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[Journal of Public Health in Africa 2011; 2:e23] [page 93]
Journal of Public Health in Africa 2011 ; volume 2:e23
Health care delivery
in Malaysia: changes,
challenges and champions
Susan Thomas,1LooSee Beh,2
Rusli Bin Nordin3
1School of Medicine Education Unit,
Jeffrey Cheah School of Medicine and
Health Sciences, Monash University
Sunway campus;
2Department of Administrative Studies
and Politics, Faculty of Economics and
Administration, University of Malaya,
Kuala Lumpur;
3Clinical School Johor Bahru, Jeffrey
Cheah School of Medicine and Health
Sciences, Monash University Sunway
campus, Malaysia
Abstract
Since 1957, there has been major reorgani-
zation of health care services in Malaysia. This
article assesses the changes and challenges in
health care delivery in Malaysia and how the
management in health care processes has
evolved over the years including equitable
health care and health care financing. The
health care service in Malaysia is changing
towards wellness service as opposed to illness
service. The Malaysian Ministry of Health
(MOH), being the main provider of health
services, may need to manage and mobilize
better health care services by providing better
health care financing mechanisms. It is rec-
ommended that partnership between public
and private sectors with the extension of tradi-
tional medicine complementing western medi-
cine in medical therapy continues in the deliv-
ery of health care.
Health care system in Malaysia
Human capital and health improvement pro-
grammes are of central importance towards
sustainable development and economic growth
in any country.1In Malaysia, the health care
system has changed from traditional remedies
to meeting the emerging needs of the popula-
tion. Since the Independence of Malaysia in
1957, there has been major reorganization of
health care services in the country.2The first
reorganization started at the public primary
health care services and accelerated since the
Alma Ata Declaration in 1978. In Malaysia, the
Ministry of Health (MOH) is the main provider
of health care services to the public. The orga-
nizational structure of the MOH has three lev-
els, Federal, State and District, which are
decentralized to ensure efficiency. Each hier-
archical level determines the level of authority,
information flow, accountability and supervi-
sion. This system encompasses all aspects of
care such as preventive, promotive, curative
and rehabilitative.3The main objective is to
provide a greater network of physical facilities,
equity, accessibility and utilization of health
care resources. At the same time, National
Referral Centres were established to provide
specialized care to enhance the basic care pro-
vided in health clinics.3
Over the past decade there has been an
explosion of tertiary level specialized care to
meet the needs of the population. Tertiary care
focuses on the curative model, which is doctor
and illness focused. This is expensive, frag-
mented and institutionally focused and inap-
propriate for the majority of health con-
sumers.4In the current era, health care is
changing towards wellness services as
opposed to illness services.4This service
includes a lifetime health plan that focuses on
keeping the child and family well. This gives
greater prominence to preventive issues and
takes on healthier lifestyles by choices with
risk prevention. The health care providers also
need not function as controllers but act as
facilitators or partners with health consumers4
(Figure 1).
Apart from the size of the hospitals, there
are differences in terms of the services provid-
ed. Small district hospitals provide general
medical and nursing care and their manpower
consist of medical officers and other person-
nel. Larger district hospitals and regional hos-
pitals provide a wide range of specialist servic-
es and the public has easy access through a
walk-in or referral system.3MOH seeks to
ensure the public is informed of health issues
and has access to safe water, safe food and
quality medicine. The Malaysian health care
system focuses on Primary Health Care (PHC)
that places social equity as important and allo-
cates public funds for the poorest 20% of the
population.5In 1956, there were only 42 PHC
facilities in the country.5After independence,
the health sector became an integral part of
the national and development process and
MOH has been able to deliver health care to
communities throughout the country.6Table 1
shows increasing health care facilities in sec-
ondary and tertiary care over the years.
The number of hospitals, community clinics
and other facilities such as Special Medical
Institutions (National Heart Institute, Institute
of Pediatrics and Institute of Respiratory
Medicine) has increased (Table 2). The total
expenditure from the Health Department of
Selangor in 2006, for instance, has increased
to RM 881.3 million compared to RM 628.83
million in 2005 and RM 577.77 million in 2004.
