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Toxic compounds in honey
Abstract
There is a wealth of information about the nutritional and medicinal properties of honey. However, honey may contain compounds that may lead to toxicity. A compound not naturally present in honey, named 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), may be formed during the heating or preservation processes of honey. HMF has gained much interest, as it is commonly detected in honey samples, especially samples that have been stored for a long time. HMF is a compound thatmay be mutagenic, carcinogenic and cytotoxic. It has also been reported that honey can be contaminated with heavy metals such as lead, arsenic, mercury and cadmium. Honey produced from the nectar of Rhododendron ponticum contains alkaloids that can be poisonous to humans,while honey collected from Andromeda flowers contains grayanotoxins,which can cause paralysis of limbs in humans
and eventually leads to death. In addition, Melicope ternata and Coriaria arborea from New Zealand produce toxic honey that can be fatal. There are reports that honey is not safe to be consumed when it is collected from Datura plants (from Mexico and Hungary), belladonna flowers and Hyoscamus niger plants (fromHungary), Serjania lethalis (fromBrazil), Gelsemiumsempervirens (from the American Southwest), Kalmia latifolia, Tripetalia paniculata and Ledum palustre. Although the symptoms of poisoning due to honey consumption may differ depending on the source of toxins, most common symptoms generally include dizziness, nausea, vomiting, convulsions, headache, palpitations or even death. It has been suggested that honey should not be considered a completely safe food.
... Even though honey differs in appearance, sensory perception and composition due to the variation of botanical origin, the main nutritional and health relevant components are carbohydrates, mainly fructose and glucose [5,6]. The presence of certain ingredients like some alkaloids, heavy metals, and HMF and its derivations may contribute to honey's toxin [7]. ...
... As shown in Figure 1, HMF is a cyclic aldehyde produced during food processing or long storehouse of honey from sugar degradation through a non-enzymatic browning response [4,8]. HMF is not found in honey naturally and it is potential cancerous, mutagenic and cytotoxic which is also toxic to honey bees [7]. The amount of HMF is influenced by a variety of factors, including honey quality, climate, honey kinds, geographic location, preservation, method of processing, and other factors [4]. ...
... The amount of HMF is influenced by a variety of factors, including honey quality, climate, honey kinds, geographic location, preservation, method of processing, and other factors [4]. Heating or preserving honey may produce HMF which is a toxic substance [7]. Additionally, the presence of heavy metals like lead, cadmium, mercury and arsenic in honey can catalyze the production HMF from sugar [7,8] and heavy metals in honey is also more of a health danger to plants, animals and human life [9] than altering physicochemical characteristic of honey [10]. ...
The effect of heavy metals on the formation of hydroxymethyl furfural (HMF) from degradation of reducing sugars in honey collected from Ilu Woreda, West Shewa Zone of Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia were studied. The concentration level of Pb, Cd, Cr and Ni in honey sample was determined using AOAC Official Method. The concentration of HMF in honey was determined using international honey commission standards. The concentrations of heavy metals in fresh honey were 11 ± 0.001, 454 ± 0.002, 630 ± 0.001 and 1 ± 0.001 µg kg-1 for Pb, Cr, Ni and Cd, respectively. The influence of heavy metals on the formation of HMF in honey samples was studied on 5, 30 and 60 days after spiking at concentration level of 10,000 µg kg-1 of each heavy metal. The concentration of HMF for untreated honey samples was ranged 1380-2200 µg kg-1 for the storage time of 5, 30 and 60 days. The concentration of HMF in honey samples spiked with Pb, Ni, Cr and Cd were found to be in the range of 2100-2150, 1900-2430, 2100-2270 and 2050-2330 µg kg-1, respectively. The results of this study indicate that contamination of honey with heavy metal facilitate the formation of HMF. KEY WORDS: Fresh honey, HMF, Heavy metal ions, HPLC-DAD and Honey quality Bull. Chem. Soc. Ethiop. 2024, 38(1), 1-10. DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.4314/bcse.v38i1.1
... Honey is often processed by heating to maintain freshness, expand shelf life, decrease viscosity, and prevent crystallization [17]. However, heating may lead to the formation of compounds that do not naturally exist in fresh honey and might be harmful to human health; HMF is such an example [18]. HMF is a six-carbon heterocyclic aldehyde compound, which is considered the most important intermediate byproduct in carbohydrate-containing foods, induced as a consequence of two reactions. ...
... Codex Alimentarius (2001) has established a maximum value of 40.00 mg/kg for HMF in nontropical honey, as well as 80 mg/kg for tropical honey, and 15 mg/kg for honey with low enzyme levels (8-3 Schade units) [4,21]. In addition to prolonged heat treatment and storage, several other parameters impact the formation of HMF in honey, including climatic conditions and honey composition (i.e., pH, total acidity, FA, mineral content, F/ G ratio, and water activity), thereby contributing to the floral source [1,3,18,22]. HMF is produced at low temperatures in acidic environments, and high temperatures along with prolonged deposition significantly increase its concentration [17,18]. ...
... In addition to prolonged heat treatment and storage, several other parameters impact the formation of HMF in honey, including climatic conditions and honey composition (i.e., pH, total acidity, FA, mineral content, F/ G ratio, and water activity), thereby contributing to the floral source [1,3,18,22]. HMF is produced at low temperatures in acidic environments, and high temperatures along with prolonged deposition significantly increase its concentration [17,18]. Therefore, the optimal period for the consumption of honey is within six months after harvesting [23,24]. ...
Honey is a prominent nutritional and medicinal production of honey bees, originating from the nectar of flowers. The physicochemical properties of honey serve as indicators of its freshness and originality. The current survey aimed to assess the parameters of quality control, including hydroxymethylfurfuraldehyde [HMF], reducing sugars, fructose/glucose, sucrose, proline content, distaste activity, and free acidity, in 25 honey samples of different brands available in Khorasan Province, Iran. We used the methods suggested by the Association of Official Analytical Collaboration (AOAC, 1995), the International Honey Commission (IHC, 2009), and the Codex Alimentarius Honey Standards for the study. Statistical analysis was performed in Microsoft Excel. The obtained data indicated that eight out of 25 analyzed samples (32%) complied with all the requirements and were generally of acceptable quality. Meanwhile, 17 samples (68%) were unconfirmed by the Iranian Standard Organization (ISO), including 12 samples with a low level of diastase (<8 Schade) and high levels of HMF (>15 mg/kg), two samples with high sucrose levels, two samples with high proline, and one sample with high HMF. These findings suggested their inappropriate storage (time/temperature), heat treatment, and/or adulteration with industrial sugar. According to the results, the examined honey samples produced in Khorasan Province were not of acceptable quality, which highlights the importance of an effective regulatory framework to be evaluated and rectified periodically and accurately to maintain consumer rights, as well as public health.
... Some authors, however, believe that the sugar profile alone is not enough to identify the botanical and geographical origins of honeys. Accordingly, the quantitative spectra of sugars can assist the quality control and grading of honey [59]. The total or ratio of sugars (glucose and fructose) show higher efficiency than other evaluated sugars of honey. ...
... Furthermore, honey vitamins are subsidiary markers of honey authenticity. Heating and storage reduce the nutritional value of honey vitamins[59]. ...
Providing medicinal honey involves a unique process based on scientific regulations and guidelines. Little attention has been paid to the integrative and comprehensive criteria for medical grade honey (MGH) production and evaluation. Because of the high importance of this valuable natural product and its use as a medicinal supplement, treatment aid, and even a therapeutic agent, the guidelines and criteria for identifying and authenticating medical grade honey (MGH) must be reviewed and analyzed. Medicinal grade honey is achieved through a continuous chain from the location of colony establishment to the production process to storage and screening. Any disruption in this chain will disrupt the entire process. Furthermore, numerous geographical zones lack the ability to produce medicinal honey. Accordingly, the production of natural honey for medicinal use requires harsh conditions so as to guarantee the health of consumers. Medical grade honey covers a limited range of naturally produced honey in the world.
... Honey has various properties (nutritional and medicinal) because of its special chemical composition, which contains carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins, and minerals (Khan et al., 2014;Tafere, 2021). Heavy metals might pollute honey and cause serious health issues for humans (Islam et al., 2014). The journey of searching for food for honeybees makes the latter cover a circle of 5 km 2, and contact with various surfaces during this journey might be considered a biosensor of pollution (Danner, 2017;Porrini et al., 2002). ...
... Nevertheless, the accumulation of metals in the human body might cause severe damage with longer consumption of honey (Solayman et al., 2016). Lead is another metal that might be found in honey, and even its low content is considered a serious threat because of its toxicity (Islam et al., 2014). This search aimed to evaluate the quality and select heavy metal content in Libyan honey. ...
This work aimed to evaluate four samples of honey collected from the area extending from the city of Misrata in the east to the city of Tripoli in the west and up to the city of Bani Walid in the south of Libya. Various tests (pH estimation, moisture content estimation, ash content, and electrical conductivity) were applied to confirm the quality of honey samples. The pH values were 4.4 to 5.8, the moisture content was 12% to 17% while the ash content was 0.10% to 0.2%, and the electrical conductivity was 0.32 to 0.50 mS/cm. However, there is a variation in the obtained results due to the difference in the regions. By comparing the obtained results with international standards, all honey samples were found to be acceptable and lower than the maximum level of FAO limits. The concentration of zinc was less than the maximum level of 20 (µg/g) in the Bani Walid and Zliten samples (12.8 and 18.6 µg/g, respectively), while Misrata and Tripoli samples were higher than the WHO limit, with 21.7 for the former and 29.58 for the latter. However, the lead content was slightly higher than the WHO limit of 2 (µg/g) in the Zliten sample with 2.1 (µg/g), while the other three samples were within acceptable limits with 1.15 µg/g for the Bani-Waleed sample, 1.35 µg/g for the Tripoli sample, and 1.49 µg/g for the Misurata sample. Nevertheless, the Misurata sample had the highest iron level with 50 µg/g among the four samples. It was found to be higher than the WHO limit (40 µg/g), while the other three samples were lower than the maximum level with 37 µg/g, 35 and 40 µg/g for Bani-Waleed, Tripoli, and Zliten samples, respectively. Honey can be used as a biosensor of environmental pollution with heavy metals.
... Ni and Cr are two heavy metals responsible for higher CR. Ni and Cr in honey can be attributed to the mishandling during processing including use of steel instruments and corrosion [59,60]. Our findings are in agreement to the previous study in Nigeria which reported carcinogenic risk from Pb and Cr due to consumption of honey [11] Bioconcentration Factor (BCF) ...
... It is evident from the results of the PCA analysis that elements in the PCI were the most important in influencing the quality of the honey which might be due to natural as well as anthropogenic activities carried out in the study area. For instance, smoking of the beehive for the extraction of honey, corrosion of steel containers due to acidic nature of honey after prolonged storage, rock formation, galvanized steel used in the tools, wall paints, batteries and leaded gasoline are the sources for these particular heavy metals in the study area [59]. In the second component the positive loading of Pb and Cr show their anthropogenic source. ...
