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Classification of Synthetic Polyurethane Leather by Mechanical Properties according to Consumers' Preference for Fashion Items
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This study aims to evaluate the effect of mechanical properties on consumers' preference for fashion leather items, and to classify them by the mechanical properties of synthetic leather. Mechanical properties were measured by the KES-FB system and a survey of experts was conducted with a preference evaluation for various items using 15 types of synthetic polyurethane leather. More easily transformable and lighter leathers are preferred for clothing, while the leathers that have better dimensional stability are preferred for purses, bags, shoes, and boots, and those with smooth surface are preferred for furniture. Furthermore, synthetic leathers were classified into three clusters by mechanical properties. There was no difference between clusters in preference for non-clothing item, because no perception of various mechanical properties was caused by the structural characteristics of each items by design. On the other hand, for clothing items, consumers' preferences are significantly affected by mechanical properties.
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... Notably, the textile sector is one of the largest consumers of synthetic polymers. Synthetic textiles and leathers are primarily made from synthetic polymers such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and polyurethanes (PU) [5]. These materials contribute significantly to environmental stress by releasing microplastics during use and disposal [3]. ...
... Environmental concerns regarding genuine leather have driven the development of synthetic alternatives made from PVC and PU, which have gained significant market traction over the past decades [5]. Although these synthetic materials eliminate the need for tanning chemicals, their production still depends on fossil-based resources [179,180]. ...
Microbial-derived materials are emerging for applications in biomedicine, sensors, food, cosmetics, construction, and fashion. They offer considerable structural properties and process reproducibility compared to other bio-based materials. However, challenges related to efficient and sustainable large-scale production of microbial-derived materials must be addressed to exploit their potential fully. This review analyzes the synergistic contribution of circular, sustainable, and biotechnological approaches to enhance bacterial cellulose (BC) production and fine-tune its physico-chemical properties. BC was chosen as an ideal example due to its mechanical strength and chemical stability, making it promising for industrial applications. The review discusses upcycling strategies that utilize waste for microbial fermentation, simultaneously boosting BC production. Additionally, biotechnology techniques are identified as key to enhance BC yield and tailor its physico-chemical properties. Among the different areas where cellulose-based materials are employed, BC shows promise for mitigating the environmental impact of the garment industry. The review emphasizes that integrating circular and biotechnological approaches could significantly improve large-scale production and enhance the tunability of BC properties. Additionally, these approaches may simultaneously provide environmental benefits, depending on their future progresses. Future advancements should prioritize circular fermentation and biotechnological techniques to expand the potential of BC for sustainable industrial applications.
... Its chemical structure consists of two segments within a single molecule: a soft segment made by diisocyanate and polymeric polyol and a hard segment created by diisocyanate and chain extender. Polyurethane (PU) has a limited mix of tenacity and elasticity due to its molecular composition [29]. The physical features of the material depend significantly on the kind and composition of the monomer used as the binder. ...
... The physical features of the material depend significantly on the kind and composition of the monomer used as the binder. In other words, the way a porous surface layer looks and feels and its ability to resist water, bending, and moisture transpiration is mainly influenced by the processing method and structure of the layer [29]. ...
... Therefore, several studies have focused on the production of alternative forms of leather (Cerimi et al. 2019). Artificial forms of leather that are synthesized from polyvinyl chloride and polyurethane have been promoted as substitutes for animal leather (Roh et al. 2013). However, these synthetic forms of leather also require the use of hazardous chemicals in the production processes (Roh et al. 2013). ...
... Artificial forms of leather that are synthesized from polyvinyl chloride and polyurethane have been promoted as substitutes for animal leather (Roh et al. 2013). However, these synthetic forms of leather also require the use of hazardous chemicals in the production processes (Roh et al. 2013). Furthermore, these materials also lack the characteristic of biodegradability and can increase environmental pollution as they are associated with the same limited end-of-life options as most plastics (Shah et al. 2008). ...