The increase is due to new hospitals and com-
prehensive health services that are provided by
the government.7The Second National Health
and Morbidity Survey in 1996 reported that
88.5% of the population stays within 5 km of a
health facility and 81% lived within 3 km.5
Findings also show that basic health care and
facilities are accessible to about 70% of the
population in Sabah and Sarawak and more
than 95% of the population in Peninsular
Malaysia.8These estimates do not include
other types of outreach services such as flying
doctors, mobile health teams, dental clinics,
travelling dispensaries and riverine services.2,3
There are other government agencies that
complement the role of MOH to preserve the
health of the people. For instance, the Ministry
of Human Resources that enforces safety and
health regulations of employees, Ministry of
Education that is responsible for the operation
of the teaching hospitals and training of health
personnel of the country, Ministry of Defence
that provides health services for its population
within the territory, Ministry of Rural
Development that is responsible for the health
of the aborigines and Ministry of Housing and
Local Government that is responsible for some
of the licensing and enforcement under its
purview.2,9
Studies have also shown that the Malaysian
health standard is almost at par with those of
developed countries.6,10 Data from the World
Health Report in 1999 indicated that the health
Correspondence: Susan Thomas, School of
Medicine Education Unit, Jeffrey Cheah School
of Medicine and Health Sciences, Monash
University Sunway Campus, Jalan Lagoon
Selatan, 46150 Bandar Sunway, Selangor Darul
Ehsan, Malaysia.
Tel. +603.55146366 -Fax: +603.55146323.
E-mail: susan.thomas@med.monash.edu.my
Key words: health care services, changes, chal-
lenges, social equity, and health care financing.
Contributions: all authors contributed equally to
the development of the research idea and final-
ization of the manuscript.
Conflict of interest: the authors report no con-
flicts of interest.
Received for publication: 2 March 2011.
Accepted for publication: 18 May 2011.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons
Attribution NonCommercial 3.0 License (CC BY-
NC 3.0).
©Copyright S. Thomas et al., 2011
Licensee PAGEPress, Italy
Journal of Public Health in Africa 2011; 2:e23
doi:10.4081/jphia.2011.e23
Non-commercial use only
[page 94] [Journal of Public Health in Africa 2011; 2:e23]
indicators of Malaysians were much better
compared to some of the ASEAN countries. For
example, the Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) in
Malaysia is 11 per 1000 live births while in
Indonesia it is 48 per 1000 live births and in
Thailand it is 29 per 1000 live births. This fig-
ure is still high compared to the IMR of
Singapore (5/1000 live births), United
Kingdom (7/1000 live births) and America
(7/1000 live births).2
Changes and challenges
Equitable health care
Equity is an assessment of fairness.1
Despite Malaysia’s effort in socio-economic
development plans, there still exist issues in
equity and accessibility especially for the
indigenous groups, rural population and the
hard-core poor.5This can be seen through
quality in terms of health services, manpower
and equity in terms of geographical location
and accessibility in terms of price and tariff.11
The Asian economic crisis in 1998 has
increased 50% of the poverty level in several
countries which added difficulty for the poor
and middle class in accessing health care.