The study assessed the health risks associated with heavy metal ingestion and explored the use of honey bee products as a bio-indicator for heavy metal pollution. All honey bee products tested showed heavy metals, but some honey samples had concentrations exceeding permissible limits for Cd, Pb, Ni, and Cr. The mean concentrations of heavy metals (mg/kg) in the honey, propolis, bee wax, and bee pollen were Fe (1.32) > Zn (1.31) > Pb (0.46) > Ni (0.18) > Cr (0.16) > Cu (0.14) > Co (0.12) > Mn (0.05) > Cd (0.03), Fe (8) > Zn (1.13) > Mn (0.59) > Pb (0.13) > Ni (0.07) > Cu (0.06) > Co (0.05) > Cr (0.03) > Cd (0.02), Fe (1.31) > Pb (0.41) > Ni (0.407) > Zn(0.25) > Mn (0.12) > Co(0.10) > Cu (0.07) > Cr (0.05) > Cd (0.002), and Fe (2.2) > Zn (0.75) > Ni (0.25) > Pb (0.16) > Cu (0.05) > Mn (0.045) > Co (0.04) > Cr (0.01) > Cd(0.002), respectively. Similarly, the mean concentration of heavy metals (mg/kg) in the soil, flowers and pine pollen was Fe (539.08) > Zn (89.53) > Mn (66.91) > Ni (58.5) > Co (19.2) > Cr (11.42) > Pb (6.58) > Cu (5.71) > Cd (0.19), Fe (3.12) > Zn (0.95) > Mn (0.72) > Ni (0.29) > Cu (0.16) > Cr (0.14) > Pb (0.059) > Co (0.057) > Cd (0.003) and Fe (2.59) > Zn (1.75) > Mn (0.43) > Pb (0.34) > Co (0.1) > Cr (0.07) > Cu (0.06) > Cd (0.039) > Ni (0.03), respectively. The atomic absorption spectrophotometry procedure was validated through a recovery study and achieved accuracy through the limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ). The mean Bio concentration factor (BCF) indicated that the transfer from soil to honey was higher than from soil to flower. The metal pollution index (MPI) of the selected indicators was in descending order: soil > honey > flowers > propolis > pine pollen > beeswax > bee pollen. The hazard quotient (HQ) and hazard index (HI) were below one, showing no chronic health risk. The carcinogenic risk (CR) of Cd, Cr, and Ni in honey for children, male and female adults for the consumers exceeds the acceptable level, making Cd, Cr, and Ni the most concerning heavy metals in honey. The study suggests that regular monitoring of heavy metal pollution is essential.
... Although there are many nutritional and medicinal benefits of honey, it may also have toxic constituents. It has been reported that honey can be contaminated with heavy metals such as lead, arsenic, mercury and cadmium, depending on its region of origin (Islam et al., 2014). ...
... Also, honey produced by bees from the nectar of various species, such as the rhododendrons, and other plants of the family Ericaceae, contain a group of closely related toxins, the polyhydroxylated cyclic diterpenes known as grayanotoxins. These toxins are harmful, and cause a very rare poisonous reaction called grayanotoxin poisoning or honey intoxication (Mayor, 1995;Demircan et al., 2012;Jensen et al., 2012), which may be lethal at high enough concentration (Lensky, 1997;US FDA, 2012;Islam et al, 2014). There are no reports of these toxic principles in oil palm sap, and syrup produced from it may be considered safe. ...
The book is my inaugural lecture, a history of my life and activities, mainly a review of my academic history and achievements, administrative experience in various places, and other contributions, leading up to my appointment to the position of Professor of Food and Nutritional Biochemistry at Benson Idahosa University, Benin City, Nigeria, and after.
... Adulteration or contamination of honey with other substances may trigger allergic reactions in sensitive individuals. Also, long-term consumption of contaminated honey can pose health risks and cause acute or chronic health issues [48][49][50][51]. Honey and other bee products are contaminated by a wide range of pollutants, including pesticides, heavy metals, pathogens, and radioactive elements, as represented in Figure 2 and Table 1 [42,49,51,52]. ...
... Also, long-term consumption of contaminated honey can pose health risks and cause acute or chronic health issues [48][49][50][51]. Honey and other bee products are contaminated by a wide range of pollutants, including pesticides, heavy metals, pathogens, and radioactive elements, as represented in Figure 2 and Table 1 [42,49,51,52]. ...
Honey bees are renowned for producing a remarkable substance known as bee honey, which stands as a functional food celebrated for its numerous health benefits. This natural wonder possesses a spectrum of advantageous properties, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, analgesic, antibacterial, and wound-healing qualities. However, in our modern era of heightened utilization of bee products, a new and pressing global health concern has emerged—the contamination of honey with pesticides, antibiotics, microorganisms, and heavy metals. The consumption of beekeeping products containing pesticide residues has been linked to a range of health issues, including genetic malformations, cellular degradation, allergic reactions, and even potential carcinogenic effects. Troublingly, documented cases exist of botulism in newborns resulting from the ingestion of contaminated honey. Additionally, the use of antibiotics in beekeeping practices has been associated with the concerning emergence of antibiotic resistance. This comprehensive review sheds light on the substantial consequences of honey contamination for human health. It underscores the urgent need for the establishment of a rigorous monitoring system, the validation of minimum acceptable pollutant levels, and, at the very least, the regulation of maximum residue limits for bee products, with a particular emphasis on bee honey.
... As a proof of concept, to test this strategy, we have chosen a MIP specific for furfural (2-FAL) detection, which is a relevant task for food and beverages quality and safety monitoring [16,[21][22][23][24][25][26] because of the possible toxic and carcinogenic effects on human beings [26][27][28]. ...
... As a proof of concept, to test this strategy, we have chosen a MIP specific for furfural (2-FAL) detection, which is a relevant task for food and beverages quality and safety monitoring [16,[21][22][23][24][25][26] because of the possible toxic and carcinogenic effects on human beings [26][27][28]. ...
A novel optical chemical sensing approach is presented and successfully tested in this work. The device is based on modified plastic optical fibers (POFs), with molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) inside, coupled with a surface plasmon resonance (SPR) in POFs. The MIP is deposited in a microstructured POF platform which is used to launch the light into the SPR-POF sensor. Therefore, the SPR sensor is not directly in contact neither with the MIP layer, nor to the sample under examination and the sensor system has been made insensitive both to the MIP thickness and refractive index. The chemical sensing platform interacts with the analyte changing the effective refractive index of the POF core, and the SPR conditions at the SPR sensor. As a proof of concept, a MIP receptor specific for furfural (2-FAL) in water is used to realize the proposed sensing principle. A detection limit (LOD) of fractions of μg/l was obtained, about 2 orders of magnitude lower than that obtained with another SPR-POF sensor where the same MIP receptor was directly deposited upon the SPR-sensitive surface to detect 2-FAL in water.
... Whether directly applied or mixed with fiber or hydrogel membrane, it has achieved a good curative effect (Molan and Rhodes, 2015;Sen et al., 2021). It is worth noting that the poisoning symptoms caused by honey may differ depending on the source of the toxin (Islam et al., 2014). Honey should not be considered a completely safe food. ...
... Toxicity also occurs when GL-PS exceeds the stimulatory concentration (Bishop et al., 2015). Honey extract is also partially toxic (Islam et al., 2014). Comfrey Extract has hepatotoxic and carcinogenic properties (Mei et al., 2010). ...
Under normal circumstances, wound healing can be summarized as three processes. These include inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. The vast majority of wounds heal rapidly; however, a large percentage of nonhealing wounds have still not been studied significantly. The factors affecting wound nonhealing are complex and diverse, and identifying an effective solution from nature becomes a key goal of research. This study aimed to highlight and review the mechanisms and targets of natural products (NPs) for treating nonhealing wounds. The results of relevant studies have shown that the effects of NPs are associated with PI3K-AKT, P38MAPK, fibroblast growth factor, MAPK, and ERK signaling pathways and involve tumor growth factor (TNF), vascular endothelial growth factor, TNF-α, interleukin-1β, and expression of other cytokines and proteins. The 25 NPs that contribute to wound healing were systematically summarized by an inductive collation of the six major classes of compounds, including saponins, polyphenols, flavonoids, anthraquinones, polysaccharides, and others, which will further direct the attention to the active components of NPs and provide research ideas for further development of new products for wound healing.
... More specifically, detecting furanic compounds as furfural (2-furaldehyde, 2-FAL) in aqueous solutions or beverages, such as wine [28], is becoming a critical challenge, not only because of its importance in influencing flavor and aroma [29], but also because of its probable hazardous and carcinogenic effects on humans [30][31][32]. Furthermore, furanic compounds have been proposed to assess the aging of food and beverages as a result of improper storage conditions [32,33]. ...
... More specifically, detecting furanic compounds as furfural (2-furaldehyde, 2-FAL) in aqueous solutions or beverages, such as wine [28], is becoming a critical challenge, not only because of its importance in influencing flavor and aroma [29], but also because of its probable hazardous and carcinogenic effects on humans [30][31][32]. Furthermore, furanic compounds have been proposed to assess the aging of food and beverages as a result of improper storage conditions [32,33]. ...
... However, honey may contain undesirable compounds like furan derivatives (it may lead to toxicity), which create during a heat treatment facilitating the filtration process, reduce viscosity, delay the crystallization and prevent fermentation during honey processing [22]. The Maillard reaction is a chemical reaction between amino acids and reducing sugars and occurs during cooking conditions, as well as in food storage at low temperature [23][24][25]. ...
... Hydroxymethyl-furfural (5-hydroxy-2-furaldehyde, HMF) is one of many important Maillard reaction products and the evaluation of HMF level is a well-known procedure to investigate the quality of honey (an indicator of quality different food products). Due to its adverse effects on human health, like cytotoxic, mutagenic, genotoxic and carcinogenic consequences, the HMF level is limited for some foods such as molasses and honey [22,[26][27][28][29][30]. HMF is absent in fresh honeys immediately stored by bees and tends to increase during processing and/or aging of the product; therefore, the HMF content is widely recognized as a parameter of honey sample freshness [31,32]. ...
The benefits of natural honeybee products (e.g., honey, royal jelly, beeswax, propolis, beevenom and pollen) to the immune system are remarkable, and many of them are involved in the induction of antibody production, maturation of immune cells and stimulation of the immune system. The type of plants in the geographical area, climatic conditions and production method have a significantly influence on the nutritional quality of honey. However, this variability can influence consumer liking by the sensory attributes of the product. The aim of this work was to compare the most popular honeys from Poland in terms of nutritional value, organoleptic properties and antioxidant activity. In the study, five varieties of honey (honeydew, forest, buckwheat, linden and dandelion) from conventional and organic production methods were tested. The nutritional characteristics of honey samples included acidity, content of water, sugars, vitamin C, HMF and phenolics (total and flavonoids), while honey color, taste, aroma and consistency were investigated in the organoleptic characteristics. The antioxidant activity was determined in water- and ethanol-soluble honey extracts using DPPH and ORAC tests. The results showed that organoleptic and nutritional characteristics of popular Polish honeys differ significantly in relation to plant source and production method. The significant effect of honey variety on the content of HMF, saccharose and phenolics, as well as acidity and antioxidant capacity were noted. The impact of variety and variety × production method interaction was significant in the case of the content of vitamin C, glucose and fructose. A visible difference of buckwheat and forest honeys from other samples was observed. The highest content of total phenolics with antioxidant activity based on the SET mechanism was found in buckwheat honeys, while forest honeys were richer in flavonoids.
... Honey provides numerous health benefits as evidenced from its historical and current use in medicine; however, standardized criteria should be met to ensure the quality, safety, efficacy, and therapeutic potential of honey. Honey can become contaminated with harmful substances when plants in honey harvesting areas are treated with herbicides or pesticides or when the honeybees are exposed to industrial pollutants like heavy metals, antibiotics, or environmental toxins [16,43]. Furthermore, bacterial contamination, such as the presence of Clostridium endospores, poses significant risks. ...
Burn wound management has traditionally relied on established treatments, yet emerging evidence underscores honey as a potent and versatile therapeutic agent. This systematic review evaluates the scientific evidence supporting honey’s use in treating burn wounds, highlighting its efficacy and benefits compared to conventional therapies. The review encompasses both clinical trials and animal studies published between January 1, 2013, and June 30, 2024. A comprehensive search of MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL, and ScienceDirect databases was conducted, resulting in the inclusion of 38 eligible studies. The analysis focuses on randomized controlled trials and full-text research articles that investigated honey’s role in burn wound care. Key attributes of honey, including its antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and tissue regeneration properties, are examined. The review discusses various types of honey, their composition, and their specific impacts on wound healing, including faster recovery times, reduced infection rates, and improved scar formation outcomes. Additionally, this review highlights the synergy between honey and other adjunctive treatments, such as ascorbic acid. The findings affirm that honey offers significant advantages in burn wound management, supporting its continued use and integration into modern wound care protocols. This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of honey’s role in enhancing burn wound healing, reinforcing its value as both a traditional remedy and a scientifically validated treatment option.
... It is also a promising renewable platform molecule derived from hemicellulose and related furanic compounds, in particular, hydroxymethyl-furfural (HMF) [5]. It is widely present in foods such as honey [6], in wine and alcoholic beverages [7], and in milk and its derivatives [8], where it is often analyzed as a quality marker, despite (due to its possible adverse) effects on human health [9]. Considering non-food matrices, it can be found in transformer oils due to the degradation of paper used as a solid insulator [10,11], and in this context, its determination is mandatory to monitor the degradation processes of solid insulating systems. ...
