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Abstract

Matricaria recutita L. (syn. M. chamomilla L., Chamomilla recutita L. Rauschert) is known as true chamomile or German chamomile and Chamaemelum nobile (L.) All. (syn. Anthemis nobilis L.) is known as Roman chamomile. The biological activity of chamomile is mainly due to the flavonoids apigenin, luteolin, quercetin, patuletin and essential oil constituents such as a-bisabolol and its oxides and azulenes. There are several chamomile chemocultivars. Chamomile has anti-inflammatory, deodorant, bacteriostatic, antimicrobial, carminative, sedative, antiseptic, anticatarrhal and spasmolytic properties. It is used to treat sleep problems. Researchers indicated that the pharmacological effect of German chamomile is mainly connected with its essential oils. Environmental conditions and stresses can alter active substances of chamomile. This review focuses on characteristics, secondary metabolites and utilization of German and Roman chamomile.
Journal of Applied Pharmaceutical Science 01 (10); 2011: 01-05
ISSN: 2231-3354
Received on: 12-12-2011
Revised on: 15:12:2011
Accepted on: 18-12-2011
Shahram Sharafzadeh
and Omid Alizadeh
Department of Agriculture,
Firoozabad Branch, Islamic Azad
University, Firoozabad, Iran
For Correspondence
Shahram Sharafzadeh
Department of Agriculture,
Firoozabad Branch,
Islamic Azad University,
Firoozabad, Iran.
Tel: +98 9177158317
Fax: +98 712 6224402
German and Roman Chamomile
Shahram Sharafzadeh and Omid Alizadeh
ABSTRACT
Matricaria recutita L. (syn. M. chamomilla L., Chamomilla recutita L. Rauschert) is
known as true chamomile or German chamomile and Chamaemelum nobile (L.) All. (syn.
Anthemis nobilis L.) is known as Roman chamomile. The biological activity of chamomile is
mainly due to the flavonoids apigenin, luteolin, quercetin, patuletin and essential oil constituents
such as α-bisabolol and its oxides and azulenes. There are several chamomile chemocultivars.
Chamomile has anti-inflammatory, deodorant, bacteriostatic, antimicrobial, carminative, sedative,
antiseptic, anticatarrhal and spasmolytic properties. It is used to treat sleep problems. Researchers
indicated that the pharmacological effect of German chamomile is mainly connected with its
essential oils. Environmental conditions and stresses can alter active substances of chamomile.
This review focuses on characteristics, secondary metabolites and utilization of German and
Roman chamomile.
Keywords: Matricaria recutita, Anthemis nobilis, active substances, essential oils, secondary
metabolites.
INTRODUCTION
The Compositae family contains very useful medicinal genera such as Matricaria,
Achillea, Artemisia, Tussilago, Calendula, Silybum and Taraxacum. The chemical composition is
very different, many compounds being identified in all species (like triterpenic saponosides,
alantolactones, terpenoids), but some of them being specific. These compounds are mainly
responsible for the therapeutic properties of extracts from Compositae family plants (anti-
inflammatory, antiseptic, antihemorrhagic, antispastic, hepatoprotective properties) (Hadaruga et
al., 2009). There are numerous kinds of chamomile. Two most popular are Roman chamomile and
German chamomile, both are from the Compositae family. German chamomile is more widely
cultivated than Roman chamomile (Newall et al., 1996; Blumenthal, 1998). The biological activity
of chamomile is mainly due to the phenolic compounds, primarily the flavonoids apigenin,
quercetin, patuletin, luteolin and their glucosides, but also to the principal components of the
essential oil extracted from the flowers like α-bisabolol and its oxides and azulenes, including
camazulene (Hadaruga et al., 2009). Chamomile is widely used throughout the world. Its primary
uses are as a sedative, anxiolytic and antispasmodic, and as a treatment for mild skin irritation and
inflammation. It has widespread use as a home remedy. Animal trials suggest efficacy as a
sedative, anxiolytic and antispasmodic, but clinical studies in humans are needed. Chamomile is
generally safe for consumption, although patients with hypersensitivity to ragweed and other
members of the Compositae family should use caution (Gardiner, 1999). Worldwide production
figures are difficult to isolate owing to the small scale of the farming operation and the fact that
statistics generally do not quote the figures of essential oil crops or herbs separately. In 1995, the
world production was estimated to be approximately 500 tons of dried flowers per annum, from
Journal of Applied Pharmaceutical Science 01 (10); 2011: 01-05
large-scale farming. In 1998, the world production of chamomile
blue essential oil was estimated to be 1000 tons of dried flowers
per annum from large-scale farming (Alberts, 2009).
