(PDF) Urban flood risk and hydrology

19

Urban ﬂ ood risk and hydrology

László Mrekva, Zsuzsanna Engi and Gábor Tóth

with 5 ﬁ gures and 1 table

Abstract.

Urban ﬂ oods have large impacts particularly in terms of economic and social losses. Flood

risk is commonly thought of as being a combination of the probability and the consequences of ﬂ ood-

ing. To analyse ﬂ ooding requires a basic understanding of the hydrology of cities. The paper provides

an overview of the consequences of urbanisation on the hydrology of towns and cities, try to describe

the urban hydrological cycle and the processes within the cycle that result in ﬂ ooding. We would like to

introduce the process of urban ﬂ ood risk management. The central concept of this paper is to represent

how we can manage collectively the different aspects of the urban ﬂ ood risk, and to demonstrate the

successful management with them.

Keywords:

urban hydrology, land use, ﬂ ood risk

1

Introduction

A continuous and fast urbanization threatens the balance of the European environment, soci-

ety and economic, poses in the Copenhagen ofﬁ cial statement of the European Environmental

Agency. At ﬁ rst during the human history more people live in small and big cities, than on rural

areas. Europe is one of the most urbanized continents in the world. About 75 % of its popula-

tion live in urban areas; onto 2020 this proportion will be increase 80 %. Come about this there

is a growing demand regarding the land use in the cities and in their surroundings. The expan-

sion of the cities modiﬁ es the landscape, and there is a never earlier effect on the quality of the

life of the people and their environment. The city planning and the management get a higher

position in the political agenda.

Therewith the increase of the numbers of the urban households there is an increasing

energy and water utilization as well as the waste production.

Accordindg to the ofﬁ cial statement of the European Environmental Agency on the

enlargement of the cities the urban land use had a negative effect on more than quarter part of

the European Union between 1990 and 2000. This mainly happened on the former agricultural

regions, which led to the loss of different ecosystem provisions like the food production, the

ﬂ ood defence and the biological diversity (EEA Brieﬁ ng 2006/4).

One of the most important elements of the today’s successful water management is that

we quite realize the fact, that we have to prepare ourselves for the incidence of different type

of ﬂ oods in the future and that the damages caused by ﬂ oods may be changing.

For this reason we have to deﬁ ne our objectives concerning the ﬂ oodrisk management, and

they have to be based on the local and regional circumstances. From the point of view of the

city dwellers one of the most important fundamental principles of the successful urban ﬂ ood

Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie, Supplementary Issue Fast Track Article

Published online April 2012

DOI: 10.1127/0372-8854/2012/S-00083 0372-8854/12/S-00083 $ 0.00

20

László Mrekva, Zsuzsanna Engi and Gábor Tóth

management is that we have to know the characteristics

of the different inundations and the

successful preventive measures against them. The undermentioned characteristics are known

onto our present day cities:

•

concentrated population,

•

huge, impermeable surfaces and building operations,

•

solid and liquid waste accumulation without treatment,

•

clogged drainage systems,

•

intensive economic activity,

•

extremely valuable infrastructure and property,

•

ﬂ ats without hygiene and sanitation,

•

regional changes around the cities.

The town of today is not able to fulﬁ l the claims the following from the above problems.

There are existing periodical, transitive solutions, but the most important tasks in front of us

are:

•

the regulation of the quantity of urban ﬂ oods,

•

he treatment of their quality, and the

•

release of the waste water treatment plants throughout the existing sewer systems.

The aims of the sustainable urban ﬂ ood management system are to store and purify urban

run-offs. The central concept is if that the water management can be feasible on the developed

areas. The characteristics of the existing sewer systems strive for to minimize the effects due to

the development and contribute to the evolution of the optimal hydrological circumstances.

2

What is risk?

Considering, that in the future we have to prepare ourselves for the occurring of different type

of ﬂ oods and the damages caused by ﬂ oods could be altering, this is why in the different coun-

tries and regions we have to deﬁ ne the objectives of the ﬂ ood risk conception by ourselves and

this conception has to be based on the local and regional circumstances. As a basic principle

appearing in the EU COM (2004, 427 p.) submissions on the Flood Risk Management and in

the Sustainable Flood Control Action Programme of ICPDR the fact, which we have to change

over from ﬂ ood defence to ﬂ ood risk management adapt the river basin approach build on the

activities of the authorities and stakeholders.