2-Furaldehyde (2-FAL) is one of the main by-products of the degradation of hemicellulose, which is the solid material of the oil–paper insulating system of oil-filled transformers. For this reason, it has been suggested as a marker of the degradation of the insulating system; sensing devices for 2-FAL analysis in a wide concentration range are of high interest in these systems. An optical sensor system is proposed; this consists of a chemical chip, able to capture 2-FAL from the insulating oil, coupled with a surface plasmon resonance (SPR) probe, both realized on multimode plastic optical fibers (POFs). The SPR platform exploits gold nanofilm or, alternatively, a double layer of gold and silicon oxide to modulate the sensor sensitivity. The capturing chip is always based on the same molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) as a receptor specific for 2-FAL. The system with the SPR probe based on a gold nanolayer had a higher sensitivity and a lower detection limit of fractions of μg L−1. Instead, the SPR probe, based on a double layer (gold and silicon oxide), has a lower sensitivity with a worse detection limit, and it is suitable for the detection of 2-FAL at concentrations of 0.01–1 mg L−1.
... relación entre el contenido de HMF y el color de las mieles, se sabe que la formación del primero provoca un aumento del color (Lee y Nagy, 1988). Algunos autores sostienen que la humedad es un factor que promueve la formación de HMF (Shapla et al., 2018;Islam et al., 2014. Sin embargo, los resultados obtenidos en este trabajo no concuerdan con esta afirmación ya que mieles más húmedas no presentaron necesariamente mayor contenido de HMF comparadas con aquellas de menor contenido de humedad. ...
Los alimentos azucarados son muy sensibles al calor y pueden deteriorarse durante el almacenamiento. El hidroximetilfurfural (HMF) es un compuesto formado por la deshidratación de la fructosa, su presencia en la miel se relaciona con alteraciones de color, desarrollo de flavors y olores extraños. El objetivo del trabajo fue evaluar el efecto de la exposición al sol y el tiempo de permanencia en la colmena sobre el color, el porcentaje de humedad y la concentración de HMF en miel recién cosechada El trabajo se realizó en la Estación Experimental Agropecuaria (EEA) Rafaela del Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA), provincia de Santa Fe, República Argentina, durante la campaña 2017-2018. Se ubicaron cinco colmenas al sol (S), cinco colmenas bajo sombra parcial (SP) y cinco colmenas bajo sombra total (ST). Se tomaron muestras de las medias alzas de las 15 colmenas 4 veces durante 3 meses, identificándose las medias alzas por tiempo de permanencia en la colmena. La humedad promedio de las mieles obtenidas del tratamiento S (17,6%) fue superior (P<0,001) a las mieles de colmenas expuestas a SP (16,6%) y a ST (16,8%). El valor medio de color del grupo ST (16,8 mm Pfund) fue menor (P<0,001) que el de los grupos S y SP (22,35 y 20,99 mm Pfund, respectivamente). No se observaron diferencias (P=0,777) en la concentración media de HMF en las mieles de los distintos tratamientos (6,47; 7,06 y 6,74 mg/kg para ST, SP y S, respectivamente). La miel acumulada en la colmena para los tres grupos evaluados con diferentes tiempos de permanencia en la misma presentó promedios de HMF (mg/kg) de 4,9; 7,02; 6,79 y 9,9, para el muestreo inicial, 30, 60 y 90 días de permanencia, respectivamente, detectándose diferencias significativas (P<0,05) entre el muestreo inicial, los 30 y 60 días y el muestreo final. Esta tendencia no se modificó en función de la ubicación de las colmenas. No se observaron diferencias (P=0,269) en la humedad según el tiempo de permanencia de la media alza (17,2%; 17,0%; 16,8% y 17,4% para el muestreo inicial, 30, 60 y 90 días de almacenamiento, respectivamente). El color de la miel se incrementó con el paso del tiempo (P<0,05), alcanzando valores de 16,1; 20,07; 22,26 y 25,5 mm Pfund, para el muestreo inicial, 30, 60 y 90 días de almacenamiento, respectivamente, siendo independiente de la ubicación de las colmenas. La ubicación de las colmenas modificó la humedad y el color, pero no los niveles de HMF. A medida que avanzó el tiempo de almacenamiento de la miel en las medias alzas, independientemente de su ubicación, se incrementaron los valores de color y HMF.
... There is evidence that honey is not safe for consumption when collected from Datura plants (Mexico and Hungary), Atropa belladonna flowers and Hyoscamus niger plants (Hungary), Serjania lethalis (Brazil), and Gelsemium sempervirens (USA). Although the signs of honey poisoning vary according to the origin of the toxins, the most typical signs are often lightheadedness, nausea, vomiting, convulsions, headaches, and palpitations, which lead to a higher chance of mortality (Islam et al. 2014;Yan et al. 2022). ...
Several factors, including environmental degradation, air pollution, intense urbanization, excessive agriculture, and climate change, endanger the well-being of animals and plants. One of the major issues with an increasingly negative impact is agricultural contamination with pesticides and antibiotics. Seed coatings with neonicotinoid insecticides used as a protective layer against pests are shown to exceed the permissible limits in most cases. Neonicotinoid compounds bind to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, therefore affecting the honey bees’ brain. Heavy metals in higher concentrations are lethal for honey bees, and the residue in bee products might pose a threat to human health. Highly effective acaricides used to treat Varroa destructor infestations in honey bee colonies have negative effects on honey bee reproduction, olfaction, and honey production. Furthermore, amitraz and fluvalinate are mostly found in the highest amounts and lead to decreased honey production and reduced colony reproduction, along with decreased learning ability and memory. However, scientific studies have shown that honey bees act as a reliable bio-indicator of environmental pollution. In response to the growing demand for bee products, the effects of adulteration and improper storage conditions have gotten worse and represent a new risk factor. In light of the shifting global economy, it is important to analyze consumer expectations and adjust manufacturing accordingly. By ensuring the manufacture of high-quality, traceable products devoid of drug residues, consumers will be better protected from subsequent health problems. This review’s objectives are based on the necessity of identifying the risks associated with honey bees and bee products.
Graphical abstract
... A few of these chemicals might have come from the improper handling, storage or storage conditions, or high moisture content and heating process. When honey is heated or preserved for long time, a cytotoxic and mutagenic substance known as 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), which is not found in honey naturally, may occur [87]. The amounts of pesticide residues in honey and their possible danger to reproduction have been brought to light by Yasser El-Nahhal [88]. ...
Honey got its significance, both as medical and non-medical purposes. Honey is a complex matrix of several carbohydrates, amino acids, minerals and many more. Honey's carbohydrate components include a variety of mono- and disaccharide forms such as fructose, glucose, sucrose and other reducing sugars. Proline, lysine, phenylalanine, β-alanine, arginine, serine, glutamic acid and aspartic acid are the main amino acids that are present in honey. Immense nutritional benefits make honey a high demanding item in food and in medical. It is a multivitamin tonic enriched with the antimicrobial, antioxidant, cough preventing, hepato-protective, wound healing and immune modulating properties. Being a high demand item, most of the honeys available in market are adulterated by several means. Eventually, human practices developed a number of ways for detection of adulteration in honey. Even modern instrumentation like NMR is becoming a powerful and reliable tool in detection of high-rising adulteration. The present article aims to highlight a thorough of review of medicinal applications of honey with special emphasis on the traditional practices along with an overview of the history, composition, physical and nutritional properties and testing of adulteration.
... Thus, the presence of HMF in honey is an indicative of honey quality. Previous studies have indicated the negative effects of HMF in humans and animals [4][5][6][7]. It has been reported that administration of HMF at certain concentrations lead to skin lesions or tumors in rats [8][9][10]. ...
Hydroxymethylfurfural or 5-(hydroxymethyl)-2-furaldehyde (HMF) has been absent or found in honey naturally at very low amount. It is formed in honey mainly by heating process and improper storage conditions. HMF has been reported to have cytotoxic, carcinogenic, and mutagenic effects and thus regulatory agencies in many countries impose restrictions on its maximum levels in honey. Validated methods have been required for effective and specific detection and quantification of HMF in food samples. In this study, a single laboratory validation study was conducted on four quantification methods: direct spectral analysis, High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) analysis, Seliwanoff and Winkler methods. All methods showed linearity with the lowest R2 value of 0.992. Two method performance parameters, accuracy, and precision were satisfied by each four methods with recovery values at 98.2%, 100.2%, 102.5% and 103.3% and RSDr (relative standard deviation) % values at 6.97%, 6.19%, 2.87% and 0.90% for spectral analysis, Seliwanoff, HPLC and Winkler methods, respectively. Based on the measurement uncertainties of four quantification methods, honey samples spiked with HMF at the final concentration of 0.004mg/0.1g were reported as 0.004 mg/0.1g ± 0.00025 mg/0.1g by spectral analysis, 0.0036 mg/0.1g ± 0.000691 mg/0.1g by Seliwanoff method, 0.004 mg/0.1g ± 0.00045 mg/0.1g by HPLC and 0.0039 mg/0.1g ± 0.00022 mg/0.1g by Winkler methods (k=2, confidence level of 95%). The validated methods can quantify HMF in honey with a target concentration of 0.004 mg/0.1g, specifically and accurately.
... As a consequence, HMF enrichment is generally considered a deteriorating quality marker for the freshness of the product. [16,17] As it is known that the bees secrete enzymes in their honey, we hypothesized that it may also include an HMF-oxidizing enzyme. Erban et al. have shown that honey contains a large number of proteins secreted by the honeybee, including several flavoprotein oxidase homologues. ...
The chemical 5‐hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) can be derived from lignocellulose and is an interesting bio‐based platform chemical as it has the potential to be transformed into numerous valuable building blocks such as the polymer‐precursor 2,5‐diformylfuran (DFF). To date, only a few oxidases acting on HMF are known and by sampling atypical species, we discovered a novel flavin‐dependent oxidoreductase from the honeybee Apis mellifera (beeHMFO). The enzyme can perform the chemoselective oxidation of HMF to DFF but can also readily accept other aromatic alcohols as substrates. The function of the enzyme may well be the antimicrobial generation of hydrogen peroxide using HMF, which is very abundant in honey. The discovery of this insect‐derived flavoprotein oxidase holds promising potential in the synthesis of renewable products and demonstrates that insects can be an interesting source of novel biocatalysts.
... 5-HMF is one of the main intermediates of the Maillard reaction and is formed when honey is heated or stored for long periods of time (Yücel & Sultanog˘lu, 2013). In addition, 5-HMF can also be produced by the dehydration of honey in an acidic environment (Islam et al., 2014). In general, fresh honey has no or low levels of 5-HMF, while it has a high concentration of 5-HMF when aged and/or stored at relatively high or moderate temperatures. ...
The physicochemical profile composition of four different types of honey samples and their antioxidant activity were analyzed. The physicochemical properties, including fructose, glucose, sucrose, total phenols (TP), flavonoids, insoluble matter, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF), amylase, sucrase, and 17 amino acids, and antioxidant power, were determined in four kinds of honey from Guizhou. The results showed significant differences in the physicochemical composition and antioxidant power of different honey samples. Among them, compared with other honey samples, Coptis chinensis Franc honey showed more TP and total phenolic content and a stronger antioxidant capacity. The correlation analysis showed that 5-HMF was negatively correlated with antioxidant indicators, TP, flavonoids, and multiple amino acids, implying that 5-HMF may affect the quality and biological activity of honey. Various amino acids were significantly correlated with antioxidant activity, TP, and flavonoids. Principal component analysis revealed that multiple amino acids played a major role in the first principal component (PC1), which may suggest that amino acids are an important factor in the quality of honey. Taken together, these findings provide a reference for further research on honey quality from different sources and its associated health effects.
... Honey as a plant derived food may contain different varieties of toxic substances transmitted from plants. These toxic substances can be listed as solanine, glycoalkaloids, saponins, botulinum toxin, atropine-like substances, grayanotoxins, and pyrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) (Grigoryan et al., 2016;Islam et al., 2014). 1, 2-unsaturated PAs and their oxidized forms N-oxides (PANOs) are secondary metabolites of plants which are naturally occurring substances thought to be produced to protect plants from herbivores and insects. ...
