANN). These analyses showed that polyphyllin VII (P27), polyphyllin II (P30), dioscin (P31) and polyphyllin I (P33) play a role in the haemostatic effects of RP whereas polyphyllin VII (P27), dioscin (P31), polyphyllin I (P33), progenin III (P34) were assigned as candidate ingredients accounting for the anti-tumor activity of RP. The anti-tumor and haemostatic activities of these screened ingredients were subsequently verified in vitro. Collectively, the present study established the spectrum-effect relationship mode of RP and discovered the bioactive compounds of RP, which could be also used for exploration of bioactive compounds in herbal medicines, especially for trace compounds.

A short-term, hydroponic-culture of ginseng results in a significant increase in the anti-oxidative activity and bioactive components

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2020

Panax ginseng CA Meyer has a variety of biological effects, including antioxidant and antidiabetic activities. Ginseng requires long-term cultivation, but this can be shortened using hydroponic systems to facilitate the commercial development of ginseng as a functional food. However, the characteristics of short-term-cultured (< 30 days) hydroponic ginseng (sHCG) are unclear. We investigated the characteristics of 21-day-cultured sHCG compared 5-year-old normally cultured ginseng. The free radical-scavenging activity and total ginsenoside and phenolic contents were significantly higher in sHCG than in normally cultured ginseng. Fifteen ginsenosides were detected in sHCG, and the concentrations of most were higher in shoots than roots. These findings suggest that 21-day-cultured sHCG, due to its enhanced antioxidant activity and higher concentrations of total phenolics and ginsenosides (including Rd and Re), has potential as a functional food.

Influence of ripening stages on phytochemical composition and bioavailability of ginseng berry (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer)

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2019
J APPL BOT FOOD QUAL

The presence of large amounts of bioactive compounds such as saponins and flavonoids in ginseng (Panax ginseng) berry suggests its potential as a functional resource for the food and medical industries, despite the fact that been considered a useless by-products of P. ginseng. In this study, we examined the variations in the antioxidant and anti-melanogenic potential of ginseng berry during the ripening process. We found that fully ripe berry extracts (Go-S3) contained the highest level of antioxidant and anti-melanogenic activities. Phytochemical screening suggested that alterations in polyphenol contents correlated with the variation in bioactive principles of ginseng berry during the ripening process. Furthermore, results obtained by quantitative real-time PCR, western blot, tyrosinase inhibition assay and molecular docking analysis suggested that Go-S3 probably inhibits tyrosinase activity by interacting with copper-coordinating histidines and second shell residues of tyrosinase, resulting in the reduction of melanin production in α-MSH-stimulated B16F10 cells. Taken together, these finding suggest the potential of ginseng berry as a resource for functional applications in the cosmetic industries and demonstrate that fruit ripening stages have profound effects on the pharmaceutical value of ginseng berry.

Quantification of the Constituents of the Traditional Korea Medicine, Samryeongbaekchul-San, and Assessment of its Antiadipogenic Effect

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2018

Samryeongbaekchul-san (SBS) is a traditional herbal formula, which is used for the treatment of dyspepsia, chronic gastritis, and anorexia in Korea. To evaluate the quality of SBS decoction by quantifying its main constituents simultaneously using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with photodiode array (HPLC–PDA) detection, and secondly to determine the antiadipogenic effect of SBS decoction. The main constituents in a 10-μL injection volume of the decoction were separated on Gemini C18 and Luna NH2 columns (both 250 mm × 4.6 mm, 5 μm) at 40 °C using a gradient of two mobile phases eluting at 1.0 mL/min. 3T3-L1 preadipocytes were differentiated into adipocytes for 8 days with or without SBS. After differentiation, accumulated triglyceride contents and leptin production were measured. The correlation coefficients of all constituents in a calibration curve were ≥0.9998 and showed good linearity in the tested concentration range after validation of the method established. The recovery of the four major compounds were 99.46–102.61% with intra- and interday precisions of 0.08–1.01% and 0.15–0.99%, respectively. The four compounds in the lyophilized SBS sample were detected up to 6.46 mg/g. SBS treatment of the differentiated adipocytes significantly inhibited lipid accumulation and leptin production without cytotoxicity. Optimized simultaneous determination of constituents by HPLC–PDA detection will help to improve quality assessment of SBS or related formulas. SBS has an antiadipogenic effect and further investigation to establish the mechanisms of action of its antiadipogenic effect is warranted.

UPLC-QTOF/MS-Based Metabolomics Applied for the Quality Evaluation of Four Processed Panax ginseng Products

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2018
MOLECULES

In the food industry and herbal markets, it is critical to control the quality of processed Panax ginseng products. In this study, ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled to quadrupole time of flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-QTOF/MS)-based metabolomics was applied for the quality evaluation of white ginseng (WG), tae-geuk ginseng (TG), red ginseng (RG), and black ginseng (BG). Diverse metabolites including ginsenosides were profiled by UPLC-QTOF/MS, and the datasets of WG, TG, RG, and BG were then subjected to multivariate analyses. In principal component analysis (PCA), four processed ginseng products were well-differentiated, and several ginsenosides were identified as major components of each product. S-plot also characterized the metabolic changes between two processed ginseng products, and the major ginsenosides of each product were found as follows: WG (M-Rb1, M-Rb2, M-Rc, Re, Rg1), TG (Rb2, Rc, Rd, Re, Rg1), RG (Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Rd, Re, Rg1), and BG (Rd, Rk1, Rg5, Rg3). Furthermore, the quantitative contents of ginsenosides were evaluated from the four processed ginseng products. Finally, it was indicated that the proposed metabolomics approach was useful for the quality evaluation and control of processed ginseng products.

Red Ginseng Monograph

Article

Full-text available

May 2018
Ginseng Res

Ginseng has been traditionally used for several millennia in Asian countries, including Korea, China, and Japan, not only as a nourishing and tonifying agent but also as a therapeutic agent for a variety of diseases. In recent years, the various effects of red ginseng including immunity improvement, fatigue relief, memory improvement, blood circulation improvement, antioxidation, mitigation of menopausal women's symptoms, and anticancer an effect have been reported in clinical as well as basic research. Around the world, there is a trend of the rising consumption of health functional foods on the level of disease prevention along with increased interest in maintaining health because of population aging and the awareness of lifestyle diseases and chronic diseases. Red ginseng occupies an important position as a health functional food. But till now, international ginseng monographs including those of the World Health Organization have been based on data on white ginseng and have mentioned red ginseng only partly. Therefore, the red ginseng monograph is needed for component of red ginseng, functionality certified as a health functional food in the Korea Food and Drug Administration, major efficacy, action mechanism, and safety. The present red ginseng monograph will contribute to providing accurate information on red ginseng to agencies, businesses, and consumers both in South Korea and abroad.

Efficacy and Safety of a Formulated Herbal Granula, Jiu Wei Zhen Xin, for Generalized Anxiety Disorder: A Meta-Analysis

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2018
EVID-BASED COMPL ALT

Background The traditional Chinese medicine formula Jiu Wei Zhen Xin Granula (JWZXG) is prescribed to treat generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) in China. This study was to assess the efficacy and safety of JWZXG in patients with GAD. Method Data were pooled from 14 randomized controlled trials involving the assessment of mean changes of Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale (HAMA) total scores, response rates, adverse event rates, quality, publication bias, and risk of bias. Results Pooled analysis showed no significant difference in response rate (risk ratio 1.01, 95% CI [0.93–1.08]; Z test = 0.17, P = 0.86) and no significant difference between JWZXG group and azapirones group (RR 0.69, 95% CI [0.45, 1.06]; Z test = 1.69, P = 0.09) in rate of adverse events. Though no difference exists between JWZXG group and azapirones group in HAMA total score from baseline, JWZXG group was inferior to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) group (WMD −0.93, 95% CI [−1.64, −0.23]; Z test = 2.6, P = 0.009) which had more adverse events than JWZXG group (RR 0.64, 95% CI [0.46, 0.89]; Z test = 2.63, P = 0.009). Conclusions This meta-analysis preliminarily suggests that JWZXG is as effective as azapirones, though having the same possibility of suffering AEs. JWZXG was inferior to SSRIs but causes fewer AEs in the treatment of GAD.