The many inconsistent and ambiguous meanings attached to “risk” lead to widespread con-

fusion and also mean that very different approaches to risk management are taken in different

ﬁ elds, here are some examples:

•

The ISO 31000 (2009) /ISO Guide 73 deﬁ nition of risk is the 'effect of uncertainty on

objectives'. In this deﬁ nition, uncertainties include events (which may or not happen)

and uncertainties caused by a lack of information or ambiguity. This deﬁ nition also

includes both negative and positive impacts on objectives.

•

Another deﬁ nition is that risks are future problems that can be avoided or mitigated,

rather than current ones that must be immediately addressed.

21

Urban ﬂ ood risk and hydrology

•

Risk can be seen as relating to the Probability of uncertain future events. For example,

according to Factor Analysis of Information Risk, risk is: the probable frequency and

probable magnitude of future loss. In computer science this deﬁ nition is used by The

Open Group.

•

OHSAS (Occupational Health & Safety Advisory Services) deﬁ nes risk as the product

of the probability of a hazard resulting in an adverse event, times the severity of the

event.

•

In information security risk is deﬁ ned as "the potential that a given threat will exploit

vulnerabilities of an asset or group of assets and thereby cause harm to the organiza-

tion".

•

Financial risk is often deﬁ ned as the unexpected variability or volatility of returns

and thus includes both potential worse-than-expected as well as better-than-expected

returns. References to negative risk below should be read as applying to positive impacts

or opportunity (e.g., for "loss" read "loss or gain") unless the context precludes this

interpretation.

•

The related term "hazard" is used to mean something that could cause harm

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ris

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ris

k).

).

or

•

Risk is the probability of damage causation of accidental events.

(www.mimi.hu/gazdasag/kockazat.htm

www.mimi.hu/gazdasag/kockazat.htm

l).

).

•

Risk is quantity determination of the probability of the loss

(http://www.investorwords.co

http://www.investorwords.co

m).

).

•

The ﬂ ood risk increases where risk is deﬁ ned as the probability of occurrence multi-

plied by its impact. (Best practices on ﬂ ood prevention, protection and mitigation).

•

Flood risk means the combination of the probability of a ﬂ ood event and of the

potential adverse consequences for human health, the environment, cultural heritage

and economic activity associated with a ﬂ ood event (directive 2007/60/ec of the euro-

pean parliament and of the council).

In generally, risk assessment is the procedure where we evaluate risk arose from the exist-

ing threatens, and having an effect on health and safety. Risk assessment is not unlike accurate

overview that in a given dangerous situation what can be injured and what can be threaten

the security. The aims of the risk assessment are the identiﬁ cation of the risk, the averting its

deleterious effects or rather its reduction to a smallest extent with ranked measures. The risk

assessment is a message for the decision makers. Flood is an inevitable phenomenon. At the

same time the different human activities and the climate change are contribute to the grow-

ing of its probability and to the growing of its dangerous effects. The damages caused by the

ﬂ oods can be altering in the different countries and regions. Those catastrophic ﬂ oods, which

were occurred during the last years worldwide demonstrated, that there is no existing total

defence against ﬂ oods.

22

László Mrekva, Zsuzsanna Engi and Gábor Tóth

3

The reasons and effects of urban ﬂ ood

For that reason to understand the urban ﬂ ood risk completely it is crucial to take in the different

components of the risk. Frequently – superﬁ cially consider – we deﬁ ne the risk, as an occur-

rence of an extreme event or danger, which is the cause of the natural forces or the combina-

tion of natural/and human forces (e.g., ﬂ ood, drought, earthquake, landslide etc.). Although the

primary precondition of risk framing is the occurrence of such kind of dangerous situations,

and these situations are also the components of the risk framing. The second component in

the risk framing is the fact that somebody or something is in danger, namely it turn into vulner-

able. This widely accepted deﬁ nition makes the column of the risk explicit. Risk is one kind of

probability of the damage, which is based on the next three components: danger, vulnerability

and exposure, even if among one is increasing or decreasing, then the risk is also increasing or

decreasing in compliance with it.

3.1

Explanation of the urban ﬂ ood risk

Floods are the results of the combination of the hydrological and meteorological extremities.