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) are secondary metabolites of plants naturally found in more than 6,000 plant species produced by 13 flowering plant families mainly from Fabaceae, Asteraceae, Boraginaceae, Orchidaceae, and Apocynaceae. These plants show widespread geographical distribution worldwide and constitute roughly 3% of all flowering plant species.
... Honey can be polluted by environmental pollutants such as heavy metals, pesticides and antibiotics in addition to phytochemicals. Furthermore, honey that has been stored or heated for an extended period of time may produce Maillard reaction products [278]. Clinical and in vivo animal studies have shown that propolis is safe and non-toxic. ...
Honey bee products comprise various compounds, including honey, propolis, royal jelly, bee pollen, bee wax and bee venom, which have long been recognized for their pharmacological and health-promoting benefits. Scientists have discovered that periodontal disorders stem from dental biofilm, an inflammatory response to bacterial overgrowth produced by dysbiosis in the oral microbiome. The bee products have been investigated for their role in prevention of oral diseases, which are attributed to a myriad of biologically active compounds including flavonoids (pinocembrin, catechin, caffeic acid phenethyl ester (CAPE) and galangin), phenolic acids (hydroxybenzoic acid, hydroxycinnamic acid, p-coumaric, ellagic, caffeic and ferulic acids) and terpenoids. This review aims to update the current understanding of role of selected bee products, namely, honey, propolis and royal jelly, in preventing oral diseases as well as their potential biological activities and mechanism of action in relation to oral health have been discussed. Furthermore, the safety of incorporation of bee products is also critically discussed. To summarize, bee products could potentially serve as a therapy option for people suffering from a variety of oral disorders.
... The addition of additives was carried under reduced temperatures, particularly at room temperature (29 • C) and chilling temperature conditions (7 • C), since both the temperature and the duration of heat treatment affect the formation of 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) in honey [21]. HMF and its derivatives may contribute to the toxicity of honey [22], which is reported to have a negative impact on human health. HMF easily gets absorbed from food through the gastrointestinal tract and metabolizes into different derivatives. ...
Foods consumed by living organisms contain antioxidants of different antioxidant capacities. In a mixture of antioxidants, the resultant antioxidant potential can be different from the mathematical sum of antioxidant activities exerted by individual components. The possible interactions include synergism, antagonism, and additivity between the bioactive compounds. The study was focused on the synergistic, antagonistic, and additive interactions of bioactive components on antioxidant activity in a ternary mixture of green tea (Camellia sinensis) with the added bee honey and Citrus limonum extract. The resultant antioxidant activity was assessed in terms of total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), and Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC). Green tea brew held at each temperature with bee honey added and bee honey with Citrus limonum extract added were analyzed for the TPC, TFC, and TEAC. The observed values of TPC, TFC, and TEAC of the binary and ternary mixtures were compared with the expected values or the mathematical sum of each TPC, TFC, and TEAC of individual ingredients. The TPC and TEAC of each sample demonstrated synergism where the effect was antagonistic on TFC. Each sample demonstrated a significant difference (p
... Besides, furan derivatives, such as 5-(hydroxylmethyl)-2-furaldehyde (5-HMF), 5-chloromethyl and 5sulfidemethylfurfural are significantly manifested their toxicity effects (Janzowski et al., 2000;Severin et al., 2010). Apart from moisture content, conductivity and total acidity of honey, 5-HMF also is used as an indicator for the freshness of honey and its quality (Islam et al., 2014). The high value of 5-HMF indicates overheated or long stored honey (Khalil et al., 2010;Kowalski, 2013), which influence the quality of honey. ...
The effect of temperature at 50°C, 70°C and 100°C for up to 120 min on the content of phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity of Tualang honey and Kelulut honey was studied. Unheated honey samples for both varieties were used as control. The total phenolic content and antioxidant activity were examined using Folin-Ciocalteau and DPPH assays, respectively. Both honeys vary widely in the total phenolic content as well as antioxidant activity upon heating and time of heating. The total phenolic content in both honeys showed fluctuations at all temperatures throughout 120 min. In comparison to controls for both honeys, heating at 100°C for 10 min demonstrated a drop in total phenolic content in Tualang honey (13%) and Kelulut honey (29%), but the antioxidant activity increased 29% and 57% in Tualang and Kelulut honey, respectively. The study generates information on the characteristics of components in both honeys which react differently to heat and time of heating, therefore this will help the honey manufacturers or public to optimize the processing protocols and later to preserve the quality of honey.
... However, this process is also responsible for the formation of other potentially carcinogenic compounds, such as acrylamide and hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), called process contaminants or neoformed contaminants (NFCs). NFCs are of interest because of their potential adverse health effects; acrylamide is classified as a probable human carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC, 2012), and HMF as a compound that may be mutagenic, carcinogenic, and cytotoxic (Islam et al., 2014). ...
The rational design of methodologies to control the neoformed compounds occurrence (NFCs), such as acrylamide and hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) in roasted coffee, must consider the preservation of the bioactive compounds contained in this beverage. The aim of this work was to evaluate the integrated effect of yeast inoculation during the fermentation stage and the modification of roasting parameters on the final concentrations of NFCs and bioactive compounds of roasted coffee. A completely randomized factorial design was used to evaluate the effect of yeast inoculation (with and without inoculation), roasting temperature (150, 180 and 210 °C) and roast degree (medium, dark) on the (i) physicochemical characteristics (volume change, mass loss, water activity, non-enzymatic browning index, antioxidant capacity, total polyphenols, chlorogenic acid and caffeine) as well as HMF and acrylamide levels of roasted coffee. Response variables were analyzed separately by ANOVA and clustering of treatments was explored by PCA. Yeast inoculation did not significantly (p > 0.05) affect volume change, mass loss, antioxidant capacity, total polyphenols content, and caffeine contents. The interaction of evaluated factors significantly decreased (p < 0.05) the acrylamide and HMF contents of roasted coffee (43 % and 56.0 %, respectively). Based on PCA grouping the best treatments were medium roast at 210 °C (inoculated and uninoculated) and at 180 °C (inoculated). Under these conditions it is possible to produce a roasted coffee mitigated in neo formed contaminants that present the physicochemical properties of original product.
... Various studies have confirmed the presence of such elements in samples of bee products, which in turn could lead to unintended negative consequences on human health. Such elements can be introduced to bee products accidentally by environmental hazards or intentionally by beekeeping practices, for example by adding antibiotics or medications to the hive to control infection in bees and prevent the development of disease (Al-Waili et al., 2012;Islam et al., 2014;El-Nahhal, 2020). Furthermore, bee products can be contaminated by pathogenic bacteria such as Clostridium botulinum, which produces the dangerous "botulinum toxins" under low-oxygen conditions (Nevas et al., 2002), as well as by genetically modified organisms such as rape and maize (Bogdanov, 2006). ...
Since the ancient times, bee products (i.e., honey, propolis, pollen, bee venom, bee bread, and royal jelly) have been considered as natural remedies with therapeutic effects against a number of diseases. The therapeutic pleiotropy of bee products is due to their diverse composition and chemical properties, which is independent on the bee species. This has encouraged researchers to extensively study the therapeutic potentials of these products, especially honey. On the other hand, amid the unprecedented growth in nanotechnology research and applications, nanomaterials with various characteristics have been utilized to improve the therapeutic efficiency of these products. Towards keeping the bee products as natural and non-toxic therapeutics, the green synthesis of nanocarriers loaded with these products or their extracts has received a special attention. Alginate is a naturally produced biopolymer derived from brown algae, the desirable properties of which include biodegradability, biocompatibility, non-toxicity and non-immunogenicity. This review presents an overview of alginates, including their properties, nanoformulations, and pharmaceutical applications, placing a particular emphasis on their applications for the enhancement of the therapeutic effects of bee products. Despite the paucity of studies on fabrication of alginate-based nanomaterials loaded with bee products or their extracts, recent advances in the area of utilizing alginate-based nanomaterials and other types of materials to enhance the therapeutic potentials of bee products are summarized in this work. As the most widespread and well-studied bee products, honey and propolis have garnered a special interest; combining them with alginate-based nanomaterials has led to promising findings, especially for wound healing and skin tissue engineering. Furthermore, future directions are proposed and discussed to encourage researchers to develop alginate-based stingless bee product nanomedicines, and to help in selecting suitable methods for devising nanoformulations based on multi-criteria decision making models. Also, the commercialization prospects of nanocomposites based on alginates and bee products are discussed. In conclusion, preserving original characteristics of the bee products is a critical challenge in developing nano-carrier systems. Alginate-based nanomaterials are well suited for this task because they can be fabricated without the use of harsh conditions, such as shear force and freeze-drying, which are often used for other nano-carriers. Further, conjunction of alginates with natural polymers such as honey does not only combine the medicinal properties of alginates and honey, but it could also enhance the mechanical properties and cell adhesion capacity of alginates.
... NFCs are of interest because of their potential adverse health effects. For instance, acrylamide is classified as a probable human carcinogen (2A) by the International Agency for Research on Cancer, while furan and FFA are considered as possibly carcinogenic for humans (2B) (IARC, 2012(IARC, , 2017 and HMF is a compound that can be mutagenic, carcinogenic, and cytotoxic (Islam et al., 2014), due to its metabolic activation to 5-sulfooxymethylfurfural (SMF) (Choudhary et al., 2020). ...
s
Background
Neo-formed contaminants (NFCs) occurrence in coffee, a highly consumed beverage worldwide, has raised concern among different food safety agencies because a high intake of these toxic compounds may represent a long-term risk for the consumer health. The mechanisms responsible of NFCs formation in roasted coffee also trigger the generation of its desirable aroma and flavor characteristics. Hence their mitigation in coffee beverage while preserving these organoleptic properties represent a food safety challenge.
Scope and approach
This article performs a systematic review of the different strategies proposed for the NFCs mitigation in roasted coffee considering their effect on the bioactive compounds content and the sensory characteristics of the final product. The mechanisms of NFCs formation are addressed as the main axis for the rational design of technologies for their mitigation.
Key findings and conclusions
Available technologies for decreasing the NFCs (acrylamide, furfuryl alcohol, furan and 5-hydroxymethylfulfural) levels in roasted coffee were grouped in two main categories: (i) mitigation (before or during roasting) and (ii) reduction (after roasting). The understanding of the mechanisms responsible of NFCs formation allowed to establish different alternatives for their mitigation in roasted coffee. However, the greatest challenge still lies in guaranteeing a final product low in NFCs with desirable sensory and bioactive characteristics. The rational design of strategies that decrease the occurrence NFCs in roasted coffee without affecting its nutritional and sensory quality must consider the inclusion of pre-roasting stages such as fermentation and drying into the mitigation technology.
... [41,43] Toxicity of honey from plants has also been reported. [66] There is a health implication for infants' regarding the presence of Clostridium botulinum in honey. [43] Spores of this bacterium can survive in honey, but they cannot build toxin. ...
... HMF, which induces reactive oxygen species, has toxic effects (7). Current studies show that HMF can be considered as a potential carcinogen for humans or an agent that may be metabolized to carcinogenic compounds (1,13). 5-sulfoxymethyfurfural, a conversion product of HMF, is a cytotoxic and mutagenic compound (5). ...
5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) is formed by reducing sugars in honey in acidic environments by the Maillard reaction and is known as a carcinogenic, mutagenic and genotoxic compound. The aim of this study is to investigate the toxic HMF content of unbranded flower honey samples sold under the sun under inappropriate conditions and unsupervised on the highway sides and to make an evaluation in terms of food safety. The quality of the analysis results was guaranteed by participating in an international proficiency test. Analysis was performed on a High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) device with Diode Array Detector (DAD) and Refractive Index (RI) detectors- The HMF levels of 5 honey samples were determined to exceed the legal limit (40 mg kg-1). It is revealed by the current study that the honey sold on the roadside is not safe in terms of toxic HMF. In addition, 5 samples were not found to comply with the regulation in terms of glucose + fructose content and 2 samples in terms of fructose/glucose ratio. Thus, it has also been determined that these honeys are not reliable in terms of purity.
... However, research shows that the presence of 5hydroxymethylfurfural in honey that has been overheated and stored for too long can cause toxicity to the body characterized by nausea, vomiting, headaches, and convulsions. Therefore, honey that is not overheated and stored for too long is safe to use 16 . ...