Expression of Hepatic Cytochrome P450s in Rats Administered with Guibi-tang, a Traditional Herbal Formula

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2017

Objective The aim of this study was to investigate the possible herb-drug interactions between the traditional herbal formula Guibi-tang (GBT; Guipi-tang, Kihi-to) and conventional drugs. Materials and Methods GBT was orally administered to either male or female Sprague Dawley (SD) rats once daily at doses of 1000, 2000, or 5000 mg/kg/day for 13 weeks. The messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) expression of drug-metabolizing enzyme cytochrome P450 isozymes (cytochrome P450s; CYP1A1, 1A2, 2B1/2, 2C11, 2E1, 3A1, 3A2, and 4A1) was analyzed in hepatic tissues by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. Results Repeated oral administration of GBT did not significantly influence the mRNA expression of hepatic CYP1A1, 1A2, 2B1/2, 2C11, 2E1, 3A1, 3A2, and 4A1 in male rats. By contrast, in female rats, the mRNA expression of hepatic CYP1A2 and 2B1/2 was significantly increased by repeated GBT treatment. Conclusion Our findings indicate that caution is required in females when GBT is taken concomitantly with conventional drugs metabolized by CYP1A2 or 2B1/2. Our results provide information regarding the safety and effectiveness of GBT for clinical use. SUMMARY Repeated oral administration of Guibi-tang (GBT) for 13 weeks did not affect the messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) expression of hepatic CYP1A1, 1A2, 2B1/2, 2C11, 2E1, 3A1, 3A2, and 4A1 in male rats Repeated oral administration of GBT for 13 weeks induced mRNA expression of hepatic CYP1A2 and 2B1/2 but not for CYP1A1, 2C11, 2E1, 3A1, 3A2, and 4A1 in female rats. Abbreviations used: CYP450: Cytochrome P450s, GBT: Guibi-tang, SD: Sprague Dawley, HPLC: High-performance liquid chromatography, OECD: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, RNA: Ribonucleic acid, RT-PCR: Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction, GADPH: Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase.

Comprehensive Profiling and Quantification of Ginsenosides in the Root, Stem, Leaf, and Berry of Panax ginseng by UPLC-QTOF/MS

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2017
MOLECULES

The effective production and usage of ginsenosides, given their distinct pharmacological effects, are receiving increasing amounts of attention. As the ginsenosides content differs in different parts of Panax ginseng, we wanted to assess and compare the ginsenosides content in the ginseng roots, leave, stems, and berries. To extract the ginsenosides, 70% (v/v) methanol was used. The optimal ultra-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time of flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-QTOF/MS) method was used to profile various ginsenosides from the different parts of P. ginseng. The datasets were then subjected to multivariate analysis including principal component analysis (PCA) and hierarchical clustering analysis (HCA). A UPLC-QTOF/MS method with an in-house library was constructed to profile 58 ginsenosides. With this method, a total of 39 ginsenosides were successfully identified and quantified in the ginseng roots, leave, stem, and berries. PCA and HCA characterized the different ginsenosides compositions from the different parts. The quantitative ginsenoside contents were also characterized from each plant part. The results of this study indicate that the UPLC-QTOF/MS method can be an effective tool to characterize various ginsenosides from the different parts of P. ginseng.

Metabolic dynamics and physiological adaptation of Panax ginseng during development

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2018
PLANT CELL REP

Key message: The dynamics of metabolites from leaves to roots of Panax ginseng during development has revealed the tissue-specific and year-specific metabolic networks. Being an essential Oriental medicinal plant, ginseng (Panax ginseng Meyer) is a slow-growing perennial herb-accumulating pharmaceutically active metabolites such as ginsenosides in roots during growth. However, little is known about how ginseng plants survive in the harsh environments such as winter cold and summer heat for a longer period and accumulates those active metabolites as the plant grows. To understand the metabolic kinetics in both source and sink organs such as leaves and roots of ginseng plant, respectively, and to assess the changes in ginsenosides biosynthesis during ginseng growth, we investigated the metabolic profiles from leaves and roots of 1-, 4-, and 6-year-old field-grown ginseng plants. Using an integrated non-targeted metabolomic approach, we identified in total 348 primary and secondary metabolites, which provided us for the first time a global metabolomic assessment of ginseng during growth, and morphogenesis. Strikingly, the osmoprotectants and oxidized chemicals were highly accumulated in 4- and 6-year-old ginseng leaves suggested that ginseng develop a wide range of metabolic strategies to adapt unfavorable conditions as they mature. In 6-year-old plants, ginsenosides were decreased in leaves but increased in roots up to 1.2- to sixfold, supporting the view that there is a long-distance transport of ginsenosides from leaves to roots as ginseng plants mature. Our findings provide insights into the metabolic kinetics during the development of ginseng plant and this could complement the pharmacological importance of ginseng and its compounds according to their age.

Major ginsenoside contents in rhizomes of Panax sokpayensis and Panax bipinnatifidus

Article

Jun 2018

This study compared eight major ginsenosides (Rg1, Rg2, Rf, Re, Rd, Rc, Rb1 and Rb2) between Panax sokpayensis and Panax bipinnatifidus collected from Sikkim Himalaya, India. High-performance liquid chromatographic analysis revealed that all major ginsenosides were present in the rhizomes of P. sokpayensis except ginsenoside Rc, whereas ginsenoside Rf, Rc and Rb2 were not detected in P. bipinnatifidus.

Comprehensive Characterization for Ginsenosides Biosynthesis in Ginseng Root by Integration Analysis of Chemical and Transcriptome

Article

Full-text available

May 2017
MOLECULES

Herbgenomics provides a global platform to explore the genetics and biology of herbs on the genome level. Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer is an important medicinal plant with numerous pharmaceutical effects. Previous reports mainly discussed the transcriptome of ginseng at the organ level. However, based on mass spectrometry imaging analyses, the ginsenosides varied among different tissues. In this work, ginseng root was separated into three tissues—periderm, cortex and stele—each for five duplicates. The chemical analysis and transcriptome analysis were conducted simultaneously. Gene-encoding enzymes involved in ginsenosides biosynthesis and modification were studied based on gene and molecule data. Eight widely-used ginsenosides were distributed unevenly in ginseng roots. A total of 182,881 unigenes were assembled with an N50 contig size of 1374 bp. About 21,000 of these unigenes were positively correlated with the content of ginsenosides. Additionally, we identified 192 transcripts encoding enzymes involved in two triterpenoid biosynthesis pathways and 290 transcripts encoding UDP-glycosyltransferases (UGTs). Of these UGTs, 195 UGTs (67.2%) were more highly expressed in the periderm, and that seven UGTs and one UGT were specifically expressed in the periderm and stele, respectively. This genetic resource will help to improve the interpretation on complex mechanisms of ginsenosides biosynthesis, accumulation, and transportation.

UDP and NTF2 are the most consistently expressed genes in Panax ginseng roots at different growth stages

Article

Apr 2017

Reverse transcription‑quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT‑qPCR) analysis relies on normalization against a consistently expressed reference gene. However, it has been reported that reference gene expression levels often vary markedly between samples as they are usually selected based solely on convention. The advent of RNA sequencing technology offers the opportunity to select reference genes with the least variability in steady‑state transcript levels. To identify the most consistently stable genes, which are a prerequisite for obtaining reliable gene expression data, the present study analyzed transcriptomes from six Panax ginseng transcriptome data sets, representing six growth stages, and selected 21 candidate reference genes for screening using RT‑qPCR. Of the 21 candidate genes, 13 had not been reported previously. The geNorm, NormFinder and BestKeeper programs were used to analyze the stability of the 21 candidate reference genes. The results showed that UDP‑N‑acetylgalactosamine transporter and nuclear transport factor 2 were likely to be the optimal combination of reference genes for use in investigations of ginseng. The novel reference genes were validated by correlating the gene expression profiles of four pathogenesis‑related protein genes generated from RT‑qPCR, with their expression levels calculated from the RNA sequencing data. The expression levels were well correlated, which demonstrated their value in performing RT‑qPCR analyses in ginseng.

Ellendorff 2015 PLS-Prediction and Confirmation of Hydrojuglone Glucoside

Data

Full-text available

Mar 2017

Profiling of ginsenosides in the two medicinal Panax herbs based on ultra-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization–mass spectrometry

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2016

As the king of herb plants, ginseng has been used for nearly 5000 years in medicines in Asia and recently in the West. Ginsenosides, the main active constituents in Panax herbs, have prominent immunoregulatory effects. Although extensively studied in the roots, ginsenosides have not been studied with regard to their profiles and natural variations in the leaf, stem, petiole, lateral root, and main roots during development or among species. In this study, a sensitive ultra-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization–mass spectrometry method with a shorter chromatographic running time was developed and validated for simultaneous quantification of ten ginsenosides. Comparing ginsenoside contents in various parts during different developmental stages revealed part-specific accumulation of most ginsenosides. Further investigation indicated that Rg3 accumulated at significantly higher levels in the petiole of P. ginseng than in that of P. quinquefolius. The relative ratio of ginsenoside Rb2 to Rb1 appears to be a candidate metabolic marker for identifying the ginseng cultivar within a diverse collection of ginseng accessions. In addition, the PCA showed that aboveground parts differed significantly between species and can be considered as species-specific markers rather than roots. This comprehensive survey, providing reliable, affordable and adequate scientific evidence, could be used to differentiate two species and discriminate ginseng cultivar ages. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s40064-016-3427-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Quantitative Analysis and Comparison of Four Major Flavonol Glycosides in the Leaves of Toona sinensis (A. Juss.) Roemer (Chinese Toon) from Various Origins by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Diode Array Detector and Hierarchical Clustering Analysis