Over and above in many cases ﬂ oods are inﬂ uenced by the human factor. Although these inﬂ u-

ences are very different from each other, they are still increasing the ﬂ ood risk, emphasized the

ﬂ ood peaks. Thereby, in the built environment we have to look on them like the consequences

of natural and man-made factors. In the next table (Table 1.) there is a certain kind of summary

on the factors which can contribute to the ﬂ ood.

3.2

The effects of the urban ﬂ oods

The effects of urban ﬂ oods can be seen – direct and indirect way – in the economic losses.

A number of urban characteristics (listed in foreword) are well known mainly in the low and

medium income countries.

3.2.1

Exposure

Exposure gives only the answer on the question, whether human properties are under a threat

by ﬂ ood or not. One of the main elements of the increasing of the urban ﬂ ood damages is the

increasing of the population. The fast and non-planned expansion of the cities generates that

the population is threatened more and more by potential ﬂ oods.

While in year 1800 only 1 per cent of the population of the Earth lived in cities, due to

the industrial revolution, the developed conurbations attracted more and more crowd. There-

fore onto 1970 this ratio reached the 30 per cent and around the millennium it was 50 per cent

(GAYER-LIGETVÁRI

GAYER-LIGETVÁRI

2007). According to the predictions onto 2030 as it is to be expected more

than 2/3 of the population will to live in cities (see also on Figure 1).

The developing countries are getting larger and larger. There is a strong migration from the

rural regions to the cities. The main characteristics of this migration are

23

Urban ﬂ ood risk and hydrology

Table 1. Factors bringing ﬂ ood (based on WMO/GWP Associated programme on ﬂ ood management,

urban ﬂ ood risk management, A tool for integrated ﬂ ood management, associated programme on ﬂ ood

management, March 2008).

Meteorological factors

Hydrologycal factors

Human factors

•

rainfall

•

cyclonic storms,

•

small-sized storms,

•

temperature,

•

snowfall and melting.

•

the moisture content of

the soil,

•

ground water level

•

quantity of the natural

surface inﬁ ltration,

•

the cross-section of a

bed and the roughness,

•

concerted run-off from

the different parts of the

river basin.

•

the changing of the land

use due to the urbaniza-

tion (increase run-off),

•

the use of the ﬂ oodplains

(restrain the natural ﬂ ow-

ing),

•

the unprofessional and

the non-sustained infra-

structure,

•

the rainfall on the upper

part of the river basin

contribute to the ﬂ ood

peaks,

•

the effects of the climate

change onto the extent

and frequency of ﬂ oods,

•

urban microclimate may

bring precipitation.

Fig. 1. The number of the population settling down in the cities on the world (source: United Nations,

World Urbanization Prospects: The 2005 Revision (2006) and

CARL HAUB

(2007): World Population Data

Sheet.)

24

László Mrekva, Zsuzsanna Engi and Gábor Tóth

•

the extremity,

•

the “no control”,

•

industrial growth, as well as

•

infrastructural developing.

This type of urban growing is endangering the ﬂ ood plains; diminish the natural run off

process on them. Due to the economic development the ﬁ nancial concerns are increasing more

than the society itself. In the developing countries due to the proper measures the cities and the

population are not endangered by the ﬂ oods. However, it is not necessary for the cities to assist

to the increasing of the ﬂ ood risk, even if during the process of the country planning and land

use they are taking the ﬂ ood risk into consideration.

3.2.2

Vulnerability

The vulnerability is one of the most crucial components of the risk, determine whether we are

exposure to a risk ending with catastrophe or not. There are three main types of the vulner-

ability:

1. the physical vulnerability of people and infrastructure,

2. the unfavourable organizational and economic conditions, and

3. the conformation and responsibility.

The physical vulnerability of people and the infrastructure

Risk creation is going together with the urban development, but while higher income stakes

are able to tolerate this kind of risk, till then the lower ones have to confront with the risk. The

physical vulnerability of people and infrastructure shows an increasing tendency as a result of

the dense concentration of the potentially dangerous infrastructures and materials (e.g., bridges,

solid and liquid waste, chemicals, electrical instruments etc.).