PLANT CHARACTERISTICS
Matricaria recutita L. (syn. M. chamomilla L.,
Chamomilla recutita L. Rauschert) is known as true chamomile or
German chamomile. German chamomile does not have scale-like
palets between the flowers of the capitulum. Capitulum is bottom
cone-shaped long and hollow. This plant has white ligulate
flowers, smells pleasantly of chamomile (typical chamomile smell)
and is annual, grows 10 to 80 cm high. The plant has thin spindle-
shaped roots. The stem is in an upright position, mostly heavily
ramified, bare, round, and filled with marrow. The leaves are
alternate, double to triple pinnatipartite, with narrow-linear prickly
pointed sections being hardly 0.5 mm wide. The golden yellow
tubular florets with five teeth are 1.5 to 2.5 mm long, ending
always in a glandulous tube. The white ligulate flowers are 6 to 11
mm long and 3.5 mm wide (Franke, 2005). The name of this plant
is derived from Greek word CHAMOS which means ‘ground’, and
MELOS which means ‘apple’. These words refer to slowness of
growing and apple odor of fresh flowers of the chamomile (Sharrif
moghaddasi, 2011).The Latin name of recutitus refers to the petals,
meaning truncated, trimmed (Franke, 2005).
The chamomile has varieties of diploid 2n=18 and
tetraploid 2n=36. The varieties of diploid have shorter growth and
less brushwood height than the varieties of tetraploid (Sharrif
moghaddasi, 2011).
Chamaemelum nobile (L.) All. (syn. Anthemis nobilis L.)
is known as Roman chamomile. Roman chamomile has, at least in
the middle part of the flower capitulum, small setiform paleae
between the flowers of the flower heads. Palets blunt, with dry tips.
Plant smells pleasantly, perennial and many-headed rootstock
(Franke, 2005).
The glandular hairs of M. chamomilla are multicellular
and biseriate with two basal cells, two peduncle cells and a
secretory head composed of six cells. The histochemical tests show
that the glands are positive for lipids, essential oils, sesquiterpene
lactones and pectic like substances (Andreucci et al., 2008).
German chamomile requires cool, temperate conditions to
grow well, and temperatures of 7 to 26 °C are required. German
chamomile can survive cold winter nights as low as -12 °C. To be
able to grow well vegetatively and produce an abundance of
flowers, chamomile needs long summer days, full sun and high
heat units to produce optimum oil yields (Alberts, 2009).
The German chamomile should be harvested when most
of flowers have been grown. Early or late harvest would reduce the
quality of effective materials. The flowers have maximum amounts
of essential oils when ray florets are in mood; afterwards, the
amount of the essential oils decreases. In mechanized harvest 400-
800 Kg /ha flowering stem would be collected to produce the
essential oils. Weather determines the plant would flower once or
twice; that is why, the amount of the product is really variable, as it
is usual in other plants. After main product harvest, the flower’s
shoots appear from underneath of the plant; this provides the third
harvest possibility (Sharrif moghaddasi, 2011).
ACTIVE SUBSTANCES
Active principles of German chamomile are terpenoids:
α-bisabolol, α-bisabolol oxide A and B, chamazulene,
sesquiterpenes; coumarins: umbelliferone; flavonoids: luteolin,
apigenin, quercetin; spiroethers: en-yn dicycloether and other
components such as tannins, anthemic acid, choline,
polysaccharides and phytoestrogens (Newall et al., 1996; Bagchi et
al., 2001; McKay and Blumberg, 2006; Karbalay-Doust et al.,
2010).
Active substances of Roman chamomile are terpenoids:
chamazulene, bisabolol; flavonoids: quercetin, apigenin, luteolin;
coumarins: scopoletin-7-glucoside and other components like
angelic and tiglic acid esters, anthemic acid, fatty acids and choline
(Newall et al., 1996).
The essential oil of both German and Roman chamomile
has a light blue color due to the terpenoid chamazulene.
Chamazulene is about 5% of the essential oil. Bisabolol comprises
50% of German chamomile’s essential oil and is a spasmolytic for
intestinal smooth muscle. The flavonoids apigenin and luteolin
possess anti-inflammatory, carminative, and antispasmodic
properties. Apigenin binds to GABA receptors and has a mild
sedative effect. The spiroethers cis- and trans-en-yn-dicycloether
occur in German chamomile. They are spasmolytic, antifungal and
anti-inflammatory. The coumarin umbelliferone is reported to be
antispasmodic, antibacterial, and antifungal (Achterrath-
Tuckermann et al., 1980; Forster et al., 1980; Gardiner, 1999).