Fungi are an understudied resource possessing huge potential for developing products that can greatly improve human well-being. In the current paper, we highlight some important discoveries and developments in applied mycology and interdisciplinary Life Science research. These examples concern recently introduced drugs for the treatment of infections and neurological diseases; application of –OMICS techniques and genetic tools in medical mycology and the regulation of mycotoxin production; as well as some highlights of mushroom cultivaton in Asia. Examples for new diagnostic tools
in medical mycology and the exploitation of new candidates for therapeutic drugs, are also given. In addition, two entries illustrating the latest developments in the use of fungi for biodegradation and fungal biomaterial production are provided.
Some other areas where there have been and/or will be significant developments are also included. It is our hope that this paper will help realise the importance of fungi as a potential industrial resource and see the next two decades bring forward
many new fungal and fungus-derived products.
... According to circular economy principles, research efforts have been made to recycle and valorize tanneries' solid waste alternatively to the actual disposal procedures [3]. The environmental concern about genuine leather products has encouraged the development of synthetic leather alternatives composed of polyvinylchloride and polyurethanes (PU), which have had considerable market traction during the last decades [4]. While tanning chemicals are not involved in producing these synthetic materials, they lack in durability, their production still derives from fossil sources and do not guarantee improved sustainability parameters with end-of-life degradation products [5]. ...
The leather industry has environmental impacts due to tanning processes and produces substantial solid waste, with up to 80% of treated hides not disposed of sustainably. The fashion industry is seeking bio-based alternatives to genuine leather and exploring innovative technologies for the on-demand customization of accessories. This study aims to optimize a bio-based, circular, and 3D-printable composite material as an alternative to vegetable-tanned leather, employing glutaraldehyde-treated leather scraps. A versatile composite was optimized, including up to 30%(w/w) of glutaraldehyde-treated leather shavings and 55%(w/w) of hydrolyzed bacterial cellulose as fillers embedded in a gelatin-glycerol matrix. This material can be dried into sheets, acting both as a leather alternative and a printing plate for the same material in a water-based form, enabling the customization of the composite leather alternative sheet. The dried composite reached mechanical properties akin to vegetable-tanned leather grain (Tensile strength: 3.8MPa, Deformation at break: 20.1%, Young's modulus: 210.2MPa). The waterborne composite showed the required rheological properties for Direct Ink Writing. The extrudable material was successfully 3D-printed, employing the composite as a printing plate, simulating the personalization of leather alternative. These findings valorized leather waste to produce customized circular leather and leather-like alternative via additive manufacturing, promoting sustainable and avant-garde practices in the fashion sector.
... Leather is extensively utilized across various industries, particularly in the automotive and fashion sectors, representing one of the most traded commodities at the international level [1]. Despite advancements in synthetic alternatives, e.g., polyurethane (PU) [2,3], leather remains highly favored for its durability, aesthetics, and performances, e.g., unique mechanical properties [4]. Several factors influence its microstructure, typically connected to the specific animal, environmental and weather conditions, production processes, and parameter setups [4][5][6], modifying its mechanical behavior for several tailored applications. ...
Despite its significant environmental impacts, leather remains a popular material due to its durability, aesthetics, and mechanical properties. Recycling leather scraps is gaining increasing attention to reduce waste, pollutants, and emissions from pristine raw materials in the tanning industry. Material Extrusion additive manufacturing represents a promising way to recycle leather byproducts as secondary raw materials for new applications. This paper investigates the characterization and printability of photo- and thermal-curable PVA-based inks for UV-assisted Direct Ink Writing filled with leather filler scraps from the tanning industry, i.e., leather shavings. As a cold extrusion process, Direct Ink Writing reduces energy consumption and maximizes the waste percentage content in new material formulations. The morphology and thermal properties of the leather filler were assessed before adding it to a novel cross-linkable PVA-based matrix, preparing inks containing up to 20 % wt. of leather scraps, leading to almost 40 % wt. after post-curing. Rheological tests showed a shear-thinning behavior of the formulations and a clear transition from solid-like to fluid-like behavior, followed by a quick recovery of the solid-like behavior, ensuring good printability, shape retention, and fidelity. UV crosslinking and post-curing led to robust polymer networks, reaching crosslinking degrees of ~90 %. According to the mechanical tests, the PVA-leather scrap inks exhibited mechanical properties broadly similar to virgin leather materials, i.e., 170 MPa elastic modulus, 13 % elongation at break, and 6 MPa stress at break. Scanning Electron Microscopy revealed a preferential alignment of the leather filler along the extrusion direction, confirming the reinforcing effect of the scrap particles. These results demonstrate the suitability of these inks as alternatives for new tailored applications in the leather industry, reducing virgin material usage through additive manufacturing.