Article

Full-text available

May 2016

Background: Toona sinensis (A. Juss.) Roemer is an endemic species of Toona genus native to Asian area. Its dried leaves are applied in the treatment of many diseases; however, few investigations have been reported for the quantitative analysis and comparison of major bioactive flavonol glycosides in the leaves harvested from various origins. Objective: To quantitatively analyze four major flavonol glycosides including rutinoside, quercetin-3-O-β-D-glucoside, quercetin-3-O-α-L-rhamnoside, and kaempferol-3-O-α-L-rhamnoside in the leaves from different production sites and classify them according to the content of these glycosides. Materials and Methods: A high-performance liquid chromatography-diode array detector (HPLC-DAD) method for their simultaneous determination was developed and validated for linearity, precision, accuracy, stability, and repeatability. Moreover, the method established was then employed to explore the difference in the content of these four glycosides in raw materials. Finally, a hierarchical clustering analysis was performed to classify 11 voucher specimens. Results: The separation was performed on a Waters XBridge Shield RP18 column (150 mm × 4.6 mm, 3.5 μm) kept at 35°C, and acetonitrile and H2O containing 0.30% trifluoroacetic acid as mobile phase was driven at 1.0 mL/min during the analysis. Ten microliters of solution were injected and 254 nm was selected to monitor the separation. A strong linear relationship between the peak area and concentration of four analytes was observed. And, the method was also validated to be repeatable, stable, precise, and accurate. Conclusion: An efficient and reliable HPLC-DAD method was established and applied in the assays for the samples from 11 origins successfully. Moreover, the content of those flavonol glycosides varied much among different batches, and the flavonoids could be considered as biomarkers to control the quality of Chinese Toon. SUMMARY Four major flavonol glycosides in the leaves of Toona sinensis were determined by HPLC-.DAD and their contents were compared among various origins by HCA. Abbreviations used: HPLC-DAD: High-performance liquid chromatography-diode array detector, HCA: Hierarchical clustering analysis, MS: Mass spectrometry, RSD: Relative standard deviation. Huan Yang, achieved his Ph. D. degree in 2008 from Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, China. Currently, he is an Associate Professor at the Department of Chinese Materia Medica in the School of Pharmacy, Jiangsu University, China. His major research interest is in the area of chemical constituents of Chinese Medicine. In past years, Dr. Yang has been working on both plant sourced and animal derived Chinese Medicines, and engaged in finding active substances as well as pharmacological mechanism of these natural products. Huan Yang

Two new dammarane-type saponins from radix and rhizomes of Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer

Article

Dec 2022

Two new dammarane-type ginsenosides elucidated as 6-O-[α-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→3)-β-D-glucopyranosyl]-dammar-24-ene-3β, 6α, 12β, 20S-tetraol, named 20(S)-Ginsenoside Re10 (4); 6-O-[α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-β-D-glucopyranosyl]-20-O-[α-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→4)-β-D-glucopyranosyl]-dammar-24-ene-3β, 6α, 12β, 20R-tetraol, named 20(R)-Ginsenoside Re11 (8); along with one steroidal saponin (1) and six known triterpenoid ginsenosides (2, 3, 5, 6, 7 and 9) were isolated from the radix and rhizomes of mountain-cultivated ginseng (Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer, family Araliaceae). Their structures were determined by comprehensive chemical and spectroscopic analysis. In addition, what's even more concerning is that protodioscin was isolated for the first time from Panax ginseng.

Ginsenosides in central nervous system diseases: Pharmacological actions, mechanisms, and therapeutics

Article

Jan 2022

The nervous system is one of the most complex physiological systems, and central nervous system diseases (CNSDs) are serious diseases that affect human health. Ginseng (Panax L.), the root of Panax species, are famous Chinese herbs that have been used for various diseases in China, Japan, and Korea since ancient times, and remain a popular natural medicine used worldwide in modern times. Ginsenosides are the main active components of ginseng, and increasing evidence has demonstrated that ginsenosides can prevent CNSDs, including neurodegenerative diseases, memory and cognitive impairment, cerebral ischemia injury, depression, brain glioma, multiple sclerosis, which has been confirmed in numerous studies. Therefore, this review summarizes the potential pathways by which ginsenosides affect the pathogenesis of CNSDs mainly including antioxidant effects, anti-inflammatory effects, anti-apoptotic effects, and nerve protection, which provides novel ideas for the treatment of CNSDs.

An integration strategy combined progressive multivariate statistics with anticoagulant activity evaluation for screening anticoagulant quality markers in Chinese patent medicine

Article

Jan 2022
J ETHNOPHARMACOL

Ethnopharmacological relevance The cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases affect human health globally. Naoxintong capsules (NXTs), a famous Chinese Patent Medicine, has been especially applied to treat cerebral infarction and coronary heart disease in clinical practice. The anticoagulant activity of this prescription plays an important role in this course of treatment. Aim of the study Thrombin and factor Xa (FXa) are two key targets considering the anticoagulant activity. The purpose of this investigation is to screened out the quanlity markers as key thrombin and FXa inhibitors for the anticoagulant activity oriented quality control of Chinese patent medicine. Materials and methods Simple multi-polar solvent extraction processes using various proportions of solvents were conducted and their thrombin/FXa inhibitory activities were evaluated in vitro. Bivariate correlation analysis (BCA), grey correlation analysis (GCA), and orthogonal partial least squares discriminate analysis (OPLS-DA) were adopted for screening the potential active markers related to the anticoagulant activity. The chemical structures of these active compounds were identified by UHPLC–Q-TOF-MS/MS and their thrombin/FXa inhibitory activity was determined. The molecular docking technology was applied to explore the interaction between the compounds and targets and the contribution of these anticoagulant active ingredients in NXT was also investigated. Last but not the least, the contents of these markers in NXT were determined by liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization tandem triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (HPLC-ESI-MS/MS) method. Results The results showed that the NXT extract exhibited great activity against thrombin and FXa, especially extracted by 75% methanol (v/v). Six marker compounds with potential anticoagulant activity were screened out. Therein, four of the active compounds owing thrombin inhibitory activity (paeoniflorin, lithospermic acid, salvianolic acid B, Z-ligustilide) and five of the active compounds owing FXa inhibitory activity (3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid, rosmarinic acid, lithospermic acid, salvianolic acid B and Z-ligustilide). In addition, these active compounds accounted for a large proportion of thrombin/FXa inhibitory activity of NXTs. The binding energy also showed the strong interaction formed by close connection of the compounds to the residues of targets. Conclusions The proposed integrated stategy could be an efficient strategy to find out potential thrombin/FXa inhibitors for the bioactivity related quanlity control of Chinese patent medicine.

Reverse tracing anti-thrombotic active ingredients from dried Rehmannia Radix based on multidimensional spectrum-effect relationship analysis of steaming and drying for nine cycles

Article

May 2021

Ethnopharmacological relevance: In traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and modern pharmacodynamics, dried Rehmannia Radix (DRR) possesses prominent anti-thrombotic activity that decreases after processing by nine steaming and drying cycles to develop processed Rehmannia Radix (PRR). Due to the complexity of the DRR components, the chemical mechanism leading to efficacy changes of DRR caused by processing is still unclear. Aim of study: This study aimed to trace the anti-thrombotic active compounds of DRR and different degrees of processed RR (PRR) and to evaluate the synergistic effects among different active components. Materials and methods: The anti-thrombotic active chemical fraction of DRR extracts was evaluated. Targeted fractions of the processed products of RR were prepared at different processing stages. The changes in monosaccharides, oligosaccharides and secondary metabolites during processing were characterized by multidimensional high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The anti-thrombotic effects of targeted fractions of different RR samples were evaluated by analyzing the length of tail thrombus (LT) and serum biochemical indicators in carrageenan-induced tail-thrombus mice. The spectrum-effect relationships were investigated by partial least squares regression (PLSR) analysis and gray correlation analysis (GRA). Finally, the active compounds were screened by spectrum-effect relationship analysis and validated in vivo, and their synergistic effects were determined by Webb's fraction multiplication method. Results: Six ingredients highly associated with anti-thrombotic activities were screened out by the spectrum-effect relationship analysis, of which oligosaccharides (stachyose, sucrose and raffinose) and iridoid glycosides (catalpol, leonuride and melitoside) possessed a synergistic effect on tumor necrosis factors (TNF-α), interleukin 1β (IL-1β) and plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 (PAI-1)/tissue-type plasminogen activator (t-PA) ratio in vivo with synergistic coefficient (SC)>1. Conclusion: The main material basis of the anti-thrombotic activities of DRR is oligosaccharide components of stachyose, raffinose and sucrose, iridoid glycosides components of catalpol, leonuride and melittoside. The two kinds of components exert synergistic anti-thrombotic effects by inhibiting the expression of inflammatory factors and regulating the balance of the fibrinolysis system.