There are several chamomile chemocultivars. Depending on the
active principles, the cultivars could, for example, be specified as
M. recutita L. cv. “rich in bisabolol” or as M. recutita L. cv. “rich
in bisabololoxide” (Franke, 2005).
A paper revealed active substances in the aerial parts of A.
nobilis L. These substances were isobutyl isobutanoate (4.4%), 2-
methylbutyl isobutanoate (4.3%), isobutyl angelate (24.5%), 2
butenyl angelate (7.3%), 2-methylbutyl angelate (17.4%), trans-
pinocarveol (4.5%), isoamyl angelate (7.6%) and estragol (5.0%)
(Radulovi et al., 2009).
The antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of essential
oils were investigated in A. nobilis from Italy. The results indicated
that the volatile oils from Roman chamomile possessed the highest
antioxidant activity (Piccaglia et al., 1993).
Another study revealed the main sesquiterpenes in the
chamomile essential oil. Camazulene (19.9%), α-bisabolol
(20.9%), A and B bisabolol-oxides (21.6% and 1.2% respectively)
and β-farnesen (3.1%) were the major components. In lower
concentrations were identified α- and β-caryophyllene,
caryophyllene-oxide and spathulenol, and also some monoterpenes
like β-phellandrene (0.8%), limonene (0.8%), β-ocymene (0.4%)
and γ-terpinen (0.2%) (Costescu et al., 2008).
An Iranian experiment studied four cultivars of German
chamomile, Bodegold (tetraploid), Germania (diploid), Bona
(diploid) and Goral (tetraploid). The results showed that plant
Journal of Applied Pharmaceutical Science 01 (10); 2011: 01-05
height of Goral and Bodegold were significantly higher than
Germania and Bona. Goral produced the highest anthodia yield.
The lowest dry anthodia yield was produced by Bona. The highest
essential oils content (0.627% w/w) extracted from Bona in the
first harvest but Germania produced the lowest essential oils (0.627
%w/w) at third harvest. Chamazolene content of the cultivars
ranged between 9.6-14% (Azizi, 2006).
The essential oils of M. recutita L. cultivated in Estonia
were isolated and thirty-seven components were identified. The
main components were bisabolol oxide A (20–33%) and B (8–
12%), bisabolon oxide A (7–14%), (E)-farnesene (4–13%), α-
bisabolol (8–14%), chamazulene (5–7%), and en-yn-dicycloether
(17–22%) (Orav et al., 2001).
Another investigation in Estonia indicated that the main
constituents of the essential oils were as follows: bisabolol oxide A
(39.4%), bisabolone oxide A (13.9%), (Z)-en-yne-dicycloether
(11.5%), bisabolol oxide B (9.9%), α-bisabolol (5.6%), and
chamazulene (4.7%) (Raal et al., 2011).
Researchers indicated that the pharmacological effect of
German chamomile is mainly connected with its essential oil for its
spasmolytic, antimicrobial, and disinfective properties and the
constituents contain α-bisabolol, bisabolol oxides, chamazulene,
and enyn-dicycloethers (Arak, 1981; Arak et al., 1981; Brunke et
al., 1992; Koppel et al., 1993; Grgesina et al., 1995).
A study regarding the responses of young plants of
diploid and tetraploid M. chamomilla cultivars to abiotic stress
(within an interval from 6 h before to 54 h after spraying the leaf
rosettes with aqueous CuCl2 solution) revealed that the content of
herniarin in the treated plants rose approximately 3 times. The
highest amounts of umbelliferone in stressed plants exceeded 9
times and 20 times those observed in control plants of the
tetraploid and diploid cultivar, respectively. Due to stress the
concentration of ene-yne-dicycloether in leaves decreased by more
than 40% (Eliasova et al., 2004). An Iranian study in Isfahan
indicated essential oil components of German chamomile isolated
by hydrodistillation of the aerial parts of the plant. Sixty-three
components were characterized, representing 86.21% of the total
oil components detected. α-Bisabolol oxide A (25.01%) and α -
bisabolol oxide B (9.43%) were the major constituents of the oil
(Shams-Ardakani et al., 2006).
UTILIZATION
Chamomile has anti-inflammatory, deodorant,
bacteriostatic, antimicrobial, carminative, sedative, antiseptic,
anticatarrhal and spasmolytic properties. Roman chamomile is
believed to possess carminative, antiemetic, antispasmodic, and
sedative properties (Newall et al., 1996; Blumenthal, 1998).