Background: Black honey contains higher flavonoids, phenols, and minerals, which serves as antiinflammatory agents and promote faster wound healing. Purpose: This study aimed to determine the effectiveness of black honey on macrophage cells and blood vessels in rats’ wounds infected with Staphylococcus aureus. Methods: This was an experimental study with a post-test only control group design. This study involved 24 rats divided into 4 groups. The treatment was carried out for 5 days. The rats in the K1 group were wounded (cut) and given aquadest. The rats in the K2 group were wounded (cut), infected with Staphylococcus aureus, and given aquadest. The rats in the P1 group were wounded (cut), infected with Staphylococcus aureus, and treated with 2ml of black honey topically. The rats in the P2 group were wounded (cut), infected with Staphylococcus aureus, and treated with2ml of black honey orally. Observations were made histopathologicaly using hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining by calculating the number of macrophage and blood vessels, and further using One-Way ANOVA. Result: The number of macrophages and blood vessels between groups was significantly different. The K2 group had the highest mean number of macrophage cells and blood vessels, and the K1 group was the least. The mean number of macrophage cells in the P1 group was more than the K1 group and less than the K2 and P2 groups, both significantly. Conclusion: Black honey was effective in reducing inflammation in wounds infected by Staphylococcus aureus.
... On the other hand, it is well known that seasonal, environmental, storage, and processing time and conditions may affect honey's composition. Although the nutritional and healing features of this food are appreciated, the possible presence of heavy metals (usually in traces) [1], some alkaloids [2], and reactive organic compounds, such as aldehydes, might imply a possible threat for the health of consumers. The 5-(hydroxymethyl)furan-2-carbaldehyde, better known as hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), is produced during the ...
5-(hydroxymethyl)furan-2-carbaldehyde, better known as hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), is a well-known freshness parameter of honey: although mostly absent in fresh samples, its concentration tends to increase naturally with aging. However, high quantities of HMF are also found in fresh but adulterated samples or honey subjected to thermal or photochemical stresses. In addition, HMF deserves further consideration due to its potential toxic effects on human health. The processes at the origin of HMF formation in honey and in other foods, containing saccharides and proteins—mainly non-enzymatic browning reactions—can also produce other furanic compounds. Among others, 2-furaldehyde (2F) and 2-furoic acid (2FA) are the most abundant in honey, but also their isomers (i.e., 3-furaldehyde, 3F, and 3-furoic acid, 3FA) have been found in it, although in small quantities. A preliminary characterization of HMF, 2F, 2FA, 3F, and 3FA by cyclic voltammetry (CV) led to hypothesizing the possibility of a comprehensive quantitative determination of all these compounds using a simple and accurate square wave voltammetry (SWV) method. Therefore, a new parameter able to provide indications on quality of honey, named “Furanic Index” (FI), was proposed in this contribution, which is based on the simultaneous reduction of all analytes on an Hg electrode to ca. −1.50 V vs. Saturated Calomel Electrode (SCE). The proposed method, validated, and tested on 10 samples of honeys of different botanical origin and age, is fast and accurate, and, in the case of strawberry tree honey (Arbutus unedo), it highlighted the contribution to the FI of the homogentisic acid (HA), i.e., the chemical marker of the floral origin of this honey, which was quantitatively reduced in the working conditions. Excellent agreement between the SWV and Reverse-Phase High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (RP-HPLC) data was observed in all samples considered.
... It is also known to induce oxydative stress resulted as genotoxic damage on wistar rats (Eraslan et al. 2018). So, toxic activity of RH containing GTXs have been researched by many researchers (Oztasan et al. 2005, Islam et al. 2014, Silici et al. 2014b, Kukner et al. 2016, Cakmak-Arslan et al. 2020a, while other studies were carried out using the GTX chemical (Nishikawa et al. 1989, Onat et al. 1991, Ascioglu et al. 1996, 2000, 2001, Cucer and Eroz 2010, Gunduz et al. 2014. ...
Rhododendron honey (RH) is obtained from the rhododendron plants are grown in many regions around the world, causes poisoning in humans due to the grayanotoxin (GTX) compound in its structure. It is used by the public as a therapeutic for some diseases. It was aimed to study the genotoxic and cytotoxic effects of RH in mouse bone-marrow and sperm cells by using three mammalian bioassays. 25, 50 and 75 mg kg⁻¹ concentrations of RH given to male mice via gavage for 24 and 48 h treatment periods and its active ingredient Grayanatoxin (GTX-III) 0.01 mg kg⁻¹ by i.p. injection. Chromosome aberrations (CA), polychromatic erythrocytes (PCE)/normochromatic erythrocytes (NCE), micronucleated polychromatic erythrocytes (MNPCE) and sperm abnormalities were investigated. The results demonstrated that all the tested concentrations of RH significantly induced total abnormal cell frequency including chromosomal breaks for two time periods. In the MN assay, 75 mg kg⁻¹ RH and 0.01 mg kg⁻¹ GTX-III significantly increased % MNPCE and significantly reduced PCE/NCE ratios after 24 and 48 h treatments on mice demonstrating potential genotoxic and cytotoxic effect. Although there was a concentration-related increase in the percentage of total sperm abnormalities, this increase was not statistically significant compared to control. As a result, microscopic genotoxicity and cytotoxicity marker tests showed that RH and its active ingredient GTX-III have potential genotoxic and cytotoxic effect on mice bone marrow cells. It is understood that RH that is used to treat some diseases by public, should be handled carefully and used in a controlled manner.
• Highlights
• Chromosome aberration, micronucleus and sperm morphology assays are recommended as reliable biological indicators.
• RH and its active ingredient GTX-III have potential genotoxic and cytotoxic effect on mice bone marrow cells.
• Significant changes were observed upon the treatment of 75 mg kg⁻¹ MH for MN assay.
... The amount of the elements can be affected by climatic, geologic and environmental features according to Pisani et al. [56] and Islam et al. [57]; however, the minor components in honeys cannot be considered as a reliable bio monitor of environmental pollution [22]. Mohammed et al. [27] showed evidence that minerals in some honeys were not in strict relation with the soil mineral content. ...
Melissopalynology, antioxidant capacity and mineral and toxic element contents were analyzed in eight types of Hungarian honeys. Based on color, two groups were distinguished: light honeys comprised acacia, amorpha, phacelia and linden honeys; while dark honeys included sunflower, chestnut, fennel and sage honeys, with 100 to 300 and 700 to 1500 mAU, respectively. The unifloral origin of each sample was supported using pollen analysis. The absorbance of honey correlated positively with antioxidant capacity determined by three different methods (TRC, DPPH, ORAC), and also with mineral content. The exception was the light amber linden honey with significantly higher K content and antiradical activity than other light honeys. The Mn, Zn and Fe contents were the highest in chestnut, sunflower and fennel honeys, respectively. The black meadow sage honey performed best regarding the content of other elements and antioxidant activity. The concentrations of several toxic elements were below the detection limit in the samples, indicating their good quality. The principal component analysis (PCA) revealed correlations between different antioxidant assays and minerals, and furthermore, confirmed the botanical authentication of the honeys based on the studied parameters. To our best knowledge, the present study is the first to provide a complex analysis of quality parameters of eight unifloral Hungarian honeys.
... Honey is considered both nutritional and medicinal, although the presence of certain constituents, for example, heavy metals (even in trace amounts), some alkaloids, and HMF and its derivatives may contribute to honey's toxicity (Islam et al., 2013;Sanna et al., 2000). HMF is a cyclic aldehyde produced by sugar degradation through the Maillard reaction (a non-enzymatic browning reaction) during food processing or long storage of honey (Bastos et al., 2012) . ...
Bees produce honey from plant nectar, plant secretions, and excretions of plant-sucking insects. Indonesian local honey contains active compounds that have the potential effect as antioxidant and anticancer. The composition and biological effects of honey vary depending on the flower sources; seasonal and environmental factors can also influence the composition and the physical products. This research was conducted to identify the chemical compounds found in several honey samples produced by beekeepers in Indonesia with LCMS/MS method and to determine the profiles of the honey from Indonesia with the Chemspider and MassBank Database. Honey samples were collected from several regions in Indonesia. The results of the analysis showed that the honey’s diastase number vary from region to region and showed that the HMF contents are relatively low. The compounds that were allegedly found through LCMS/MS analysis include and have been traced based on literature studies had bioactive activity and beneficial to health, include: millefin (potential for treating heart disease and cancer), mangiferin (anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetes, immunomodulators, anti-tumor, antioxidants), rhamnetin (anti-inflammatory), tricin (antioxidant-like), acacetin (inhibit tumor angiogenesis agents), aurantiamide acetate (antiviral or anti-inflammatory, therapeutic agent for the treatment of influenza), salvigenin (controlling inflammation, acute and chronic pain), brucine (modulates anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties), dehydrocostus lactone (anti-inflammatory), santonin (anthelmintic activity), dimethylesculetin (bilirubin clearance), imidazole 4- acetic acid (neuropharmacological properties), propafenone (antiarrhythmic), yohimbine (affected sexual performance), Velutin (anti-inflammatory), narigenin (linked to cardiovascular disease protection). Eventually, honey is is such a natural product with a number of salient therapeutic properties. However, there are still components that were found but their roles cannot be described in detail. Therefore, it is recommended that further meticulous studies should bring to light the other hidden properties of the honey compounds.
Honey is a valuable functional bee product used since ancient times for its nutritional and therapeutic properties. Microbial characteristics of honey are among the main criteria analyzed to ensure the quality and safety of this bee product. In addition, the rheological properties of honey are important physical parameters that offer essential data to control the improvement of industrial processes as well as the quality and authenticity of honey. There are two assays, including steady shear and dynamic shear tests, frequently used to determine the rheological characteristics of honey in liquid and crystalized states. Furthermore, the thermal property of honey is another important parameter evaluated frequently by glass transition temperature and melting temperature. For this reason, the present chapter describes the microbial quality, thermal properties, and rheological features of liquid and crystallized honey.
The papers were searched in databases including PubMed, Scopus, Web of science, Embase, Science Direct until 21 September 2023 and meta-analysis of concentration of PTEs in honey was performed using random effects model based on country subgroups. The non-carcinogenic risk and carcinogenic risk were calculated by Target Hazard Quotient (THQ) and Cancer Risk (CR), respectively. The sort of PTEs in honey based on pooled concentration was Cu (1.10E + 02 µg/kg) > Ni (1.80E + 01 µg/kg) > Pb (2.60E + 00 µg/kg) > Hg (1.50E + 00 µg/kg) > Cd (5.10E-01 µg/kg) > As (4.80E-01 µg/kg). The concentration of PTEs in the countries of Ethiopia (As), Jordan (Cd and Pb), Thailand (Ni), Brazil (Cu and MeHg) was observed to be higher than other countries. The non-carcinogenic risk was less than 1, hence, the consumption of honey does not have non-carcinogenic risk. Except children in Nigeria, CR due to iAs in honey was acceptable for the both adults and children in the other countries, Therefore, the consumption of honey does not have carcinogenic risk.
Honey quality is conventionally controlled by checking its compliance with the regulatory standards mainly through physical properties. A new index of honey quality known as the Honey Health Impact Metric (HHIM) which considers two main parameters related to health was developed for use as a more market-relatable criteria in the honey industry. The HHIM incorporates the balancing of the positive health-beneficial 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity with the negative health-detrimental hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) concentration present in honey. It is defined as the average score between fractional DPPH and the normalised HMF. The HHIM was tested using 30 randomly selected honey samples from different origins which were then graded by the different categories of quality. As both parameters are also affected by honey storage period, the HHIM was also used to monitor changes in two specific honey samples, the Kelulut Itama and Tualang Dorsata. With quality of honey deteriorating over storage time following a zero-order kinetic model, the indications by HHIM gave a storage recommendations of 10 to 12 months for both these honey samples. This idea of HHIM as an alternative honey quality indicator to gauge health potential of honey will support the genuine and real products in the honey industry.