Nevertheless, efforts are taken by the govern-
ment to strengthen the rural health services in
Malaysia through the improvement of existing
facilities and introducing new health services
that range from outpatient curative care to pre-
ventive and promotive services.3The rural
health units consist of one health centre, four
rural health units and mobile clinics. The rural
health unit follows a two-tier system that pro-
vides subsidized or free health services to
15,000 to 20,000 rural population.2,3
There is a remarkable difference in the doc-
tor-patient ratio in the country. There are 500
people per doctor in Kuala Lumpur and 4000
per doctor in Terengganu and East Malaysia.3
This ratio has been reduced over the years. As
in 2009, the ratio of doctors to patients in
Malaysia is 1:927 compared to 1:1105 in
2008.12,13
The Malaysian health care system is prima-
rily divided into private and public sectors. One
of the pending concerns of the government is
that there are high concentrations of private
practices in the urban areas due to the demand
by the affluent community. In 1993, there are
3055 general practitioners clinics and 190 pri-
vate hospitals and nursing homes in
Malaysia.2In 2000, 46.2% of all doctors were in
the private sector and were accountable for
only 20.3% of hospital beds while the rest of
the 53.8% of doctors were in the public sector
looking after 79.7% of the beds.2It is reported
that 58.8% of the specialists were in the pri-
vate sector and about 41.2% were in the public
Review
Figure 1. Transformation from industrial age medicine to information age health care
(Source: Amar4).
Table 1. Health facilities of the Ministry of Health, Malaysia in 1984, 2001 and 2008.
MOH’s facilities 1984 2001 2008°
Health clinics 361 843 802
Rural/community clinics 1039 1924 1927
Mobile teams 35 204 193
Hospitals 89 (21,159 beds) 115 (29,123 beds) 130 (33,004 beds)
Medical institutions 8 (10,235 beds) 6 (5551 beds) 6 (5000 beds)
Source: Adapted from Merican and bin Yon2; °Planning and Development Division, Ministry of Health, Malaysia.12
Table 2. Health care facilities in Malaysia 2009.
Government No. Beds (official)
Ministry of health
Hospitals 130 33,083
Special medical institutions 6 4974
Special institutions* 6-
National institutes of health 6-
Dental clinics 1724 2952°
Mobile dental clinics and teams 560 1392°
Health clinics 808
Community clinics (Klinik Desa) 1920
Maternal & Child health clinics 90
Mobile health clinics 196
Non ministry of health
Hospitals 8 3523
Private No. Beds (official)
Licensed
Hospitals 209 12,216
Maternity homes 21 102
Nursing homes 12 273
Hospice 3 28
Ambulatory care centre 21 108
Blood bank 5#-
Haemodialysis centre 75 848§
Community mental health centre 19
Registered
Medical clinics 6307 -
Dental clinics 1484 -
*National Blood Centre, National Public Health Laboratory and 4 Regional Laboratories; °dental chairs; #refers to 4 Cord Blood Stem Cells
Banks and 1 Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine Research Lab and Services; §refers to dialysis chairs. Source: Planning and Development
Division, Ministry of Health, Malaysia.13
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[Journal of Public Health in Africa 2011; 2:e23] [page 95]
sector.2The findings through interviews from
key personnel from MOH states that the
charges from private hospitals on services
component range from 15% to 28% of the hos-
pital bills and medication whereby 15% of this
bill is not made known to patients.6
Furthermore, professional fees take up almost
50% of the total bill.6The difference in the pub-
lic and private sectors in terms of specific serv-
ices provided may have a significant effect on
the equity of services and the question of effi-
ciency and effectiveness.14 This leads to an
imbalance of the distribution of manpower in
public and private sectors in Malaysia.15
Generally, the services provided by private
hospitals are curative and selective in nature,
either free or subsidized and much more com-
prehensive which is controlled by issues of
equity. Access to private health services is lim-
ited to the richer society that can afford out-of-
pocket payments of higher fees.1Immigrant
health is another concern in Malaysia whereby
5% of the Malaysian population, which con-
sists of about one million people, are immi-
grant workers.2These foreign workers may
harbour communicable diseases which origi-
nate from their country and this incurs health
care cost when they use the health facilities in
Malaysia.2Moreover, there are many cases
whereby foreign workers who have been
admitted have defaulted in settling their bills
and collectively with a number of other reasons
unsettled hospital bills in public sectors are
increasing.16 To address these issues, more
comprehensive preventive measures and plans
must be taken by designing and implementing
conducive national health care financing
scheme under the National Health Financing
Authority (NHFA) within the realm of MOH.16
Health needs and challenges have changed
over the past decade. Professionals in health
care and the health care systems have changed
at a much slower pace and are not usually suit-
able for the present health needs of the popu-
lation.4Throughout the world there seems to
be fundamental changes in medical care deliv-
ery systems that is in progress. Asia Pacific
region is the most varied health region in the
world because it contains the country with the
largest population in the world.15 However, it
also includes countries that are fighting with
epidemic obesity.15 This includes Malaysia
which has about 8.3% of the population above
30 years suffering from diabetes and 29.9%
from hypertension.17 In the less-developed
countries in the region, women suffer from
malnutrition, high mortality and morbidity.18
A large percentage of the population is mov-
ing through the economic transition and about
70% of the deaths are due to chronic dis-
eases.15 The United Nations Development
Program (UNDP) has published projections for
changes in populations over the next 50 years.