Physiological and pharmacological features of the non-saponin components in Korean Red Ginseng

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2020
Ginseng Res

Panax ginseng, a medicinal plant, has been used as a blood-nourishing tonic for thousands of years in Asia, including Korea and China. P. ginseng exhibits adaptogen activity that maintains homeostasis by restoring general biological functions and non-specifically enhancing the body's resistance to external stress. Several P. ginseng effects have been reported. Korean red ginseng, in particular, has been reported in both basic and clinical studies to possess diverse effects such as enhanced immunity, fatigue relief, memory, blood circulation, and anti-oxidation. Moreover, it also protects against menopausal symptoms, cancer, cardiac diseases, and neurological disorders. The active components found in most Korean red ginseng varieties are known to include ginsenosides, polysaccharides, peptides, alkaloids, polyacetylene, and phenolic compounds. In this review, the identity and bioactivity of the non-saponin components of Korean red ginseng discovered to date are evaluated and the components are classified into polysaccharide and nitrogen compounds (protein, peptide, amino acid, nucleic acid, and alkaloid), as well as fat-soluble components such as polyacetylene, phenols, essential oils, and phytosterols. The distinct bioactivity of Korean red ginseng was found to originate from both saponin and non-saponin components rather than from only one or two specific components. Therefore, it is important to consider saponin and non-saponin elements together.

Phytochemical analysis of Panax species: A review

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2020
Ginseng Res

Panax species have gained numerous attentions because of their various biological effects on cardiovascular, kidney, reproductive diseases known for a long time. Recently, advanced analytical methods including thin layer chromatography, high-performance thin layer chromatography, gas chromatography, high-performance liquid chromatography, ultra-high performance liquid chromatography with tandem ultraviolet, diode array detector, evaporative light scattering detector, and mass detector, two-dimensional high-performance liquid chromatography, high speed counter-current chromatography, high speed centrifugal partition chromatography, micellar electrokinetic chromatography, high-performance anion-exchange chromatography, ambient ionization mass spectrometry, molecularly imprinted polymer, enzyme immunoassay, ¹H-NMR, and infrared spectroscopy have been used to identify and evaluate chemical constituents in Panax species. Moreover, Soxhlet extraction, heat reflux extraction, ultrasonic extraction, solid phase extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, pressurized liquid extraction, enzyme-assisted extraction, acceleration solvent extraction, matrix solid phase dispersion extraction, and pulsed electric field are discussed. In this review, a total of 219 articles published from 1980 to 2018 are investigated. Panax species including P. notoginseng, P. quinquefolius, sand P. ginseng in the raw and processed forms from different parts, geographical origins, and growing times are studied. Furthermore, the potential biomarkers are screened through the previous articles. It is expected that the review can provide a fundamental for further studies.

Efficacy of Panax ginseng supplementation on blood lipid profile. A meta-analysis and systematic review of clinical randomized trials

Article

Jul 2019
J ETHNOPHARMACOL

Ethnopharmacological relevance: Ginseng is a widely used ingredient in several traditional Chinese medicine formulation, mainly as a prophylactic and restorative agent. Ginseng's Chinese traditional formulations have shown protective effects against atherosclerosis, suggesting that ginseng may be useful for the treatment of metabolic disorders. Aim of the study: To evaluate whether the supplementation with Panax ginseng (PG) has an effect on blood lipid profile in humans. Materials and methods: A meta-analysis and a systematic review were conducted to evaluate the effects of PG on blood lipid profile. Results: A total of 18 studies met the inclusion criteria, from which 10 studies were performed in volunteers with at least one component of metabolic syndrome, 3 in postmenopausal women, 2 in healthy volunteers and 3 with other types of inclusion criteria. The doses employed ranged from 0.2 to 20 g/day (median 3 g/day, 95% CI 1.7, 5.8), while the treatment time ranged from 2 to 12 weeks (median 8 weeks, 95% CI 6, 9). Few studies reported the composition of the PG extract employed. The main ginsenosides reported were Rb1 and Rg1 (content ranging from Rb1 0.023-6.44 mg/g and Rg1 0.028-3.21 mg/g). Significant modification in blood profile was described in 7 studies, in which 5 studies observed a reduction in total cholesterol, 4 in LDL-cholesterol, and 2 in triacylglycerides. The meta-analysis of 10 studies in volunteers with parameters related with metabolic syndrome describes that PG may induce a mean difference compared to a placebo of -2.30 (95% CI -3.79,-0.80) and -1.47 (95% CI -1.90,-1.05) mg/dL per g/day of PG in the levels of total and LDL-cholesterol, with no significant effects in HDL-cholesterol and triacylglycerides. Conclusions: PG extract may induce an improvement in blood lipid profile mainly by a reduction in total and LDL-cholesterol levels.

Application progress on chemical pattern recognition in quality control of Chinese materia medica

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2017

Chemometrics is a new cross discipline based on computer and modern technology. It has been widely used in the research of Chinese materia medica (CMM) identification, qualitative characterization, quality control, and group-effect relationship, especially in quality control and evaluation of CMM. In this paper, the application and progress of chemical pattern recognition methods in chemometrics for quality control of CMM in recent years are reviewed. Two unsupervised pattern recognition methods (cluster analysis and principal component analysis) and four supervised pattern recognition methods (soft independent modeling of class analogy, partial least-squares discriminant analysis, support vector machine, and artificial neural network) are described. This paper reviews application of chemical pattern recognition in quality control of CMM from different aspects, including growing areas, herbal origin, processing, identification of the authenticity, etc. © 2017, Editorial Office of Chinese Traditional and Herbal Drugs. All right reserved.

The inhibitory effects of ginsenoside Rd on the human glioma U251 cells and its underlying mechanisms: GU et al.

Article

Sep 2018

Objective The current study was designed to investigate the inhibitory effects of ginsenoside Rd (Gs‐Rd) on human glioma U251 cells in vitro and its possible underlying mechanisms. Methods The groups included blank control group, low concentration Gs‐Rd treatment group (20 μM), mid concentration Gs‐Rd treatment group (40 μM), and high concentration Gs‐Rd treatment group (80 μM). The proliferative activity of human glioma U251 cells was detected by the MTT assay. Flow cytometry was performed to measure cell apoptosis of human glioma U251 cells. In addition, the ELISA assay was used to measure the telomerase activities in different groups on 24 hours, 48 hours, and 72 hours. Furthermore, real‐time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT‐PCR) and Western blot analysis were performed to measure the expression of Bcl‐2, human telomerase catalytic subunit (hTERT), and caspase‐3 in different groups on 48 hours at both messenger RNA (mRNA) and protein levels. Results The proliferation of U251 cells was inhibited by Gs‐Rd with different concentrations in the dose‐ and time‐dependent manners. In addition, Gs‐Rd promoted U251 cell apoptosis rate in a dose‐dependent manner. Gs‐Rd with different concentrations (20 μM, 40 μM, and 80 μM) significantly enhanced the expression of teleomerase on 24 hours and 48 hours. In addition, Gs‐Rd with different concentrations significantly increased caspase‐3 and decreased Bcl‐2 and hTERT expressions at both mRNA and protein levels. Conclusion The Gs‐Rd can remarkably inhibit the proliferation and promote cell apoptosis of human glioma U251 cells. The possible underlying mechanisms could be related to inhibiting telomerase activity, downregulating expression of Bcl‐2 and hTERT, and upregulating expression of caspase‐3 of human glioma U251 cells.

Identification of anti-inflammatory active ingredients from Tumuxiang by ultra-performance liquid chromatography/quadrupole time-of-flight-MS E

Article

Dec 2017

The dried roots of Inula helenium L. (IH) and Inula racemosa Hook f. (IR) are used commonly as folk medicine as “tumuxiang” (TMX). The mixing and sharing of IH and IR in clinical use is a universal phenomenon. Modern pharmacological studies confirmed that IH and IR display anti-inflammatory activities. However, the difference in anti-inflammatory pharmacodynamic substances between these two herbs is still unknown. In the present study, the fingerprints of 18 IH and 9 IR samples were established by using UPLC/QTOF-MSE. A dimethylbenzene-induced mouse ear vasodilation model was applied in evaluating the anti-inflammatory properties of all 27 samples. Then, the spectrum-efficacy model between chemical characteristic peaks and anti-inflammatory activities was investigated using principal component regression (PCR) and partial least squares (PLS). Finally, the combination of UNIFI Scientific Information System with a library search of traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) was employed to automatically characterize the peaks. UNIFI identified a total of 80 chemical components. Among the components, the 53 characteristic peaks had correlation with anti-inflammatory activities, pointed to phenolic and organic acids as primary anti-inflammatory ingredients of TMX. This approach can efficiently and intelligently facilitate the identification of bioactive components from TCMs.