The unfavourable organizational and economic conditions

The everyday city dwellers are not able to work together effectively. When they ﬁ nd themselves

face to face with the difﬁ culties they are requiring support (ﬁ nancial and institutional) from the

State. The absence of the proper institutional structure leads to a chaotic circumstances during

“hard times”. The prerequisite of the social consciousness is to know about the danger. There-

fore it is essential to inform all the stakeholders in an up-to-date way.

The conformation and responsibility

Everybody who derives beneﬁ t from the river (both in a direct or indirect way) has a personal

responsibility on the rational water use and on every kind of activities which can have inﬂ uence

onto the ﬂ ood risk.

25

Urban ﬂ ood risk and hydrology

3.2.2.1

The reduction of the vulnerability

The reduction of the physical vulnerability of people and the infrastructure:

•

assuring the fundamental requirements (aliment, medical supplies etc.),

•

emergency place of refuge,

•

evacuation plans and equipment,

•

building rules.

The reduction of the unfavourable organizational and economic conditions:

•

political support,

•

institutional participation,

•

support of the community based organizations (e.g., voluntary ﬁ re-ﬁ ghter brigades),

•

support of the economic development,

•

diversiﬁ ed sources of income,

•

ﬂ ood insurance.

The reduction of the conformation and responsibility:

•

knowledge development,

•

increasing of the social consciousness,

•

alarm systems.

3.3

Institutional requirements

3.3.1

Existing shortcomings

In generally the principal undermentioned shortcomings can be listed regarding the urban

ﬂ oods:

•

lack of a comprehensive risk management,

•

insufﬁ cient communication between the different institutions,

•

inadequate information sharing,

•

incomplete investment decisions,

•

lack of public participation.

3.3.2

Institutional arrangements

The centre of the urban ﬂ oodrisk management is the city itself. The clue of the success or

failure of the urban ﬂ oodrisk management is the carrying out the law. Basically there are three

main elements that are determining the enforcement.

The ﬁ rst is the institutional structure, which makes the designation of the tasks and respon-

sibilities between the different institutions possible. The shift of the responsibilities inside or

between the institutions is keep from the efﬁ cient ﬂ oodrisk management.

The local authorities have to be cooperating with the competent river basin authorities

and other international institutions in the evaluation process of the hydrometeorological

risks. It is very important to designate the tasks between the responsible institutions for the

26

László Mrekva, Zsuzsanna Engi and Gábor Tóth

successful cooperation. It is fundamental in the successful risk management that the inter-

ested institutions are joining their forces not only at local level but beyond their administra-

tive borders. It is a basic principle in the conception of the integrated ﬂ ood management.

The second basic element is the composition of the urban ﬂ ood management policies

and plans. Here it is important to highlight again, that these kinds of plans have to give clear

and all-embracing orders.

At the end the last element is the process of execution of the plans, and at the same time

this is the last potent measure. The success of the execution is depending on the quality of

the plans, and the ability of the cities to execute the plans from the point of view of ﬁ nance

and organization.

These basic principles strongly support the efﬁ ciency and sustainability of the activities

of the local governments.

3.3.3

Participation in the planning process of the measures

Every principle which reinforces the base of the urban ﬂ ood management is based on the par-

ticipation of stakeholders. In a traditional way the ﬂ ood management is a top to down occur-

ring decision making. Following the hierarchy of the administrative systems we can experience

that in the process of ﬂ ood defence the planning of the measures happened without the con-

siderable communities and the stakeholders. In many cases it produced non sustainable meas-

ures, and did not meet the relevant interests. These basic shortcomings can be eliminated by

the integration of the public participation into the process of the urban ﬂ ood management. In

this context the decision making can be deﬁ ned as the combination of top-to-down and down-

to-top approaches, and this opens the door to the participation, which is based on the equality

of the law. To this, we need a due foresight to identify the interested parties. The urban ﬂ ood

management contains the below mentioned relevant stakes:

•

responsible self-governing authorities,

•

those urban communities who are interested in or not interested in the execution of

the different measures,

•

river basin authorities and organizations,

•

regional developmental agencies,

•

academic institutions,

•

the private sector, and

•

the NGOs.

Ensuring the public participation is in harmony with the three main goals. First of

all, brings together the knowledge of the different perspectives, in this way they can under-

stand the essence of ﬂ ood risk. Secondly, the interested parties have a chance to express their

requirements and promoted their claims during the decision making. Finally, based on the

ﬁ rst two aims by means of the public participation the interested parties will be with regard

to the identiﬁ cation and execution of the ﬂ ood management measures, which measures are

effective and sustainable because the majority of the stakes are supported them.