For population over 60 years, Malaysia will
have an increase from 5.7% in 1996 to 11% by
2020.19
The World Health Organization (WHO) and
individual countries are taking control of the
progress by PHC. Although the definition of
PHC varies from country to country, it cannot
be denied that accessibility, quality of basic
health care and equity within countries have
improved.19 Nevertheless, the populations
most in need are the aborigines, the poor, the
disadvantaged and the disabled.4,18 These
groups have the least access to health services
according to the inverse care law4which
explains that health care tend to operate based
on active market forces.20 However, meeting
their needs will be very challenging,21 because
every individual has a right to health care serv-
ices and it is essentially the responsibility of
the government to ensure this access.22
Health care financing
Health care financing is a key concern all
over the world today. Among others, some of
the sources of funding health care are through
taxation, social and private health insurance
and out-of-pocket payments.1The Malaysian
government finances the public health servic-
es through the Consolidated Revenue Fund
under the Ministry of Finance while the
sources from the private sector are essentially
from the consumers.16 The system of financing
is inclined towards the public sector whereby
only a nominal fee of RM1 for each outpatient
visit is charged16 in accordance to the Fees
(Medical) Order 1976.1Government employees
and their family members benefit from these
services even after their retirement while the
Social Security Organization (SOCSO) and
Employees Provident Fund (EPF) do not
finance employees in the private sector during
their retirement.16 Comparatively, the British
government initiated the 1912 National Health
Insurance policy to compensate salaries of
workers who have lost their jobs due to sick-
ness.23 Commercialization of health care is not
financially viable for the majority of the con-
sumers and is inappropriate because any
framework of health care provision must be in
line with the needs of the consumers.4As a
result, it has undermined the trust of individu-
als to the health care profession and the gov-
ernment.4
Health care financing is a main challenge
in many countries and should be taken into
consideration in providing a safety net for the
poor.19 The United States spends 14% of its
GNP compared to Asian countries that spends
about 4-8% of their GNP on health care.24 With
new technologies, capitalization of expensive
hospital facilities and specialization has
increased the cost of medical services. In
2001, returns collected by MOH Malaysia in
providing medical, health and dental care
services amounted to 2.2% of the total operat-
ing budget.2,3
The Medical Price Index in Malaysia has
increased more than the Consumer Price
Index.14 In some parts of the countries, where
the force of the financial crisis is bigger, struc-
tural adjustments to high costs of debt servic-
ing and reduced rates of exchange have caused
cuts to the public health budget.10 As a result,
many of the countries anxiously look for cost-
containment measures and different sources
of financing including cost sharing.10 In doing
so, no one should be denied access to health
care due to financial reasons and Malaysia
should not adopt solutions from failed regions
that have failed in health care delivery.4
Despite the high-tech medical technology in
the health care sector in the United States, 45
million residents are lacking health insurance,
including 10 million children who are unin-
sured.25 One possible suggestion in managing
long term health problems is by looking at the
Chronic Care Model (CCM) that leads to
improved patient care and better health care
systems, which is widely practiced for ambula-
tory care improvement in the United States
and internationally.26
Through privatization in Malaysia, the
weight of the cost of care was moved to a size-
able proportion of the population that could
least afford it. Comparatively, the provision of
medical care through the National Health
Service in Britain is committed to horizontal
equity which describes equal treatment for
equal need27 while the Australian experience
in health care financing is described as the
classical liberal manner in which the govern-
ment operates.23 Fortunately, countries such
as Malaysia and Thailand provided a safety net
for primary care and ensured minimal essen-