Simultaneous determination and difference evaluation of 14 ginsenosides in Panax ginseng roots cultivated in different areas and ages by HPLC-MRM/MS combined with multivariate statistical analysis

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2017
Ginseng Res

Background Ginsenosides are not only the principal bioactive components but also the important indexes to the quality assessment of Panax ginseng Meyer. Their contents in cultivated ginseng vary with the growth environment and age. The present study aimed at evaluating the significant difference between 36 cultivated ginseng of different cultivation areas and ages based on the simultaneously determined contents of 14 ginsenosides. Methods A high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled with triple quadrupole mass spectrometer (MS) method was developed and used in the multiple reaction–monitoring (MRM) mode (HPLC-MRM/MS) for the quantitative analysis of ginsenosides. Multivariate statistical analysis, such as principal component analysis and partial least squares-discriminant analysis, was applied to discriminate ginseng samples of various cultivation areas and ages and to discover the differentially accumulated ginsenoside markers. Results The developed HPLC-MRM/MS method was validated to be precise, accurate, stable, sensitive, and repeatable for the simultaneous determination of 14 ginsenosides. It was found that the 3- and 5-yr-old ginseng samples were differentiated distinctly by all means of multivariate statistical analysis, whereas the 4-yr-old samples exhibited similarity to either 3- or 5-yr-old samples in the contents of ginsenosides. Among the 14 detected ginsenosides, Rg1, Rb1, Rb2, Rc, 20(S)-Rf, 20(S)-Rh1, and Rb3 were identified as potential markers for the differentiation of cultivation ages. In addition, the 5-yr-old samples were able to be classified in cultivation area based on the contents of ginsenosides, whereas the 3- and 4-yr-old samples showed little differences in cultivation area. Conclusion This study demonstrated that the HPLC-MRM/MS method combined with multivariate statistical analysis provides deep insight into the accumulation characteristics of ginsenosides and could be used to differentiate ginseng that are cultivated in different areas and ages.

Identification of Salvia species using HPLC combined with chemical pattern recognition analysis

Article

Nov 2017

Salvia miltiorrhiza, also known as Danshen, is a widely used traditional Chinese medicine for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases and haematological abnormalities. The root and rhizome of S. przewalskii and S. yunnanensis have been found as substitutes for S. miltiorrhiza in the market. In this study, the chemical information of 14 major compounds in S. miltiorrhiza and its substitutes were determined using a high-performance liquid chromatography method. Stepwise discriminant analysis was adopted to select the characteristic variables. Partial least squares discriminant and hierarchical cluster analysis were performed to classify S. miltiorrhiza and its substitutes. The results showed that all of the samples were correctly classified both in partial least squares discriminant analysis and hierarchical cluster analysis based on the four compounds (caffeic acid, rosmarinic acid, salvianolic acid B and salvianolic acid A). This method can not only distinguish S. miltiorrhiza and its substitutes, but also classify S. przewalskii and S. yunnanensis. The method can be applied for the quality assessment of S. miltiorrhiza and identification of unknown samples.

Correlation between Chromatographic Fingerprint and Antioxidant Activity of Turnera diffusa (Damiana)

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2011
PLANTA MED

In the present contribution, the partial least squares (PLS) method was used to establish a correlation between the antioxidant activity (obtained by DPPH assay) and chromatographic profiles of TURNERA DIFFUSA extracts. Chromatograms were obtained using HPLC-DAD. A model was constructed using 40 samples with 2550 X variables corresponding to the responses obtained at different times; the Y variables consisted of experimental values of antioxidant activity of each extract (measured as EC₅₀). Prior to this analysis, alignment of chromatograms was performed based on consideration of seven high-intensity signals present in all samples. The PLS1 model was validated by cross-validations; its capacity was evaluated using correlation parameters R², root mean square error of calibration (RMSEC), and root mean square error of prediction (RMSEP). The best results were achieved with zero order chromatograms using five-point smoothing (R² = 0.96, RMSEC = 3.31, and RMSEP = 7.86). Under these conditions, the optimal number of components was five. The model was applied to the prediction of antioxidant activity of commercial products; no significant differences were found between the experimental and predicted antioxidant activities for 83 % of them.

Keithley RB, Mark Wightman R, Heien ML. Multivariate concentration determination using principal component regression with residual analysis. Trends Anal Chem 28: 1127-1136

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2009
TRAC-TREND ANAL CHEM

Data analysis is an essential tenet of analytical chemistry, extending the possible information obtained from the measurement of chemical phenomena. Chemometric methods have grown considerably in recent years, but their wide use is hindered because some still consider them too complicated. The purpose of this review is to describe a multivariate chemometric method, principal component regression, in a simple manner from the point of view of an analytical chemist, to demonstrate the need for proper quality-control (QC) measures in multivariate analysis and to advocate the use of residuals as a proper QC method.

NMR-Based metabolomics approach for the differentiation of ginseng (Panax ginseng) roots from different origins

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2008

Agro-herbal materials vary in prices and qualities depending on the origin and age and the differentiation is both scientific and public health issue. Here, we describe a metabolomics approach used to discriminate ginseng roots from different sources. Six different types of ginseng roots from China and Korea were analyzed by NMR-based metabolomics. Chinese Dangsam showed prominent differences and was easily differentiated. The difference was mainly due to the large signals in the sugar region. We further analyzed the metabolomics results in subgroups. Jeonra (Korean), Choongcheong (Korean), and Chinese ginseng in subgroup 1 could be easily differentiated by the first two principal components. The loading plot for PC1 showed that the Jeonra and Chinese ginseng roots were mainly separated by sugar signals and methyl signals but that they were reverse-correlated. A diffusion-ordered spectroscopy (DOSY) analysis showed that the methyl signals are from high molecular weight compounds and that the sugar signals are either from oligosaccharides or ginsenosides. In subgroup 2, composed of Korean Choongcheong ginseng at different ages, we were able to see age-dependent transitions in the score plot. We believe our approach can be applied to detecting the adulteration of ginseng root powders and other herbal products from different origins.

Correlation between ecological factors and ginsenosides

Article

Jan 2011

Environmental conditions affect the distribution and quality of Chinese herbal medicines. Specific ecological conditions influence the formation and accumulation of the active ingredient of these medicines, therefore an appropriate ecological environment is a prerequisite for production of high-quality genuine medicinal materials. Ginseng is a valuable Chinese herbal medicine. Ginsenoside content is the main indicator used for evaluation of ginseng quality. This study aimed to explore the impact of ecological factors on ginsenoside accumulation to enhance the quality of ginseng. The data was analyzed with multiple statistical analytic methods. Root samples were collected from five-year-old cultivated panax ginseng plants in the major genuine (Daodi) ginseng-producing areas of Jilin, Liaoning, and Heilongjiang provinces, China. Soil samples from the sampling sites were collected. Ultra-performance liquid chromatography was used to analyze the contents of nine ginsenosides (Rg1, Re, Rf, Rg2, Rb1, Rc, Rb2, Rb3, and Rd). Data for 10 ecological factors, including temperature, moisture, and sunlight, were obtained from the ecological database of Geographic Information System for Traditional Chinese Medicine. Effective boron, effective iron and other trace elements as well as available nitrogen, available potassium and other soil nutrients were determined by conventional soil physicochemical property assay methods. Canonical correlation analysis between ginsenosides contents and soil nutrients showed that soil available boron, effective iron, and available nitrogen were significantly positively related to ginsenosides contents. Thus, increased quantities of soil available boron, effective iron and available nitrogen could promote the accumulation of ginsenosides. In addition, a significant positive correlation existed between soil moisture and ginsenosides contents (Rb3 excluded), and a weak correlation was obtained between available phosphorus, pH, quick zinc and ginsenosides contents. The correlation between ginsenosides contents and climatic factors (annual active accumulated temperature, annual mean temperature, July maximum temperature, July mean temperature, January minimum temperature, and January mean temperature) was strongly negative in this study. In particular, there existed a significant negative correlation (r>0.6) between climatic factors and the ginsenosides Rg1, Re and Rb1, which were specified in the pharmacopoeia. These results implied that ginsenosides contents increased with decreasing temperature within a certain temperature range; an appropriate low temperature was conducive to the accumulation of the ginsenosides, and elevation was significantly positively related to the contents of Rc, Rb2, and Rb3 (r > 0. 6). In other words, a relatively high elevation could promote the accumulation of these three components. However, the results showed average annual precipitation, relative humidity, annual average sunshine hours were not significantly correlated with ginsenosides contents in this study. In conclusion, principal component analysis, canonical correlation analysis and ordination were applied to investigate the correlation between ecological factors and ginsenosides contents of cultivated ginseng collected from three ginseng-producing areas. The results indicated temperature factors play a decisive role in the accumulation of ginsenosides. Within a certain temperature range, the lower the temperature the more beneficial was the accumulation of ginsenosides; in addition, the levels of available boron, effective iron and available nitrogen in the soil were positively correlated to ginsenosides contents. These results indicated an appropriate low temperature and enhancement of boron, iron, and nitrogen in the soil could improve the ginsenosides contents in cultivated ginseng.