The aim of this study was to determine HMF values and diastase activities of the strained honeys collected from various markets in Turkey and to evaluate of their suitability to Turkish Food Codex, Directive on Honey for the above mentioned criterias. The samples were obtained with original package and their shelf lives were remarked by companies. A total of 90 honey samples, 45 were flower honey and 45 were honeydew honey, were analysed for HMF by using High Performance Liquid Chromatography and for diastase activity by using UV spectrophotometer. According to results, it was observed that the 35.5% of flower honey samples and the 20% of honeydew honey samples were not fulfilled the HMF value and/or diastase activity standards of Turkish Food Codex. The highest HMF value of the samples was 119.8 mg/kg, while the lowest diastase activity of samples was 0.9. Furthermore, 15 of 45 flower honey and 8 of 45 honeydew honey samples were in critical limits for the mentioned standards. In conclusion, in strained honey offered for consumption, either heat treatment that is applied during the production, or increasing HMF value and decreasing diastase activity depending on storage temperature limit the shelf life of the product. HMF in honey is known to be a potential risk for food safety and public health. Suitability of all quality criteria- HMF and diastase criteria in particular- to the Turkish Food Codex Directive on Honey should be ensured throughout the shelf life determined by companies for strained honeys offered for consumption.
This work proposes an analysis relative to an optical-chemical sensor used to detect furanic compounds in aqueous solutions. The optical platform consists of a flexible substrate covered with inkjet-printed silver nanoparticle lines; on the latter, a molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) layer specific for a furanic compound detection, i.e., furan-2-carbaldehyde (2-FAL), is then deposited. Two plastic optical fibers (POFs) are used to launch the light into the optical-chemical sensor and collect it at the platform’s output. For the first time, an oblique lines-based pattern has been tested for 2-FAL detection in water. The performances of the sensor based on this pattern have been compared to two other similar sensor configurations in which the inkjet-printed lines are located in different directions with respect to the input light respectively longitudinally and orthogonally. In this work, the characterization has been carried out by two different experimental setups. In such a way, it has been determined that the printed pattern has a noticeable influence on the chemical performance of the proposed 2-FAL sensor. Moreover, selectivity tests have been performed, to confirm the good selectivity of the proposed optical-chemical platform. The obtained results have added more information relative to a simple, low-cost, highly sensitive and selective sensing approach.
Fifty-seven samples of honey of different types and origins were screened for nicotine and nine mycotoxins (aflatoxin B1, aflatoxin B2, fusarenon X, ochratoxin A, penicillic acid, zearalenone, sterigmatocystin, gliotoxin, and patulin). The sample set consisted of monofloral, multifloral, nectar, honeydrew, cream, and artificial honey originating mainly from Poland. The physicochemical characterization of honey was performed by determining colour (by Pfund method), water content (by refractometry), total phenolics and flavonoids content (by spectrophotometry). For nicotine and mycotoxins determination a QuEChERS-based UHPLC-ESI-MS/MS method was developed and validated. Analyses were carried out in alkaline conditions to ensure patulin-methanol adduct formation and facilitate this mycotoxin detection. About 33% of tested honey samples were contaminated by nicotine or/and mycotoxins. However, the presence of mycotoxins was not related to herein evaluated physicochemical parameters of honey samples.
The paper highlights the correlations between the results of instrumental colour measurement and the content of certain metals in kinds of honey. Sufficiently close correlations may lead to the development of procedures for the rapid determination of the content of these metals in honey by colour measurement without the need for more demanding sample preparation.
Honey is an excellent alternative to be used in different applications by the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetics industries. However, the use of honey in its liquid form can present several disadvantages due to its high viscosity and density. In addition, honey can naturally crystallize during storage time, limiting its application in new products by industries. Thus, an alternative to using liquid honey in industry is the powder form. The objective of this study was to obtain honey powder by spray drying using a plant-based protein as a carrier. The honey used as raw material showed acceptable physicochemical parameters by the legislation of honey quality control, such as pH of (4.0 ± 0.1), the water content of (20.70 ± 0.3) g/100 g, ash of (0.48 ± 0.02) g/100 g, the fructose content of (35.42 ± 0.14) g/100 g, (43.05 ± 0.46) g/100 g for glucose, (0.56 ± 0.02) g/100 g for sucrose, and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) value of (37.47 ± 1.04) mg/kg of honey, leading to the production of the honey powder. The mixture of fresh honey and plant-based protein was made with dispersions of 15, 16 and 18 g/100 g of honey using isolated rice protein as a carrier (total solid at 30 g/100 g d.b.). Finally, the honey powder produced was physicochemically characterized. The dispersion with 16 g/100 g of honey achieved an intermediary sugar/honey recovery of 35.93 ± 0.82% and 68.54 ± 2.16% of total protein recovery, and the spray drying yield was satisfactory > 50%. The overall results suggested that this dispersion is the ideal formulation when commercialization of the honey powder as an ingredient is intended.
China is a major country of producing, exporting and consuming honey. However, the data about antibiotic residues in honey and their health risk remain limited. This study collected 94 honey samples circulating in the Chinese market, determined 20 common antibiotics from four categories in relation to the characteristics of honey samples, and assessed the potential human health risk. Antibiotics were overall found in 84.0% of honey with a median concentration of 0.09 ng/g. Two or more antibiotics were simultaneously found in 56.2% of honey. Quinolones were found in 69.1% of honey, followed by sulfonamides (44.7%), tetracyclines (26.6%), and phenicols (1.1%). Honey produced in China and honey with a lower price had higher detection frequency and/or concentration of quinolones, sulfonamides, or sum of all antibiotics. A lower detection frequency was seen for sum of all antibiotics in honey from commercial than non-commercial crops. The maximum HIs based on microbiological and toxicological effects were 1.80×10⁻² and 3.20×10⁻⁵ for adults, respectively and were 1.59×10⁻² and 2.82×10⁻⁵ for children, respectively. These results indicated an extensive antibiotic residue in honey circulating in the Chinese market, which varied with production place, sale price, and commercial category of nectariferous plants, and a low health risk on human.
Ethnopharmacological relevance
In traditional Chinese medicine, the dried root of Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch. (licorice root) is usually used after stir-baked with honey. However, in Japanese traditional Kampo medicine, processed licorice root is prepared by roasting without honey.
Aim of the study: We summarized our previous studies on the processed licorice root products to review the effectiveness of the processing for licorice root.
Materials and methods
We summarized our previous studies about processed licorice root. The first report was about investigating the successive literatures of traditional medicine in China and Japan about the processing of licorice root. Next was the report about chemically analyzing for prepared various kinds of processed licorice root samples. The last reports were evaluating in vitro effects of the extracts of these samples and heated honey on granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) secretion in cultured intestinal epithelial cells.
Results
Before Song dynasty in mainland China, the processing of licorice root for the internal usage had been roasted without any drug adjuvants. Then, clinicians had also used honey-roasted licorice to treat throat pain since Song dynasty, and honey-roasted licorice has been used as the substitute to roasted licorice since the end of Qing dynasty. While the descriptions using honey have been disappeared in 18th century in Japan. We found that the conversion between liquiritigenin and isoliquiritigenin or between liquiritin and isoliquiritin in licorice root by heating was accelerated by using honey as drug adjuvant. The inducible effect of G-CSF of licorice root was not augmented by roasting, but significantly augmented by stir-baked with honey. Heated honey also had this activity, and isomaltose contributed the appearance of this activity among the constituents in honey. The best activity was appeared when isomaltose was heated at 180 °C for 60 min or at 200 °C for 15–30 min, and the average molecular weight of the active product was 790 kDa.
Conclusions
By our previous studies, we believe that the processing method in China is better than that in Japan for licorice root, since the immunostimulatory effects are appeared in honey used as drug adjuvant when honey is heated. Among the ingredients of honey, isomaltose can be used as the marker compound to choose a conforming honey product for the processing of licorice root.
Toxic element pollution is an ecological concern in the regions where mining, industry and agriculture are developing. Anthropogenic impact on the environment results in the reduction of the population of honey bees over the world with varying degrees of morbidity and mortality. Bees exposed to contaminants produce polluted products through various sources, including foraging activities on contaminated plants. Therefore, monitoring of honey bee products in terms of toxic elements is very important for food safety and for preventing potential future ecological problems. The data presented in this review are useful for bee health protection and improving the quality and safety of honey production chain.
5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) is one of the food contaminants mainly formed by Maillard and caramelization reaction. Here, we developed a simple method to detect HMF based on split-DNAzyme assisted signal amplification via Quartz crystal microbalance. Firstly, two fragments of the split-DNAzyme (ESΙ and ESII) and AuNPs-ssDNA were prepared. In the absence of HMF, the amino group of ESΙ reacted with the aldehyde group of ESΙΙ by Schiff base condensation，which linked ESΙ and ESII as DNAzyme. With the help of Mg²⁺, this DNAzyme cleaved AuNPs-ssDNA, freeing the complementary sequence of capture DNA from the ssDNA. In the presence of the target HMF, the aldehyde group in its molecular structure preferred to react with ESΙ, which prevented the link of ESΙ and ESII. In this case, DNAzyme cannot be formed effectively and the ssDNA modified on AuNPs cannot be cleaved. Secondly, the capture DNA was immobilized on Au chip in the QCM chamber. Then, the intact AuNPs-ssDNA was introduced to hybridize with the capture DNA, resulted in a large frequency change (ΔF) of the QCM biosensor because of the huge increased mass of AuNPs. So, HMF can be detected based on the frequency change (ΔF) of the QCM biosensor. This QCM biosensor is more sensitive than previously reported methods, which provide a new direction for the analytical detection of HMF and other food contaminants.
This study presents a sensitive approach for electrochemical determination of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF) in food. The electrochemical sensor was fabricated on a copper electrode (CuE) modified with co-electrodeposited Cu-Ni bimetallic particles. This sensor, fabricated by 30 cycles of cyclic voltametric scanning with a scan rate of 50 mV s⁻¹, exhibits good electrocatalytic ability to 5-HMF oxidation. Under the optimal conditions, linear scan voltammetry (LSV) and chronoamperometry were conducted for the determination of 5-HMF. The results of LSV show that a linear dependency within the 0.4–10 mM range with a detection limit (LOD) of 3.51 μM (S/N = 3) was achieved, while a linear range in 1×10-⁴–11 mM with a LOD of 0.043 μM (S/N = 3) was obtained by chronoamperometric measurement. The electrochemical sensor was finally applied in determination of 5-HMF in various foods, and the reliability and accuracy of the method were assessed by adopting an UV method as a standard method. Results show that the concentrations of 5-HMF in real samples are close to those measured by the standard method. In addition, standard addition method was further performed to evaluate the accuracy of our approach. The recoveries ranged from 90.0% to 110.0% are calculated, demonstrating good accuracy of the electrochemical sensor.
The knowledge of important parameters for honey characterization is an increasing requirement of consumers and the honey industry. In this respect, differentiation between blossom honeys and some honeydew honeys is still an unresolved task. This study includes the results of physicochemical and melissopalynological analysis of 86 honey samples from north-western Spain. The relationship between the microscopic elements in honey, such as Metschnikowia cells and fungal spores from plant pathogens, together with their physicochemical parameters were analysed. A cluster analysis was performed to differentiate blossom honey samples from honeydew samples. Metschnikowia cells and certain fungal spores were found to be good variables to enable differentiation between blossom honeys and honeydew honeys.
The objectives of this research were to determine physico-chemical characteristics of 1,758 Apis mellifera L. honey samples produced by in the productive pole of Picos, state of Piauí, to understand, based on these characteristics, how they are grouped and to determine the percentage of honey that fit the specifications determined by Brazilian legislation. Thirty-five honey samples were collected directly from beekeepers for determination of total sugars, reducing sugars, apparent sucrose, humidity, diastase activity, hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), protein, ash, pH, acidity, formol index, electrical conductivity, viscosity and color. Mean values of each one of the analyzed physico-chemical parameters are within the limits established by the current Brazilian legislation, but it was verified for apparent sacarosis, diastase activity and HMF, values different from the established ones. Protein and HMF were the traits that contributed most for group formation.
International honey standards are specified in a European Honey Directive and in the Codex Alimentarius Standard for Honey, both of which are presently under revision. In this article, present knowledge on the different quality criteria is reviewed. The standard drafts include standards and methods for the determination of the following quality factors: moisture, ash, acidity, HMF, apparent reducing sugars, apparent sucrose, diastase activity and water-insoluble matter. International honey standards for fructose/glucose content, the sucrose content and electrical conductivity are proposed. Also the use of other quality factors, such as invertase activity, proline and specific rotation, used in many countries, is also discussed.