Advanced periodontitis is an opportunistic infection
caused by various endogenous bacteria such as Porphyromonas
gingivalis. An investigation showed the antimicrobial effects of
extract and essential oil of Roman chamomile flower head against
P. gingivalis. The antimicrobial effects were evaluated by disk
diffusion method. The results indicated that the means of inhibition
zone for chamomile extract and essential oil were 13.33±3.4 and
20.5±0.5 respectively (Saderi et al., 2005). Chamomile is used for
wounds, gout, skin irritations, eczema, neuralgia, rheumatic pain,
hemorrhoidsand leg ulcers, cracked nipples, chicken pox, and as a
hair tint (Newall et al., 1996; Blumenthal, 1998).
An investigation indicated the efficacy of a topical
chamomile extract on patients with weeping dermabrasions from
tattoo applications. Chamomile caused a significant decrease in the
weeping wound area and was effective in wound healing
(Glowania et al., 1987).
One of the most important properties of the chamomile is
to cure the peptic ulcer and gastritis easily. The chamomile
reinforces the nerves and sexual powers and desires. This plant
enhances the milk secretion of mothers who foster children. Using
the chamomile would crush and remove the bladder rock. In order
to cure eye disease, pour the chamomile in vinegar and fumigate it.
The chamomile tea can alleviate the pain of a child who is teething.
The chamomile is used to remove the stomach and the bowel worm
(Sharrif moghaddasi, 2011).
It is used as a digestive aid to treat gastrointestinal
disturbances including flatulence, motion sickness, indigestion,
nausea, and vomiting. It is thought to act as a liver stimulant (Mann
and Staba, 1986). After 3-4 weeks of using the chamomile cream
(Kamillosan), it was found to be as effective as hydrocortisone for
eczema (Aertgeerts et al., 1985). The essential oil of chamomile is
a treatment for malaria and parasitic worm infections, colds, and
flu (Nemecz, 1998). It is used to treat hysteria, nightmares, and
other sleep problems (Martens, 1995). Deep sleep after 10 minutes
of drinking the chamomile tea (two cups) is an effect of this plant
(Gould et al., 1973). Active substances of German chamomile can
be efficient for infant colic (Weizman et al., 1993).
An experiment was conducted to evaluate the effect of
chamomile essential oils on four human cytochrome P450
enzymes. Crude essential oil demonstrated inhibition of all
enzymes, and camazulene, cis-spiroether, and trans-spiroether
showed to be potent inhibitors of these enzymes (especially CYP
1A2). Other enzymes were inhibited by α-bisabolol (Ganzera et al.,
2006). An investigation showed the inhibitory of chamomile
essential oils on the sister chromatid exchanges produced by some
drugs in mouse marrow cells. Bisabolol and its oxides,
camazulene, farnesene, germacrene, and other sesquiterpenes have
these kinds of activities (Hernandez-Ceruelos et al., 2002).
M. chamomilla L. ethanolic extract exhibited significant
antihyperglycemic effect and protected β-cells in streptozotocin-
diabetic rats, in a dose-dependent manner, and diminished the
hyperglycemia-related oxidative stress (Cemek et al., 2008). Dried
flowers from Roman and German chamomile are used for herbal
teas and blends with other teas. The dried flowers of Roman
chamomile are used for blond dyeing (Alberts, 2009). Oral
administration of M. chamomilla extract at 400 mg/kg can be
effective in preventing gastric ulceration in mice and does not
produce toxic effects in doses up to 5000 mg/kg (Karbalay-Doust
and Noorafshan, 2009). Antistreptococcal and antioxidant activity
of essential oil from M. chamomilla have been reported (Owlia,
2007).
Journal of Applied Pharmaceutical Science 01 (10); 2011: 01-05
The essential oil and methanol extract of M. Chamomilla
L. were used to evaluate the antioxidant activity by two assays,
2,2-Diphenykpicrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical scavenging and
β-carotene-linoleic acid. In the DPPH assay, the IC50 value of
essential oil and methanol extract were respectively 4.18 and 1.83
μg/ml. In the β-carotene linoleic acid system, oxidation was
effectively inhibited by M. Chamomilla, the oil and methanol
extract were nearly the same value. The essential oil and methanol
extract were tested against bacterial and fungal strains using a
broth microdilution method. The results suggest that M.
Chamomilla, oil and methanol extract have significant
antimicrobial activity (Abdoul-Latif et al., 2011).