tial care for the high risk groups.28
Champions
Concluding remarks
Multidisciplinary interventions are required
to promote health financing, health care and
disease prevention.18 In Malaysia, the partner-
ship between the public and private sectors
should be encouraged to maximize resources
and minimize duplication of health delivery in
order to provide equitable health care.19
Subsequently, the community engagement in
self care, planning, organizing and manage-
ment will lead to self sufficiency in health.19
Countries need to get communities involved
through social networks to address these prob-
lems. One effective way to improve the short-
age and distribution imbalance especially in
rural areas which is practiced in China is to
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[page 96] [Journal of Public Health in Africa 2011; 2:e23]
rely and train the locals as paramedical work-
ers.29
Another option proposed by WHO is provid-
ing additional alternatives rather than replac-
ing existing ones.30 Three interrelated strate-
gies to help the poor access health care are to
design appropriate training for village health
workers (preventive and promotive interven-
tion), design appraisals on programs imple-
mented and introduce community participa-
tion.30 The proposed NHFA would be a feasible
option as a health care financing mechanism
in Malaysia with vested authority in providing
equitable and quality services both in the pub-
lic and private health care services.16 This has
also been urged by The Federation of
Malaysian Consumers Associations (FOMCA)
which has pointed out the benefits that will be
gained in implementing the National Health
Financing Scheme (NHFS), one of which will
be regulating fees charged by the private hos-
pitals and providing the public the freedom of
choice to seek treatment either at public or pri-
vate hospitals in Malaysia.31
Another suggestion of intervention is to
establish a National Health Insurance Fund
(NHIF) to be the main funding source for the
public health care sectors which allows com-
pulsory contribution from employers and
employees.32 The traditional support systems
in some countries were also being commented
to have been taken for granted and govern-
ments need to mobilize these social networks
to take care of these problems.19 In this
respect, the development of traditional medi-
cine is encouraged in China where traditional
medicine complements western medicine and
this practice is allowed in hospitals in order to
give the people the choice.19 In Australia, the
demand for alternative medicine is increasing
steadily33 and findings have shown that the
consumer expenditure have doubled from $A1
billion in 1993 to $A2.3 billion in 2000.34 A sur-
vey conducted by the Malaysian MOH in 2004
has concluded that 70% of Malaysians have
used traditional and complementary based
medicine to improve their health or to treat ill-
nesses.35 The fields include Malay traditional
medicine, Chinese traditional medicine,
Ayurvedic medicine and Natural medicine.35
Utilization of cross-cultural traditional medi-
cine by the various ethnic groups in Malaysia
is also gaining popularity.36,37 This has raised
significant issues in public health policy.38
Even though the practice of alternative med-
icine is recognized in statutory form under
section 34(1) of Medical Act 1971 (Act 50),37
however the safety and efficacy of these medi-
cine must be ensured through strict regula-
tions37 and public education forums.38 Since
the goal of medicine is essentially helping peo-
ple to improve their health, therefore it is
important for medical health professionals to
work together with social workers from tradi-
tional and complementary medicine by
respecting each others’ beliefs and training
and working as a team.33 Currently guidelines
and the passing of the Traditional and
Complementary Medicine Bill for the various
fields in traditional medicine are being studied
carefully by various organizations in
Malaysia.32
The Malaysian government has also encour-
aged private hospitals to take on more social
responsibility of the country and the private
sectors are responding well to this. Over the
last couple of years, there has been an
increase in efforts to improve systems and
attract foreign workforce. With the Tenth
Malaysian Plan in place, it is hoped that the
mechanisms set by the government will
improve the situation.
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