The aim of the study was to determine the effect of the biological origin and temperature on rheological and physicochemical characteristics of honey. The honey of the selected varieties differed in color, scent, microstructure, total acidity, moisture, and pH. The level of moisture statistically significantly correlated with the rheological characteristics. The highest total acidity was a characteristic of forest and buckwheat honey, and the lowest of acacia honey. The lowest pH value (3.76) was found in forest and rape honey, and the highest in eucalyptus honey. Moisture levels significantly correlated with the rheological characteristics. All varieties of honey at all the studied temperatures were characterized by properties of non-Newtonian substances. The study showed that the effect of temperature on rheological characteristics of different types of honey varied and was more pronounced in honey with a crystalline structure, and less pronounced in non-crystalline honey.
The antioxidant activities and total phenolic content of 30 samples of acacia honey from Croatian territory were analysed. Phenolics were determined by the modified Folin-Ciocalteu method, antiradical activity by the l,l-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) method and potential antioxidant activity using the ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) method. In all samples, physicochemical parameters (water content, electrical conductivity, total reducing sugars, sucrose content, acidity, hydroxymethylfurfural content, prolin content, optical rotation, diastase activity and invertase activity) were measured according to Croatian legislation and International regulatory standards. Honey can be considered as a dietary supplement as it contains some important components including α-tocopherol, ascorbic acid, flavonoids and phenolics. The composition and properties of honey are dependent on floral origins, climatic conditions of the produced area, processing and storage methods. The results of physicochemical analyses showed that all the values of investigated parameters are in agreement with the current legislation. Phenolic content ranged from 31.72 mg/kg to 80.11 mg/kg, antiradical activity expressed as IC50 ranged from 61.28% to 253.47% and antioxidant activity expressed as FRAP value from 6.95 to 142.43. A positive correlation was observed between total phenolic content and antioxidant activity, indicating that phenolic compounds are mainly responsible for the antioxidant power of acacia honey.
This study was intended to evaluate the quality chemical parameters of 62 Apis mellifera L. honey samples, from the Province of Chubut, Argentina. Samples were obtained from the three melliferous areas of this province: Andean region, lower Chubut River valley and plains of Senguerr River. The average values obtained for electrical conductivity (0.33 mS cm-1) and pH (4.17) indicate that the analyzed honeys came mainly from nectar. Electrical conductivity was higher in honeys from the Andean region than in honeys from the other two regions. Moisture (water content) was low, with an average value of 14.67%. The hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) content was very low and ranged between 0.0 and 14.70 mg kg-1. Moisture, HMF and free acidity values show good maturity and absence of undesirable fermentation in all the samples. Diastase activity had a mean value of 13.50 units on the Gothe scale. Color parameter presented variations between honeys from different areas. The analytical values for the samples from the Andean region, the lower Chubut River valley and the plains of the Senguerr River respectively were: 67.73, 40.33 and 23.26 mm Pfund. Results obtained in this study, indicate that honeys produced in Chubut present excellent quality properties according to international standards.
: .
Summary
It is important to know the antioxidant properties of Malaysian honey of different sources to ensure their quality. In this study, we analysed
nine common Malaysian honeys and one manuka honey to determine the total phenolics, flavonoids, antioxidant capacity and colour intensity.
The Folin-Ciocalteu test was used to determine the total polyphenols content, ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assay for reducing
capacity and 1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl (DPPH·) assays for radical scavenging capacity. The colour intensity measure, ABS450, was used to
approximate the contribution of coloured phytochemicals (carotenoids, flavonoids) to the overall antioxidant capacity of honey. The results
showed that all the honey samples showed high content of phenolic compounds (876.58-166.97 mg GAE/kg) and high colour intensity (169.89
-740.59 mAU) but that the results differ widely among the honey types. Out of nine honey samples, tualang honey 1 and 2 had the highest
content of polyphenols and showed the highest colour intensity at ABS450. All of the honey samples tested have high antioxidant properties as
analysed by FRAP and DPPH· assay. Correlations between the parameters analysed were found to be statistically significant (p < 0.01). On the
basis of employed analytical methods, the tested honey samples may be considered easily accessible natural sources of antioxidants and
valuable additions to everyday diet. The results have shown that tualang honey 1 and 2 were characterized by the highest total polyphenols
content (876.58 mg GAE/kg and 652 mg GAE/kg), the highest reducing capacity (755.33 mM Fe(II) and 794.67 mM Fe(II)) and the best
radical scavenging properties with respect to DPPH· (81.64% and 77.25%) of the analysed Malaysian honey samples. Radical scavenging
activity and antioxidant properties of the honey samples showed good correlation with polyphenols content and colour intensity.
Keywords: Polyphenols, flavonoids, antioxidants, colour intensity.
The quality of sixteen samples of Apis mellifera L. honey, from the center of Algeria, was evaluated by determining the physico-chemical characteristics. The following determinations were carried out: water content, total sugar, electrical conductivity, ash, pH, acidity (free, lactone, and total), hydroxylmethylfurfural (HMF) and color. The physicochemical parameters found are within acceptable ranges: water 13.36–17.93%, total sugar 80.17-84.73%, pH 3.58–4.72, total acidity 17.97-49.1 meq/kg, electrical conductivity 2.75×10 -4 –7.19×10 -4 S/cm, ash 0.075–0.33%, and color 4.1–9.2 Pfund index. The analysis of HMF showed that the majority of samples were exposed to a high temperature during processing or storage.
Background:
Efforts are being made to apply physicochemical parameters analysis in the identification of varietal honeys. With many variables describing a given population, it is feasible to differentiate between basing on principal component analysis (PCA). The aim of this study was to investigate selected physicochemical quality characteristics of nectar honey, with particular emphasis paid to carbohydrate composition, and to determine its applicability in identifying the variety of floral honey.
Material and methods:
The experimental materials were samples of commercial honey available at retail in Krakow in 2005-2007 period. The following analyses were performed: water content by the refractometric method, sugars content according to Luff-Schoorl, content of sugars using HPLC, electrical conductivity, specific rotation, and acidity of honey.
Results:
Application of HPLC allowed the precise qualitative identification of sugars, which was impossible to be determined by Luff-Schoorl method. The obtained results were analysed using principal component analysis (PCA).
Conclusions:
Based on the obtained results and performing the statistical analysis, it was found that the relationship between specific rotation and the total acidity can be used to distinguish buckwheat honeys from other analysed varieties. Moreover, it was demonstrated that the relationship between the specific rotation and maltose content can be used to distinguish between acacia honeys vs. buckwheat and lime honeys.
It is very difficult to detect adulteration by conventional laboratory methods. However, differences in stable carbon isotope ratio (13C/12C=‰), between honey and its protein fraction give a qualitative and quantitative indication of honey adulteration. Forty honey samples from Brazil and eight imported from Argentina, Canada and the USA, were analyzed to detect possible adulteration by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Honey was adulterated with sucrose solution and high fructose corn syrup (HFCS) to determine detection limits. The 13C/12C value for honey and its protein fraction should not differ more than 1‰ for delta (δ). The range of values found for bee-produced honey was −21.96‰ to −30.47‰ for C3 plants and −11.82‰ to −19.00‰ for C4 plants (produced near cut sugar cane and not considered to be flower honey). For cane sugar it was −11.33‰ to −11.78‰, and −9.70‰ to −9.78‰ for HFCS. Adulteration was found in six Brazilian honey samples.
The aim of this work was to establish a solid platform of analytical information for the definition/standardization of the antioxidant properties of honey. We investigated first the antioxidant/radical scavenging capacity of 14 commercial honeys of different floral and geographic origin, using a battery of spectrophotometric tests: Folin-Ciocalteu assay for phenol content (PC), ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP assay) for total antioxidant activity, 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay for antiradical activity, absorbance:450 (ABS450) for color intensity and one fluorimetric method: ORAC, oxygen reactive antioxidant capacity for the antilipoperoxidant activity. Then the data from different procedures were compared and analysed by multivariate techniques (correlation matrix calculation, principal component analysis (PCA)). Significant correlations were obtained for all the antioxidant markers (r ranging from 0.933 to 0.716), with antioxidant properties strictly correlated to the phenolic content and honey color intensity. PCA found different clusters of honey based on the antioxidant power and very likely also on chemical composition. The results of this study demonstrated that only through a combination of antioxidant testings, comparative analyses, and chemometric evaluation we can achieve a strictly rigorous guideline for the characterization of the antioxidant activity of honey, an invaluable tool for the understanding/demonstration of its antioxidants linked therapeutic efficacy.
This study intended to determine and compare the microscopic and physicochemical characteristics of Burkina Fasan honey (n = 27) with those described in the Codex Standard, and to also find correlations between individual constituents. Physicochemical properties were determined using the harmonised methods of the international honey commission. Microscopic pollen analyses identified the samples as being derived from one Acacia, one Lannea, three Vitellaria, two Combretaceae, two mixed Poaceae honeydew and eighteen multifloral honey. Despite the tropical ambient temperature, all the samples were nevertheless well within the limits of the Codex Standard for levels of hydroxymethylfurfural, reducing sugars, proline and diastase activity. Only 7.4% (ash), 14.8% (free acidity and pH) and 22.2% (moisture) of samples exceeded the Codex-permitted limits. A highly significant correlation was found between pH and ash content (r = 0.77; P < 0.001). The training of non-professional beekeepers in beekeeping practice is suggested to improve the quality of Burkina Fasan honey.
Background
The aim of the present study was to evaluate the physicochemical and antioxidant properties of Malaysian monofloral honey samples---acacia, pineapple and borneo honey---and compare them with tualang honey. Acacia and pineapple honey are produced by Apis mellifera bees while borneo and tualang honey are produced by Apis cerana and Apis dorsata bees, respectively.
Methods
The physical parameters of honey, such as pH, moisture content, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), color intensity, total sugar and apparent sucrose content, were measured. Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) was measured using high performance liquid chromatography, and a number of biochemical and antioxidant tests were performed to determine the antioxidant properties of the honey samples.
Results
Acacia honey was the most acidic (pH 3.53), whereas pineapple honey had the lowest moisture content (14.86%), indicating that both types of honey can resist microbial spoilage more effectively when compared to tualang honey (pH 3.80 and 17.53% moisture content). Acacia honey contained the highest EC (0.76 mS/cm), whereas borneo honey had the highest (377 ppm) TDS. The mean HMF content in Malaysian honey was 35.98 mg/kg. Tualang honey, which is amber color, had the highest color intensity (544.33 mAU). Acacia honey is the sweetest, and contained the highest concentration of total sugar, reducing sugar and apparent sucrose. Tualang honey had the highest concentration of phenolic compounds (352.73 +/- 0.81 mg galic acid/kg), flavonoids (65.65 +/- 0.74 mg catechin/kg), DPPH (59.89%), FRAP values (576.91 +/- 0.64 muM Fe (II)/100 g) and protein content (4.83 +/- 0.02 g/kg) as well as the lowest AEAC values (244.10 +/- 5.24 mg/kg), indicating its strong antioxidant properties. Proline, an important amino acid that is present in honey was also measured in the present study and it was found at the highest concentration in pineapple honey. Several strong correlations were found among the biochemical and antioxidant parameters of all the Malaysian honeys.
Conclusion
Although Malaysian honeys are of good quality, tualang honey contains the strongest antioxidant properties by far.
The nature .and diversity of presentations at the conference on: "Bee Products: Prop erties, Applications and Apitherapy" held at Tel-Aviv on May 26--30, 1996, emphasize the increasing interest of physicians, practitioners, scientists, herbalists, dieticians, cosmeti cians, microbiologists, and beekeepers in different facets of bee products. This volume consists of a selection of 31 contributions presented at the conference and which provide information on the present status of our knowledge in this area. In spite of their diversity, they reflect the mainstream of the conference, namely: "Imported" Prod ucts (honey, pollen and propolis), Exocrine Secretions of Workers (venom, royal jelly). Toxicity and Contaminants, Quality Control, Marketing, Apitherapy, Cosmetics, etc. Since antiquity, honey as well as other bee products were used as food, as a cure for ailments of humans and animals, and as cosmetics. We hope that this volume will contribute to interdisciplinary studies on chemical composition, pharmacological effects, nutrition, and other aspects of bee products. Critical and unbiased experimental research may unravel the yet unknown composition and mode of action of bee products and elucidate many unanswered questions. The noteworthy features of this conference were the participants from all parts of the world and of different cultural backgrounds, who shared their keen interest and curios ity regarding honey bees and their products. We thank all of them for their personal con tribution to the success of this conference.