... Leather is extensively utilized across various industries, particularly in the automotive and fashion sectors, representing one of the most traded commodities at the international level. [1] Despite advancements in synthetic alternatives, e.g., polyurethane (PU), [2,3] leather remains highly favored for its durability, aesthetics, and performances, e.g., unique mechanical properties. [4] Its This study explores the use of AM as a tool for recycling secondary raw materials derived from wellestablished industrial supply chains, with a focus on waste from the tanning industry. ...
Although leather production has significant environmental impacts, it remains a popular material due to its durability, aesthetics, and mechanical properties. Recycling leather scraps, an abundant waste stream of the tanning industry, is gaining increasing attention as a way to reduce waste, pollutants, and emissions from producing pristine material. To this end, additive manufacturing represents a novel and promising way to recycle leather scraps and byproducts as secondary raw materials for new product applications. This paper investigates the characterization and printability of photo- and thermal-curable PVA-based inks for UV-assisted Direct Ink Writing filled with leather filler scraps from the tanning industry, i.e., leather shavings. The selected technology enables processing materials with reduced energy and material use. The morphology and thermal properties of the leather filler were assessed before adding it to a novel cross-linkable PVA-based matrix. The rheological behavior, printability, crosslinking degree, and mechanical properties of three different ink formulations were evaluated, reaching up to 20% wt. of leather scraps and almost 40% wt. after post-curing. According to the tests, the PVA-leather scrap inks can be successfully processed through UV-assisted Direct Ink Writing, obtaining good crosslinking degrees, printability, shape fidelity, and mechanical properties broadly similar to virgin leather materials, i.e., 170 MPa elastic modulus, 13% elongation at break, and 6 MPa stress at break. These results demonstrate the suitability of these inks as alternatives for new tailored applications in the leather industry, reducing virgin material usage through additive manufacturing.
... Previously, natural leather was commonly used for this purpose; however, environmental concerns have led to the adoption of artificial leather. Artificial leather, such as polyurethane (PU) leather and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) leather, is manufactured to replicate the texture and feel of natural leather [5][6][7]. By coating, dipping, laminating, and other processes, PU and PVC materials are applied to the artificial leather, followed by buffing or polishing to create a leather-like pattern and texture. ...
This study investigates the surface properties and adhesive strength of polypropylene (PP) in order to enhance the bond between PP injection-molded specimens and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) synthetic artificial leather. Plasma, primer, and flame treatments were applied to the surface of each specimen prepared using the two types of injection molds. The surface morphology, surface roughness, and contact angle were analyzed, and peel-strength analyses and a morphological inspections of the peeled specimens were performed. The peeling strength of the PP injection molding was measured, followed by a morphological examination of the peeled specimens. The plasma and flame treatments improved the peel strength, and the plasma and flame treatments changed the rough exterior to a hydrophilic surface, improving the peel strength. In addition, the primer treatment exhibited a lower peel strength than did the other treatments. This confirmed the low adhesion of the primer to the hydrophobic PP surface. The outcomes of this study can be employed across a multitude of industries that require improved adhesion for PP injection molded products.