Automatic authentication and distinction of Epimedium koreanum and Epimedium wushanense with HPLC fingerprint analysis assisted by pattern recognition techniques

Article

Feb 2012
BIOCHEM SYST ECOL

This study aims to identify and discriminate between two commonly confused traditional Chinese medicines, Epimedium wushanense and Epimedium koreanum, using pattern recognition aided fingerprint analysis of their secondary metabolites. Samples of the two species were collected during different stages of their growth period. The HPLC generated chromatographic data were analyzed using principal components analysis (PCA) and hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA). Two major clusters were formed, each consisting of a single species. The entire dataset was then divided into two: a training set and a test set. Supervised pattern recognition techniques, soft independent modeling by class analogy (SIMCA) and back propagation artificial neural network (BP-ANN), were performed. SIMCA failed to predict one sample, whereas BP-ANN precisely predicted the whole test set. In conclusion, fingerprint analysis assisted by pattern recognition techniques is a potential strategy for the authentication and differentiation of species used in herbal medicines. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Chapter 1 Ginsenosides

Article

Dec 2008
Adv Food Nutr Res

Lars Porskjær Christensen

Ginsenosides are a special group of triterpenoid saponins that can be classified into two groups by the skeleton of their aglycones, namely dammarane‐ and oleanane‐type. Ginsenosides are found nearly exclusively in Panax species (ginseng) and up to now more than 150 naturally occurring ginsenosides have been isolated from roots, leaves/stems, fruits, and/or flower heads of ginseng. Ginsenosides have been the target of a lot of research as they are believed to be the main active principles behind the claims of ginsengs efficacy. The potential health effects of ginsenosides that are discussed in this chapter include anticarcinogenic, immunomodulatory, anti‐inflammatory, antiallergic, antiatherosclerotic, antihypertensive, and antidiabetic effects as well as antistress activity and effects on the central nervous system. Ginsensoides can be metabolized in the stomach (acid hydrolysis) and in the gastrointestinal tract (bacterial hydrolysis) or transformed to other ginsenosides by drying and steaming of ginseng to more bioavailable and bioactive ginsenosides. The metabolization and transformation of intact ginsenosides, which seems to play an important role for their potential health effects, are discussed. Qualitative and quantitative analytical techniques for the analysis of ginsenosides are important in relation to quality control of ginseng products and plant material and for the determination of the effects of processing of plant material as well as for the determination of the metabolism and bioavailability of ginsenosides. Analytical techniques for the analysis of ginsenosides that are described in this chapter are thin‐layer chromatography (TLC), high‐performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) combined with various detectors, gas chromatography (GC), colorimetry, enzyme immunoassays (EIA), capillary electrophoresis (CE), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, and spectrophotometric methods.

Study of the quantitative quantity–activity relationship of four ginsenosides on splenic lymphocytes growth by microcalorimetry

Article

Apr 2011
J THERM ANAL CALORIM

In this study, the activities of four ginsenosides Rc, Re, Rd, and Rf on splenic lymphocytes growth were studied by microcalorimetry. Some qualitative and quantitative information, such as the metabolic power–time curves, growth rate constant k, maximum heat-output power of the exponential phase P max and the corresponding appearance peak time t max, total heat output Q t, and promotion rate R p of splenic lymphocytes growth affected by the four ginsenosides were calculated. In accordance with thermo-kinetic model, the corresponding quantitative relationships of k, P max, t max, Q t, R p, and c were established, . Also, the median effective concentration (EC50) was obtained by quantitative analysis. Based on both the quantitative quantity–activity relationships (QQAR) and EC50, the sequence of promotion activity was Rc > Re > Rd > Rf. The analysis of structure–activity relationships showed that the number, type, and position of sugar moieties on the gonane steroid nucleus had important influences on the promotion activity of Rc, Re, Rd, and Rf on splenic lymphocytes growth. Microcalorimetry can be used as a useful tool for determining the activity and studying the quantity–activity relationship of drugs on cell.

Ginseng pharmacology

Article

Dec 1999
BIOCHEM PHARMACOL

Ginseng is a highly valued herb in the Far East and has gained popularity in the West during the last decade. There is extensive literature on the beneficial effects of ginseng and its constituents. The major active components of ginseng are ginsenosides, a diverse group of steroidal saponins, which demonstrate the ability to target a myriad of tissues, producing an array of pharmacological responses. However, many mechanisms of ginsenoside activity still remain unknown. Since ginsenosides and other constituents of ginseng produce effects that are different from one another, and a single ginsenoside initiates multiple actions in the same tissue, the overall pharmacology of ginseng is complex. The ability of ginsenosides to independently target multireceptor systems at the plasma membrane, as well as to activate intracellular steroid receptors, may explain some pharmacological effects. This commentary aims to review selected effects of ginseng and ginsenosides and describe their possible modes of action. Structural variability of ginsenosides, structural and functional relationship to steroids, and potential targets of action are discussed.

Enriched separation of protopanaxatriol ginsenosides, malonyl ginsenosides and protopanaxadiol ginsenosides from Panax ginseng using macroporous resins

Article

Dec 2012
J FOOD ENG

Quality control of Lonicerae Japonicae Flos using near infrared spectroscopy and chemometrics

Article

Jan 2013

A set of qualitative and quantitative methods based on near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy was established for the geographical origin identification, quantitative determination of active compounds, and fingerprint analysis of Lonicerae Japonicae Flos. The spectra of 140 samples from different origins were collected with two NIR instruments from different manufacturers (Thermo Scientific and Buchi). A Soft Independent Modeling of Class Analogy model was established for the identification of Lonicerae Japonicae Flos from the genuine producing area. Using the established discriminant analysis model, 22 samples from Henan province were predicted with 100% rate of accuracy, while the 68 samples from other producing areas were predicted with 9 samples incorrectly judged. Futhermore, partial least square regression method was used for developing the quantitative calibration models with the reference values determined with a validated HPLC-UV method. The RMSEP values of external validation are 0.169%, 0.048%, 0.172%, 0.007%, 0.203%, and 0.066% for NCA, CA, CfA, 3,4-DCA, 3,5-DCA, and 4,5-DCA, respectively, which indicated that the established models possess satisfactory predictive abilities. In addition, the models established on the primary instrument can also be transferred to the secondary instrument using direct standardization algorithm, which enlarged the application scope of the established models. Since the NIR spectra can reflect the comprehensive quality information of Lonicerae Japonicae Flos, a fingerprint analysis method was finally proposed for the quality consistency check of raw materials. The proposed methods are rapid and effective, and possess good portability, which is helpful to the quality control of Lonicerae Japonicae Flos.

Determination of 10 ginsenosides in Panax ginseng of different harvest times based on HPLC fingerprints and principal component analysis

Article

Aug 2012

A combinative method of HPLC fingerprinting and quantitative determination was successfully applied to monitor dynamic accumulation of ginsenosides in five-year-old Panax ginseng roots from different harvest times. The optimal chromatographic conditions were achieved on a C18 column with gradient elution using acetonitrile and 1 mmol · L(-1) KH(2)PO(4) buffer solution at 203 nm. The result indicated that the contents of total ginsenosides showed significant variations, and a decrease tendency appeared in the growth period of the fifth year.

Fingerprint–efficacy study of artificial Calculus bovis in quality control of Chinese materia medica

Article

Aug 2011
FOOD CHEM

For quality control of Chinese materia medica (CMM), an attempt on fingerprint–efficacy study of artificial Calculus bovis was developed in this work. Chemical fingerprints of artificial C. bovis samples from ten different sources were determined by UPLC–ELSD and investigated by similarity analysis and hierarchical clustering analysis. Antibacterial effects of these samples on Escherichia coli growth were measured using microcalorimetry. The fingerprint–efficacy relationship of chemical fingerprint and antibacterial effect of artificial C. bovis were established by multi-linear regression analysis. Our results showed that the sources and places of production of artificial C. bovis had some important influence on the chemical fingerprints and antibacterial effects of this CMM. These artificial C. bovis could be grouped into four clusters according to their chemical fingerprints and antibacterial effects. Compounds cholic acid, taurocholate sodium, hyodeoxycholic acid and one unknown compound might be the major effective components for quality control of this CMM. Fingerprint–efficacy study provided a powerful way and some insight for the quality control of artificial C. bovis and other CCMs.Research highlights► We establish the chemical fingerprints of artificial C. bovis from different sources. ► We investigate antibacterial efficacy of these samples on E. coli by microcalorimetry. ► The fingerprint–efficacy relationship was established through chemometric analysis.

Rapid discrimination of Chinese red ginseng and Korean ginseng using an electronic nose coupled with chemometrics

Article

Jun 2012

Red ginseng is a precious and widely used traditional Chinese medicine. At present, Chinese red ginseng and Korean ginseng are both commonly found on the market. To rapidly and nondestructively discriminate between Chinese red ginseng and Korean ginseng, an electronic nose coupled with chemometrics was developed. Different red ginseng samples, including Chinese red ginseng (n=30) and Korean ginseng (South Korean red ginseng and North Korean red ginseng n=26), were collected. The metal oxide sensors on an electronic nose were used to measure the red ginseng samples. Multivariate statistical analyses, including principal component analysis (PCA), discriminant factorial analysis (DFA) and soft independent modeling of class analogy (SIMCA), were employed. All of the samples were analyzed by PCA. Most of the samples were used to set up DFA and SIMCA models, and then the remaining samples (Nos. 9, 10, 17, 18, 29, 30, 34, 43, 44, 50, and 51) were projected onto the DFA and SIMCA models in the form of black dots to validate the models. The results indicated that Chinese red ginseng and Korean ginseng were successfully discriminated using the electronic nose coupled with PCA, DFA and SIMCA. The checking scores of the DFA and SIMCA models were 100. The samples projected onto the DFA and SIMCA models were all correctly discriminated. The DFA and SIMCA models were robust. Electronic nose technology is a rapid, accurate, sensitive and nondestructive method to discriminate between Chinese red ginseng and Korean ginseng.