27

Urban ﬂ ood risk and hydrology

4

Urban hydrology

4.1

Urban storm water management

In the cities the direct consequence of the development of the impermeable, covered sur-

faces are the greater surface run-off and the shorter time saturation. Actually the impermeable,

covered surfaces are facilitate the ﬂ ows into the recipient in a rapid way, while the permeable

surfaces can be store it, and hours, days, weeks later let the water towards the under layers (see

also on Fig. 2.).

The building of the impermeable surfaces modiﬁ es the surrounding soil construction by

way of the mechanical compaction, and eliminates the subaerial soil layer, which is an essential

porous storage space, between the subsoil and the atmosphere.

The increased rate of the impermeabled surfaces accelerate the time of concentration and

the surface run-off of the rainwater on the urban areas, while due to the decreasing inﬁ ltration

the accumulated water quantity is increasing

(CSAPÁK

CSAPÁK

2009) (see also on Fig. 3).

The aims of the traditional storm water management on the urban areas are:

•

carry off the discharging quantity of water as fast as possible, and

•

collect the excess run-off in a retention basins to decrease the developing peak ﬂ ood

discharges.

Fig. 2. Comparison of the amount of surface runoff “before” and “after” construction (source:

http://www.nccleanwater.org/involvement/kids/slobber.php).

28

László Mrekva, Zsuzsanna Engi and Gábor Tóth

4.2

Urban hydrological cycle

Hydrology is the science that describes the occurrence and behaviour of water above, over and

through the Earth. The continuous movement of water is called the hydrological cycle, because

the amount of water remains fairly constant over time. The hydrological cycle is driven by the

solar energy and gravitation that cause continuous interrelated processes such as evaporation

and transpiration, condensation, precipitation, inﬁ ltration and run off (see also on Fig. 4.).

In contrast to the global hydrological cycle, in urban areas there is in practice almost never a

closed hydrological cycle. Many cities depend on water resources from surrounding rural areas

and discharge their wastewater into the sea or rivers outside the city, so that the urban water

cycle is being closed. In urban areas, ﬁ ve interrelated types of water can be determined: ground-

water, surface water, storm water, drinking water and waste water (Urban Flood Management

Published by CRC Press/Balkema). The urbanization always greatly modify the landscape, the

result of this continuous circulation is the hydrological cycle.

The increasing rate of the urbanization and land use changes raise the questions to how

this can affect rainfall run off process and how this turn can inﬂ uence the occurrence of ﬂ ood

events and ﬂ ood risk overall. The hydrological cycle through the above mentioned interrelated

processes regulates e.g., the transport of pollutants, water chemistry, pattern of nutrient ﬂ uxes,

erosion, surface and groundwater levels etc. Due to the urbanization we can discover some

main changes in the water cycle:

Fig. 3. The effect urbanization volume and rates of surface run-off (source: Drainage Manual, Roads and

Transportation Association of Canada 1982).

29

Urban ﬂ ood risk and hydrology

•

due to the impermeable surfaces the interception of precipitation is reduced,

•

precipitation is usually higher than in the county,

•

the evapotranspiration is much lower,

•

the surface run-off is growing (quantitatively more and more frequent),

•

the inﬁ ltration is decreasing,

•

water storage is much lower.

Urban development signiﬁ cantly increases the amount of storm water and the frequency

of extreme hydrological events experienced by the city’s catchments. The increased runoff

causes more intense local ﬂ ooding, while droughts during dry weather are deeper and longer.

These changes impact strongly water habitats: increased discharges erode stream beds and

banks, export high concentrations of pollution into the rivers, wetlands and reservoirs, destabi-

lize ecological processes, handicap ecological stability of ecosystems. All these not only reduce

aesthetic values of the city, but also restrict provision of ecosystem services and cause water-

related problems to the urban population, related to ﬂ ood risk, water supply, drainage, waste-

water collection and management (http://www.aquatic.unesco.lodz.pl).

Fig. 4. The hydrological cycle (

TRENBERTH

et al. 2006a).