The U. S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) have
classified the oil and extract of German and Roman chamomiles as
substances which named Generally Regarded As Safe (GRAS).
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... The height of the plant can vary from 20 to 50 cm, depending on the ecological conditions of the region where it is grown. The root system is shallow and spreads widely, primarily in the top 30 cm layer of soil (Sharafzadeh and Alizadeh, 2011). Due to its medicinal properties, chamomile production and consumption are highly valued in many countries (Baghalian, 2000). ...
... Topical application of Matricaria chamomilla L. pure oil in animal and human studies has not shown a significant irritation (Barnes et al., 2007). Also, this medicinal herb is classified as "generally regarded as safe" by the FDA (Sharafzadeh and Alizadeh, 2011). Elaeagnus angustifolia L. was investigated in a clinical trial as a topical gel in treating symptomatic oral lichen planus. ...
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In 1664, Tabernaemontanus [19] distinguished six different varieties of chamomile (contrary to Dioscorides, who distinguished three): 1. “Unsere gemeine Chamillenblum” (“our common chamomile flower”) is identified as the plant named Anthemis or Leucanthemum by Dioscoride and Galeno. “Dann wann wir die Beschreibung DIOSKORIDIS mit fleiß übersehen/und das Capitel von dem wolriechenden Kräutlein Anthemidis oder Leucanthemi vorhanden nehmen/die liebliche Gestalt und Abconterfeyung dieser wolriechenden Chamillenblumen dagegenhalten/darneben auch ihre Krafft und Wirckung beyderseits erwegen/so beyde diesem Kräutlein oder Blumen von DIOSCORIDE und GALENO zugeschrieben/und auch durch langwürige tägliche Erfahrung gewiß erfunden worden/können wir mit der Warheit nicht anders urtheilen/dann daß unser wolriechend gemeine Feld-Chamillen/das recht Anthemis und Leucanthemum der Alten seye.” (Old High German: “If we duly disregard Dioscorides’ description/and go through the chapter about the sweet-scented herb Anthemidis or Leucanthemi/comparing it with the lovely appearance of these fragrant chamomile flowers/considering also their power as well as their effect/both ascribed to this herb by Dioscoride and Galeno/and also found by long daily experience/we can only say that the sweet-scented ordinary/common field chamomile/is the true Anthemis and Leucanthemum of the ancients.”) 2. “Römisch Chamillen” (“Roman chamomile”). “Das andere Geschlecht der Chamillen Leucanthemi ist den Alten unbekannt gewesen/und nicht von ihnen beschrieben worden: Das ist erstlich auß Hispanien/Engelland und andern frembden Orten zu uns gebracht worden und ist heutigen Tags in Teutschland sehr gemein ….” (“The other variety of Chamomile Leucanthemi was unknown to the ancients/and it was not described by them. It was first brought to us from Spain/England and other foreign places, nowadays it is very common in Germany …") In this case the modern variety of Chamaemelum nobile (L.) All. is obviously meant.
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Matricaria chamomilla has numerous, and ages-old, usages, particularly as herb tea, as a natural medicine, and for pharmaceutical extracts. It has anti inflammatory, antibacterial, anti-allergic, as a diuretic, sedative, carminative, and secretogog for bile and are used externally to treat skin wounds, mouth sores, and hemorrhoids and sedative properties. Chamomile, Matricaria chamomilla L. Asteraceae family, is a well-known and important medicinal plant in Iran that traditionally have been used for the treatment of various diseases, and it is cultivated all over the world. The medicinal and pharmacological effects of chamomile are mainly connected with its essential oil for its antispasmodic, antimicrobial and disinfective properties. Chamomile essential oil is widely used in food, cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries. The largest group of medically important compounds forming the essential oil are chamazulene, epi-α-bisabolol, α-bisabolol oxide, -carvacrol, p-cymene, (E)-β-ocimene, (Z)-β- ocimene, (E,E)-farnesol, and en-yn-dicycloethers. Flavonoids, coumarins, hydroxycinnamic acids, mucilages and some other primary metabolites also have pharmacological effects. It contains 0.75% of a volatile oil. In vitro chamomile has demonstrated moderate antimicrobial and antioxidant properties and significant ant platelet activity, as well as preliminary results against cancer. Essential oil of chamomile was shown to be a promising antiviral agent against herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) in vitro. Potential risks include interference with warfarin and infant botulism in very young children. Chamomile is also used cosmetically, primarily to make a rinse for blonde hair, and as a yellow dye for fabrics.