Simultaneous analysis of six major compounds in Osterici Radix and Notopterygii Rhizoma et Radix by HPLC and discrimination of their origins from chemical fingerprint analysis

Article

Mar 2012

Osterici Radix, the dried roots of Ostericum koreanum Maximowicz, has long been used to treat cold, headache and arthralgia in Chinese medicine. Notopterygii Rhizoma et Radix, the dried rhizomes and roots of Notopterygium incisum Ting et H.T. Chang or Notopterygium forbesii Boiss (family: Umbelliferae), are well-known traditional Chinese medicines. These all herbal medicines were named kangwhoal in China, Japan and Korea. However no discrimination methods for the origin and no simultaneous analysis methods for bioactive components are currently available. We developed simultaneous analysis of six biomarkers including nodakenin (1), oxypeucedanin (2), bisabolangelone (3), notopterol (4), imperatorin (5), and isoimperatorin (6) using HPLC method. HPLC chromatographic separation was conducted with C18 column and mobile phase of acetonitrile (A) - water (B) (gradient, (A) 35%-65% (30 min)). The analytical condition was validated with specificity, selectivity, linearity (correlation coefficients of all bio marker were more than 0.999.), recovery (94.9-106.8%), precision and accuracy (intra and inter RSD < 2.99%). In addition, principal component analysis and cluster analysis was performed on analytical data of 38 commercial kangwhoal samples from different places. We confirmed to classify kangwhoal origins and this study was applied to quality evaluation and chemotaxonomy of medicinal herbs.

Investigation of ginsenosides in different parts and ages of Panax ginseng

Article

Dec 2007
FOOD CHEM

Panax ginseng (P. ginseng) has been used as a traditional medicine for thousands of years. It includes P. ginseng root, leaf, root-hair, rhizome and stem. P. ginseng root is usually considered to be the main part for medicine, and other parts of P. ginseng are neglected. In this paper the content of ginsenosides in different parts and ages of P. ginseng was determined. Separation and determination of seven major ginsenosides, including Rg1, Re, Rb1, Rc, Rb2, Rb3 and Rd, has been achieved by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with UV detector at 203 nm. The extraction of ginsenosides from P. ginseng material was performed by microwave-assisted extraction (MAE). The results indicate that the content of ginsenosides is higher in the leaf and root-hair, and lower in stem than that in other parts of P. ginseng. The content of ginsenosides in root and root-hair increases with increase in age of P. ginseng from one to five years. However, the total content of ginsenosides in P. ginseng leaf decreases with the increase in age.

Multi-wavelength high-performance liquid chromatographic fingerprints and chemometrics to predict the antioxidant activity of Turnera diffusa as part of its quality control

Article

Feb 2012

The determination of the antioxidant activity of Turnera diffusa using partial least squares regression (PLSR) on chromatographic data is presented. The chromatograms were recorded with a diode array detector and, for each sample, an enhanced fingerprint was constructed by compiling into a single data vector the chromatograms at four wavelengths (216, 238, 254 and 345 nm). The wavelengths were selected from a contour plot, in order to obtain the greater number of peaks at each of the wavelengths. A further pretreatment of the data that included baseline correction, scaling and correlation optimized warping was performed. Optimal values of the parameters used in the warping were found by means of simplex optimization. A PLSR model with four latent variables (LV) explained 52.5% of X variance and 98.4% of Y, with a root mean square error for cross validation of 6.02. To evaluate its reliability, it was applied to an external prediction set, retrieving a relative standard error for prediction of 7.8%. The study of the most important variables for the regression indicated the chromatographic peaks related to antioxidant activity at the used wavelengths.

NMR-based metabolic profiling and differentiation of ginseng roots according to cultivation ages

Article

Jan 2012

Ginseng is an important herbal resource worldwide, and the adulteration or falsification of cultivation age has been a serious problem in the commercial market. In this study, ginseng (Panax ginseng) roots, which were cultivated for 2-6 years under GAP standard guidelines, were analyzed by NMR-based metabolomic techniques using two solvents. At first, ginseng root samples were extracted with 50% methanol, and analyzed by NMR with D(2)O as the NMR dissolution solvent. The 2-, 3-, 4-, and 5/6-year-old ginseng root samples were separated in PLS-DA-derived score plots. However, 5- and 6-year-old ginseng roots were not separated by the solvent system. Therefore, various solvents were tested to differentiate the 5- and 6-year-old ginseng root samples, and 100% methanol-d(4) was chosen as the direct extraction and NMR dissolution solvent. In the PLS model using data from the 100% methanol-d(4) solvent, 5- and 6-year-old ginseng roots were clearly separated, and the model was validated using internal and external data sets. The obtained RMSEE and RMSEP values suggested that the PLS model has strong predictability for discriminating the age of 5- and 6-years-old ginseng roots. The present study suggests that the age of ginseng could be successfully predicted using two solvents, and the developed method in this study can be used as a standard protocol for discriminating and predicting the ages of ginseng root samples.

Classification of gasoline by octane number and light gas condensate fractions by origin with using dielectric or gas-chromatographic data and chemometrics tools

Article

May 2011

The approach for classification of gasoline by octane number and light gas condensate fractions by origin with using dielectric permeability data has been proposed and compared with classification of same samples on the basis of gas-chromatographic data. The precision of dielectric permeability measurements was investigated by using ANOVA. The relative standard deviation of dielectric permeability was in the range from 0.3 to 0.5% for the range of dielectric permeability from 1.8 to 4.4. The application of exploratory chemometrics tools (cluster analysis and principal component analysis) allow to explicitly differentiate the gasoline and light gas condensate fractions into groups of samples related to specific octane number or origin. The neural networks allow to perfectly classifying the gasoline and light gas condensate fractions.

Chromatographic separation techniques and data handling methods for herbal fingerprints: A review

Article

Apr 2011

As herbal medicines have an important position in health care systems worldwide, their current assessment and quality control are a major bottleneck. Over the past decade, major steps were taken not only to improve the quality of the herbal products but also to develop analytical methods ensuring their quality. Nowadays, chromatographic fingerprinting is the generally accepted technique for the assessment and quality control of herbal products. This paper briefly considers the evolution of the regulations and guidelines on the quality control of herbal medicines, and reviews the established analytical techniques for herbal fingerprinting with an emphasis on the most recent developments, such as miniaturized techniques, new stationary phases, analysis at high temperatures and multi-dimensional chromatography. Accessory to the new analytical techniques, the chemometric data handling techniques applied are discussed. Chemometrics provide scientists with useful tools in understanding the huge amounts of data generated by the analytical advances and prove to be valuable for quality control, classification and modelling of, and discrimination between herbal fingerprints.

Techniques for clustering gene expression data

Article

Apr 2008
COMPUT BIOL MED

Many clustering techniques have been proposed for the analysis of gene expression data obtained from microarray experiments. However, choice of suitable method(s) for a given experimental dataset is not straightforward. Common approaches do not translate well and fail to take account of the data profile. This review paper surveys state of the art applications which recognises these limitations and implements procedures to overcome them. It provides a framework for the evaluation of clustering in gene expression analyses. The nature of microarray data is discussed briefly. Selected examples are presented for the clustering methods considered.

Development of HPLC fingerprints for Mallotus species extracts and evaluation of the peaks responsible for their antioxidant activity

Article

Jul 2009

Some Mallotus species are used in traditional medicine in Vietnam. To use certain species in Western medicines or as food supplements, they should be identified and quality control should be more strict, for instance, to avoid the erroneous switching of species. In species with interesting activities, the compounds responsible for them should be identified. For these identifications, HPLC fingerprint methodology can be used. In this paper, HPLC fingerprints of different lengths were developed for a number of Mallotus species. Secondly, a multivariate regression model was constructed to model the antioxidant activity of the Mallotus samples from the HPLC fingerprints with the aim to indicate peaks possibly responsible for this activity. For this purpose, after data pretreatment, the calibration technique partial least squares (PLS) was applied.