... The products created by these biotech companies introduce more environmental-friendly methods and products. However, in order to be competitive in a market that has long used other alternatives, such as leather [93,94], these products must maintain a high standard in their mechanical and material properties. Additionally, the porous networks created by mycelia may be well suited to other consumer products, such as for air filters [95]. ...
Ganoderma is a genus of fungi that has been the subject of much research, largely due to its medicinal or therapeutic qualities. However, the structure of their sporocarps (similar to mushrooms) and their mechanical and material properties have been largely ignored. Three characteristic structures created by Ganoderma fungi are described with a focus on their structural and mechanical properties: the layered sporocarp structure, the vegetative mycelia that create filamentous networks, and the double-walled spore. The Ganoderma sporocarp has a layered, porous mesostructure that provides for a macrostructure that is both lightweight and mechanically tough and could provide inspiration for materials in aerospace applications. Ganoderma mycelia networks, which make use of three different types of constitutive filaments (hyphae), can naturally bind substrates and provide increased mechanical properties than fungi with simpler microstructures. These networks can be implemented into engineering applications as natural binders or textiles. The reinforced walls of and porous internal structure of Ganoderma spores provide a mechanically resistant structure irrespective of the orientation of the load. This protective, hollow structure may provide inspiration for the creation of energy storage materials.
Graphical abstract
As the ethical movement against animal products continues to gain momentum, ultra-fine fiber suede has become a popular alternative to leather. The key to successfully replacing the emotional appeal of natural leather lies in creating a unique appearance and hand with the ultra-fine fibers used in suede. In this paper, the preferred hand of suede among consumers was analyzed by examining the combination of suede’s base fabric and raising cycles. The results showed that both the raising cycles and base fabric had an effect on its mechanical properties, subjective hands, and overall preference of suede. However, the influence of the base fabric was greater than that of the raising cycles, and there was no significant difference after four cycles. The knitting type and fineness of the base fabric directly affected the mechanical properties of suede. Ultimately, our subjective evaluation of 50 female experts showed a preference for soft and warm suede fabric. Additionally, the results found that the base fabric has a more significant impact on increasing smoothness, hand preference, and preference for jackets than raising cycles. Therefore, when selecting a base fabric, it is important to consider the intended use of the suede. For example, gray weft-knits should be used for density and elasticity, while gray warp-knits are better for dimensional stability.
Superfine fiber synthetic leather is a high‐grade artificial leather product with numerous characteristics and advantages. However, compared with natural leather, it shows poor moisture absorption and moisture permeability, and it gives people a hot and tacky feeling; thus, the improvement of these properties has become a popular topic in the industry. In this paper, the “click” chemistry method was employed to modify the nylon fiber of the superfine fiber synthetic leather base with waste collagen to improve the moisture absorption and permeability of the superfine fiber synthetic leather base, thus enhancing the hygienic performance and wearing comfort of the end products, realizing waste recycling. This study obtained the optimal reaction conditions for the “click” modification of unfigured sea‐island superfine fiber synthetic leather base with collagen methacrylamide. The characterizations by static contact angle measurements, attenuated total reflection infrared spectroscopy, and X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy analysis confirmed that collagen was successfully grafted onto the surface of the nylon fiber. Compared with the original base, the moisture absorption, and permeability of the base were improved by 602.4% and 43%, respectively. This study shows the theoretical research significance and excellent practical value for the resource utilization of skin collagen waste.
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between weight of fabrics and texture and sensibility and preference of consumers for F/W women`s jacket fabrics. Structural Equation Model(SEM) using AMOS program was conducted to analyze the relationships. Then, this study aimed to provide useful information in planning designing fabrics through predicting the subjective characteristics analyzed. The main survey was developed the 7-point semantic differential scale of subjective texture, sensibility and preference. Fifty trained female panelists of 20-30 years old were participated and questionnaire method was used with 20 kind of fabric. The evaluation methods such as by the sense of sight & touch were used when fabrics were estimated subjectively. When evaluated by the sense of sight & touch, fabric`s weight did not have effect directly on preference, but had effect indirectly on preference through the texture and the sensibility..