30

László Mrekva, Zsuzsanna Engi and Gábor Tóth

5

A short overview about the Hungarian conditions regarding ﬂ oodrisk

The protection of important cities, towns, villages etc. led to the creation of an extensive sys-

tem of ﬂ ood defence structures not only in Europe but in Hungary. Flooding is considered

a high risk in Europe especially in Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovakia and

Slovenia. More than seven per cent of the total area of the Danube River Basin is considered

as a ﬂ ood plain. Six per cent of the total population of the Danube River Basin lives at loca-

tions below the ﬂ ood levels. In Hungary about 25 % of the population live on the ﬂ oodplain

of the River Danube and its tributaries. In line with the EU Flood directive and with the aim of

decreasing ﬂ ood risk Hungary will elaborate new regulations. The aims of the new regulations

are among other things:

•

to increase ﬂ ood safety,

•

primary arrangement of raw data,

•

statistical analysis of ﬂ ood characteristics,

•

evaluation of the discharge capacity of the high-water bed and ﬂ oodplain,

•

hydraulic model creation,

•

determination of the potential ﬂ oods,

•

ﬂ oodrisk mapping etc.

Ofﬁ cial ﬂ ood hazard maps are currently available in Hungary. The ofﬁ cial national maps

are produced for ﬂ oodplain inundation areas of 1/100 and 1/1000-year frequency. These

maps can be reached mostly in paper format, and some in digital. Hungary is using a vari-

ety of scales for ﬂ ood hazard mapping, ranging from a rather small scale of 1:1,000,000 to

a large scale of 1:5,000 or even 1:500. Hungary has national or regional coverage of ﬂ ood

hazard maps and of course provincial maps are available. Fig. 5 shows the risk proﬁ le of

Hungary.

6

Conclusions and recommendations

The complexity of the developing process of the ﬂ ood risks insists on to understand the

numerous components and typology of the ﬂ ood risks and those factors which can eliminate

them. It is essential to give answer onto the following problems while develop and execute our

measures:

•

The urban ﬂ ood risk is more than the ﬂ ood, the risk is originated from the combina-

tion of the components, and includes the danger, the exposure and the vulnerabil-

ity. Identiﬁ cation of these components makes easier to understand the ﬂ ood risk,

because emphasizes that only the combination of natural and human factors generate

ﬂ ood risk.

•

Public participation is essential in the process of ﬂ ood risk assessment, as well as in

the planning process of the execution of ﬂ ood risk assessment measures. The public

participation is crucial in the successful ﬂ ood risk assessment planning.

31

Urban ﬂ ood risk and hydrology

•

The ﬂ ood management measures have to be planned beyond the administrative and

sectoral boundaries. The institutional relations between the interested authorities con-

tribute to the planning based on the cooperation.

•

Successful urban ﬂ ood risk management can be achieve when includes the structural

and non-structural measures, the spatial and organizational arrangements, as well as the

combination of these.

•

To recognize the essential elements of the sustainable urban planning is the most hope-

ful strategy in the long-distance and successful risk assessment. The viewpoints of

ﬂ ood are inseparable from urban planning.

•

The evaluation of the monitoring of the executed measures facilitates to identify the

best practices and help to continuously develop our ﬂ oodrisk management plans.

Fig. 5. Risk proﬁ le of Hungary (source: http://www.preventionweb.net/english/countries/statistics/

risk.php?iso=hun).

32

László Mrekva, Zsuzsanna Engi and Gábor Tóth

7

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33/2006/Ek Közös Álláspont a Tanács által 2006. november 23-án elfogadva az árvízi kockázatok

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l; Az Európai Unió Hivatalos Lapja, 2006.12.19

33

Urban ﬂ ood risk and hydrology

Addresses of the authors:

László

Mrekva, Lower-Danube-Valley Directorate for Water, 6500 Baja, Hungary, mrekva@gmail.com

Zsuzsanna Engi, West-transdanubian Water Directorate, Vörösmarty u. 2., 9700 Szombathely, Hungary,

engi.zsuzsanna@nyuduvizig.hu

Gábor Tóth, University of West Hungary, Faculty of Science, Department of Physical Geography,

Károlyi G. tér 4, 9700 Szombathely, Hungary, tothg@ttk.nyme.hu

34

László Mrekva, Zsuzsanna Engi and Gábor Tóth

Urban flood risk and hydrology

Abstract and Figures

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