Amplified immune response by ginsenoside-based nanoparticles (ginsomes)

Article

May 2009
VACCINE

We describe here a novel adjuvant of ginsenoside-based nanoparticles (ginsomes) and its activity for up-regulation of immune response in mice. Ginsomes were assembled during removal of the detergent by dialysis in presence of ginseng saponins extracted from the root of Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer, cholesterol and phosphatidyl choline. The nanoparticles were spherical with diameters ranging from 70 to 107nm, and contained ginsenosides Rb2, Rc, Rb1 and Rd. When co-administered with a model antigen ovalbumin (OVA) in ICR mice, ginsomes at a dose range from 10 to 250microg promoted significantly higher IgG responses than OVA alone. Co-administration of ginsomes with OVA also significantly increased the levels of specific IgG1, IgG2a, IgG2b and IgG3, as well as T and B lymphocyte proliferation in response to Con A, LPS and OVA than when OVA was used alone. The enhanced IgG titer and subclass levels paralleled the increased production of IFN-gamma (Th1 cytokine) and IL-5 (Th2 cytokine). Therefore, ginsomes as an adjuvant have up-regulated both Th1 and Th2 immune responses.

Simultaneous spectrophotometric determination of carbamazepine and phenytoin in serum by PLS regression and comparison with HPLC

Article

Feb 2005

Carbamazepine (CBZ) and phenytoin (PHT) are two antiepileptic drugs which are used simultaneously. In this paper a partial least-squares (PLS) calibration method is described for the simultaneous spectrophotometric determination of CBZ and PHT in plasma. Standard binary mixtures of CBZ and PHT have been resolved by application of PLS-1 to their UV spectra. Then, the binary standard solutions, spiked to plasma, were prepared and after the extraction of the drugs, their corresponding UV spectrum were analyzed by PLS regression to calculate the concentration of drugs in unknown plasma. A leave one out cross-validation procedure was employed to find the optimum numbers of latent variables using PRESS. A HPLC method was also applied for simultaneous determination of two drugs in the plasma and in methanol. The mean recoveries obtained by PLS were 98.4 and 98.2 for CBZ and PHT and those obtained by HPLC were 100.1 and 101.7, respectively. Although, the HPLC method showed better performance than PLS, it was found that the results obtained by PLS were comparable with those obtained by HPLC method.

Ginsenosides:: Chemistry, Biosynthesis, Analysis, and Potential Health Effects

Article

Feb 2008
Adv Food Nutr Res

Lars Porskjær Christensen

Ginsenosides are a special group of triterpenoid saponins that can be classified into two groups by the skeleton of their aglycones, namely dammarane- and oleanane-type. Ginsenosides are found nearly exclusively in Panax species (ginseng) and up to now more than 150 naturally occurring ginsenosides have been isolated from roots, leaves/stems, fruits, and/or flower heads of ginseng. Ginsenosides have been the target of a lot of research as they are believed to be the main active principles behind the claims of ginsengs efficacy. The potential health effects of ginsenosides that are discussed in this chapter include anticarcinogenic, immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, antiallergic, antiatherosclerotic, antihypertensive, and antidiabetic effects as well as antistress activity and effects on the central nervous system. Ginsensoides can be metabolized in the stomach (acid hydrolysis) and in the gastrointestinal tract (bacterial hydrolysis) or transformed to other ginsenosides by drying and steaming of ginseng to more bioavailable and bioactive ginsenosides. The metabolization and transformation of intact ginsenosides, which seems to play an important role for their potential health effects, are discussed. Qualitative and quantitative analytical techniques for the analysis of ginsenosides are important in relation to quality control of ginseng products and plant material and for the determination of the effects of processing of plant material as well as for the determination of the metabolism and bioavailability of ginsenosides. Analytical techniques for the analysis of ginsenosides that are described in this chapter are thin-layer chromatography (TLC), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) combined with various detectors, gas chromatography (GC), colorimetry, enzyme immunoassays (EIA), capillary electrophoresis (CE), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, and spectrophotometric methods.

Recent advances on ginseng research in China

Article

Mar 1992
J ETHNOPHARMACOL

Ginseng, Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer, is a well-known Chinese traditional medicine. There have been more than 300 original papers in Chinese and in English during the last 10 years in China. This review paper summarizes some achievements from some of these published papers. Twenty-eight ginsenosides and some minor constituents were extracted and isolated from the root, root-stock, stems, leaves, flowers and flower-buds of ginseng. The chemical analysis demonstrated that the content of ginsenosides is related to the source, part and growth years of ginseng. The drug has a wide range of pharmacological and therapeutical actions, it acts on the central nervous system, cardiovascular system and endocrine secretion, promotes immune function and metabolism, possesses biomodulation action, anti-stress and anti-ageing activities, and so on. Many preparations of ginseng have been officially approved for clinical application in China. Clinical evaluation has shown that these preparations play a special role in medicinal use.

New Biologically Active Triterpene-Saponins from Randia dumetorum

Article

Nov 1990

Two new triterpene-saponins, 3-O-[O-beta-D-glucopyranosyl-(1----4)-O-beta-D-glucopyranosyl-(1----3)-( beta- D-glucuronopyranosyl)]oleanolic acid (1), 3-O-[O-beta-D-glucopyranosyl-(1----6)-O-beta-D-glucopyranosyl- (1----3)-(beta-D-glucuronopyranosyl)]oleanolic acid (2) together with five known saponins (3-7) were isolated from the methanolic extract of the fruits of Randia dumetorum (Retz) Lam. (Rubiaceae). Their structures were established on the basis of chemical and spectral data. The compounds 1, 3, 4, 5 were found to enhance significantly the proliferation of human lymphocytes in vitro. The crude saponin fraction showed haemolytic, molluscicidal, and immunostimulating activities.

Ginseng pharmacology: Multiple constituents and multiple actions

Article

Jan 2000
BIOCHEM PHARMACOL

Ginsenosides from Panax ginseng Differentially Regulate Lymphocyte Proliferation

Article

Jul 2002

We have examined the immunosuppressive effects of representative ginsenosides (Rb1, Rb2, Re and Rg1) from Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer on CD4+ and CD8+ lymphocyte proliferation. Ginsenosides differentially modulated lymphocyte proliferation induced by concanavalin A (Con A), lipopolysaccharide (LPS), phytohemaglutinin (PHA) and interleukin-2 (IL-2). Thus, Rb1 and Re significantly enhanced Con A-induced lymphocyte proliferation, whereas Rg1 did not affect the proliferation. Interestingly, however, Rb2 strongly blocked Con A, LPS and PHA-induced lymphocyte proliferation with the IC50 values of 21.8, 29.0 and 24.0 microM, respectively. Moreover, Rb2 inhibited Con A-stimulated IL-2 production with an IC 50 of 13.3 microM. In the IL-2-stimulated CD8+ T cell (CTLL-2) proliferation assay, Re and Rg1 showed strong suppressive effects with IC50 values of 57.5 and 64.7 microM, respectively. In contrast, neither Rb1 nor Rb2 did inhibit CTLL-2 cell proliferation at tested concentrations. These results suggest that ginsenosides from P. ginseng may modulate lymphocyte proliferation in a different manner.

Adjuvant effect of ginseng extract on the immune responses to immunization against Staphylococcus aureus in dairy cattle

Article

Feb 2003
VET IMMUNOL IMMUNOP

A crude ginseng extract (GS) and the purified ginsenoside R(b1) (R(b1)) were evaluated for their adjuvant effects in dairy cattle at immunisation with ovalbumin (OVA) and/or a Staphylococcus aureus bacterin used for prevention of bovine mastitis. To evaluate a suitable dose of GS as an adjuvant, 36 lactating cows were randomly divided into six groups. The cows were inoculated twice intramuscularly with a 2-week interval, with saline solution, OVA in saline, or OVA in combination with 4, 16 or 64 mg GS, or Al(OH)(3). The level of specific antibodies to OVA in serum and milk whey was measured before immunisations and 1-5 weeks after the second immunisation. The antibody response in serum was significantly higher in animals immunised with OVA and GS than in animals immunised with OVA alone. A significant increase in milk antibody titres compared with OVA only was only found 2 weeks after the second immunisation in the group immunised with OVA and 4 mg GS. In the second part of the study, 18 heifers were randomly divided into three groups and were immunised twice intramuscularly with a two week interval, with the S. aureus bacterin (control), or with the bacterin in combination with 4 mg GS or 1mg R(b1). The specific antibody response to S. aureus and the lymphocyte proliferation after stimulation with PWM, concanavalin A (Con A) or a specific S. aureus antigen was evaluated in blood samples taken before and after immunisations as specified above. Addition of R(b1) resulted both in significantly higher antibody production and lymphocyte proliferation in response to PWM, Con A and S. aureus antigens than in the control group. Addition of GS induced a significantly higher lymphocyte proliferation in response to PWM and Con A than the control, but had no additional effect on the antibody production. In conclusion, both GS and R(b1) were safe adjuvants, and R(b1) had the strongest adjuvant effects, when used for immunisation against S. aureus in dairy cattle. Field trials are warranted to test the ability of GS and R(b1) to enhance the efficacy of mastitis vaccines in protection against intramammary infections.

Chemical characteristics combined with bioactivity for comprehensive evaluation of Panax ginseng CA Meyer in different ages and seasons based on HPLC-DAD and chemometric methods

Abstract

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