The durability of hand in spandex blend fabrics (1% spandex-wool and 2% spandex-wool/pe blends) was evaluated by the wear test and the laboratory simulation test, using an objective evaluation method of fabric handle based on the mechanical properties measured by the kes-fb system. The simulation test was performed to simulate the fabric fatigue process in actual wear by means of the kes-f5 fatigue test machine and commercial dry-cleaning. From the wear test, the primary hand values of numeri (smoothness) and fukurami (softness and fullness) showed a greater decrease for the spandex blend fabrics than those for the worsted fabrics. From the simulation test, the total and primary hand values of numeri for the spandex blend fabrics decreased remarkably compared with those for the conventional fabrics. The surface abrasion of the spandex blend fabrics caused by the wear test was much greater than that of the worsted fabrics, and was confirmed by the simulation test results. From the changes in the mechanical properties caused by the simulation test, spandex blend fabrics appear to show extensive bagging, whereas wrinkle resistance is stronger than that of the conventional fabrics. The cross-sectional areas of the spandex-wool/pe blend core spun yarns increased significantly with the simulation test, with a comparable decrease of resilience in the tensile properties, in contrast with the worsted yarns. The structural modifications in fiber assemblies of the core spun yarns govern the increase in hysteresis components of both the fabric and yarn, and the degradation of fibers in the core spun yarns contributes to the deterioration of the spandex blend fabrics.
The plate buckling of woven fabrics is analyzed in terms of the known non-linear bending behavior of such fabrics. A simplified form of this non-linearity is found to explain the behavior of the fabric. It is shown that it is possible to deduce both the linear bending resistance of the fabric and the initial frictional couple from the buckling behavior of such fabrics.
The bending length c is a characteristic property of a fabric and is dependent upon the energy required to produce a given bending deformation under its own weight. The energy α required to produce a definite bending deformation in a one-inch-wide strip of fabric in a plate buckling experiment is also characteristic of it. It is shown that the values of c and α for a number of fabrics are empirically related, although it has not been possible to develop a functional relationship from the theory of mechanics. The rela tionship is dependent upon the orientation of the yarns to the plane of the bending. When the yarns are parallel to the plane of bending, c 2 = 0.057 α w and when they are at 45° to the plane, c 2 = 0.044 α w + 1.08, where w is the weight of the fabric per unit area.
The initial load-extension modulus of a cloth is analyzed and is shown to depend not only on the bending modutus of the yarn and the geometry it takes up in the cloth, but also on the history of the fabric. It is found that fabrics which still retain their stressed condition, which arose when the cloth was made, have a much higher modulus. By considering the extreme cases of grey and completely relaxed fabric, it is shown that the theoretical deductions are in accord with experimental findings.
Seventy-five fabrics of a variety of constructions have been subjectively evaluated for wrinkling performance after deformation in the Celanese wrinkle tester. Their mechani cal behavior is determined in buckling and in-plane shearing experiments. It is shown that the wrinkling performance is correlateable with the energy (per unit thickness) to produce a specific bending deformation and the rate of recovery from it.
Further, it is shown that the extent of wrinkling can be significantly modified by the magnitude of the frictional restraints at the yarn crossover points. This quantity is estimated in the shearing experiment.
In the cyclic plate buckling and shearing of fabrics, two types of load-deformation response have been observed. There are those whose load deformation curves closely reproduce each other upon cycling and those whose curves precess. The former are referred to as "stable" curves, the latter as "unstable" curves.
Unstable curves are obtained on fabrics in which there are large frictional effects and the yarns move appreciable distances during deformation. From energy considera tions, it is shown that fabrics that produce stable curves will recover from' deformation better than those that produce unstable curves. This results because more energy will be stored during deformation and it requires less of the stored energy to overcome frictional effects during recovery in fabrics with stable responses.