Not since the late 1970s has a single work presented the biology of this heterogenous group of secondary alkaloids in such depth. Alkaloids, a unique treatise featuring leaders in the field, presents both the historical use of alkaloids and the latest discoveries in
• the biochemistry of alkaloid production in plants
• alkaloid ecology, including marine invertebrates, animal and plant parasites, and
• alkaloids as antimicrobial and current medicinal use
. Highlights include chapters on the chemical ecology of alkaloids in host-predator interactions, and on the compartmentation of alkaloids synthesis, transport, and storage. Extensive cross-referencing in tabular format makes this volume an excellent reference.
This is the sixth edition of Hayes' Principles and Methods of Toxicology. It has been revised and updated while maintaining the high standards necessary to serve as a reference to the concepts, methodologies, and assessments integral to toxicology. As was the case with the first five editions of the book, new chapters have been added to address the advances and developments in the field of toxicology. These chapters deal with the importance of the dose-response, systems toxicology, food safety, the humane use and care of animals, and neurotoxicology. A number of new authors have been added and the glossary has been expanded. Every effort has been made to maintain this book as a tome useful both to graduate students beginning their educational journey as well as the more seasoned toxicologist.
The chemical composition of honeys produced in Eastern and South-Eastern Anatolia (Turkey) was studied. For this aim, the composition of 45 honey samples collected from the mentioned regions and the effect of one year storage (20 ± 5°C) on the diastase activity and hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) content were determined. Compositional data measured in the fresh honeys were HMF, diastase number, moisture, invert sugar, sucrose, ash, proline, pH, free acid and lactone. Average values were as follows: HMF 3.3 mg kg-1, diastase number 14.6, moisture 16.0%, invert sugar 70.3%, sucrose 1.89%, ash 0.1%, proline 53.0 mg/100g: pH 3.8, free acid 22.3 meq kg-1 and lactone 7.4 meq kg-1. The changes in HMF content and diastase number of the samples after one year storage (20 ± 5°C) were also investigated. The average HMF content (mg kg-1) increased from 3.3 to 19.1, and the average diastase number decreased from 14.6 to 10.7 following one year storage. The results indicate that storage has a significant role in the increase HMF contents and the decrease in diastase numbers, and changes in these two parameters were statistically significant (P< 0.001).
A procedure for the detection of acetylandromedol in plant extracts was developed through use of paper electrophoresis with borate buffer solutions. Positive results, were found for some but not all species of Kalmia, Leucothoe, Lyonia, Pernettya, Pieris and Rhododendron. A particularly good source was found in K. angustifolia var. caroliniana. New evidence indicated that the empirical formula for andromedol is C20H34O6, and that acetylandromedol, grayanotoxin I and rhodotoxin are identical and have the formula C22H36O7.
This study was designed to evaluate different honey samples obtained from local market and beekeepers for their quality parameters at Gomma woredas, south west Ethiopia. Sixty samples were collected to evaluate their moisture, pH, acidity, ash, Estimation of Hydroxymethyl Furfural (HMF), water insoluble solids, total reducing sugar and sucrose content. The result showed locally produced honey had moisture, ash, acid, and pH contents ranged between 15.66 to 23.45%, 0.05-0.60, 0.30 and 57.30 meq kg- 1,3.45 and 4.18, respectively, which is within the standard limits. Similarly, the HMF and reducing sugar contents of locally produced honeys ranged from 0.05 to 17.70 mg kg-1 and 61.15 and 77.41%, respectively. The water insoluble material content of the honey samples ranged between 0.01 and 23.82 gm/100gm while the sucrose content ranged between 0.75-6.96 for the tested samples of locally produced honey. The result indicated that moisture content of honey at farmer level is increasing due to harvesting of un ripened honey and improper storage condition, which increases the hygroscopic of honey. Generally, the mean of all samples were found to be in acceptable range of international standards for all of the tested parameters except for water insoluble material indicating its potential for export with few management interventions.
This chapter discusses about honey, the only sweetening material that can be stored and used exactly as produced in nature. No refining or processing is necessary before enjoying this. Honey is the sweet, viscous substance elaborated by the honeybee from the nectar of plants. This simple definition excludes honeydew honey, which is produced by the bee from honeydew excreted by various plant-sucking insects. The combs are constructed by the bees from wax they secrete, the production of which requires about 8–10 times its weight in honey. As produced, it is highly variable, particularly in color, flavor, moisture content, and sugar composition, indeed in nearly every constituent. As agricultural practices and crops change, the value of areas for beekeeping or the quality, type, and amount of honey produced will be influenced. Honey is characterized by its color and floral type. A group of naturally blended honeys is available on a consistent basis — such as — fall flowers, alfalfa — sweet clover, and mixed flowers from various specified areas. In contrast to the a–glucosidase, which has a clear and essential function in the conversion of nectar to honey, no such function has been assigned to the starch — digesting enzymes in honey. The use of inhibine number or glucose oxidase activity as a measure of honey quality on heat exposure is therefore impractical because of the wide range of activity and the wide range of heat sensitivity. Honey color is generally evaluated in the honey industry by Pfund Honey Color Grader.
Stable carbon isotope ratio analysis (SCIRA) of honey for undeclared presence of cane or corn sugars has been available for 20 years. Its use with domestic and imported honeys is reviewed. Six years of data from the internal standard isotope ratio analysis (ISCIRA) method support its worldwide validity for honey analysis. The ISCIRA database of pure honeys has been increased from 64 U.S. samples to 224 by addition of data from Germany, United Kingdom, Mexico, Italy, and Spain. ISCIRA analyses of 131 commercial honeys from the United States, Mexico, and Spain found that 17 are adulterated. Analyses of 303 Chinese honeys proves that they should have carbon isotope values similar to honeys from other areas, contrary to claims that the observed differences are intrinsic because of the variability of environmental conditions and of plants used in honey production in China. Addition of corn or cane (C 4) sugars to honeys in amounts that do not produce a δ 13C value greater than -23.5‰ for the mixture cannot be detected by the original 1978 SCIRA procedure. Such adulteration however is detected by ISCIRA procedure from the δ 13C value of the protein contained in the honey, which shows the isotopic composition of the honey before addition of C 4 sugars. Forty-three percent of 98 honeys received in the United States in 1994-1997 with δ 31C < -23.5‰ were suspected and found to be adulterated.
The quality and value of honey, as a natural bio-product depends on its sort and origin. The quantitative and qualitative ratio of chemical elements is individual in each blossom of the plant from each region of the country, so the total content of mineral substances depends on a location. It is possible to determine the origin of specific samples of honey and the environmental pollution of a region from the quantitative and qualitative ratio of heavy and rare metals in honey. The content of heavy metals (HM) such as (Pb (lead), Cd (cadmium), Cu (copper), Zn (zinc) an excess of which could be toxic, of other biologically required elements such as Sr (strontium), Rb (rubidium), Ba (barium) and rare elements Ce (cerium), La (lanthanum), U (uranium) were determined in samples of honey collected from different parts of Lithuania. The research was done at the Federal Institute of Consumer Health Protection and Veterinary Medicine in Berlin, Germany, using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry ICP-MS (Finningan Mat). Numerous biologically important trace elements were found in Lithuanian honey. The concentration of heavy metals in Lithuanian honey varied in a wide range: Pb 2.9÷22.1 µg/kg, Cd 4.1÷14.6 µg/kg, Cu 119.6÷342.9 µg/kg, Zn 514.0÷5639.0 µg/kg. The content of harmful microelements were within the Maximum Tolerable Limit (MTL) of Lithuanian Standards of Hygiene. The content of heavy metals in Lithuanian honey was found to be lower than in honey of other EU countries. Lithuanian honey is eco-friendlier comparing to honey collected in other EU Countries and can successfully compete in the market. Honey can be an indicator of environmental pollution with HM, because the maximum amount of Pb (22.1 µg/kg), high levels of Sr and Ba were found in the honey collected in the Kaunas city territory, and the maximum levels of Cd (14.6 µg/kg), a high content of Pb, Cu, Sr was determined in the honey collected in Elektrėnai, Šiauliai and Birštonas regions, while the least quantities of heavy metals were estimated in the honey collected in the eco-friendliest areas of Lithuania: on the seacoast, in the Varėna region and in the north of the country. According to Rb content, honey can be assorted into honey of mead and forest. 2446.5 µg/kg of Rb was found in honey collected in the Labanoras forest. This content is 4÷12 times higher than in other samples of honey.
Surveys of floral honey composition have established that the three major components are fructose, glucose, and water, averaging 38.2, 31.3 and 17.2%, respectively. Glucose and fructose are the only monosaccharides in honey and it is these sugars, combined in various forms, that comprise the di- and trisaccharide fractions of floral honey. Several laboratories, utilising various chemical and physical methods, have been responsible for the isolation and characterisation of ten disaccharides, ten trisaccharides, and two higher sugars from floral honey. Several of these occur only rarely in nature, and the trisaccharide erlose, produced by the action of honeybee invertase on sucrose, was first discovered as a component of honey. Honeydew honey is produced by the honeybee from honeydew deposits left by various hemipterous insects on their host plant. Honeydew contains a more complex mixture of sugars than does nectar, and honeydew honey is appreciably higher in reducing disaccharides and higher sugars than is floral honey. The trisaccharide melizitose, not found in floral honey, is often present in levels exceeding 10% in honeydew honey. The precipitation of glucose from honey, termed granulation, is often technologically undesirable as it is sometimes followed by fermentation. Indices such as the glucose/water ratio have been used to predict granulation tendency. Small amounts of hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) occur naturally in honey, resulting from the acid catalysed dehydration of the hexoses, particularly fructose. High levels of HMF suggest adulteration of honey with acid inverted invert syrup and several methods are available for its determination. The conversion of nectar and honeydew to the complex array of honey sugars by the honeybee involves a variety of chemical and biochemical processes, some of which are now understood, while others remain to be elucidated.
Contents of Zn, Cd and Pb in honey samples (15) from the Pomeranian region were determined by atomic absorption spectrometer AAS. The mean values for Zn, Cd and Pb were 7.76, 0.015 and 0.048 mg/kg, respectively. Also determined in the honey samples were invert sugar, sucrose, HMF, diastase activity, pH, electrical conductivity, moisture and mechanical pollutions. Pomeranian honeys were of good quality, but they were not free of heavy metals. Results suggested that honey may be useful for assessing the presence of environmental contaminants.
The effects of added magnesium, manganese, zinc and iron(II) ions on the production of hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) in honey were studied using a spectrophotometric method using p-toluidine and barbituric acid for the formation of a coloured complex. All the metal ions used significantly accelerated HMF formation in honey, especially at high temperatures. As the concentration of the added metal ions was increased, there was a corresponding increase in the amount of HMF formed. Manganese ions caused the highest increase in the level of HMF, followed by zinc, magnesiumn and iron (II) ions in that order.
The concentrations of As, Cd, Cu, Hg and Pb were determined in 54 multi-floral honey samples collected from five regions of Croatia during 2009 and 2010. Element contents decreased in the following order: Cu>Pb>As>Hg>Cd. Significant differences in lead and copper levels were observed between regions. Mean levels of elements (μgkg−1) in all honey samples measured were: 19.7 for As, 1.51 for Cd, 1074 for Cu, 2.72 for Hg and 65.2 for Pb. Copper and lead were the most abundant elements in the Centre region, with range and mean contents of 108–41,271 and 3232μgkg−1 and 22.0–440 and 131μgkg−1, respectively. The highest element contents were: As 23.8μgkg−1 in the South region, Cd 2.11μgkg−1 in the Southwest region and Hg 2.63μgkg−1 in the Northeast region. The finding that lead contents in Croatian honey were higher than most reported lead levels in honey from other European countries is of particular concern. These indicate that attention must be focused on setting positions for honey production hives in areas distant from highways and railways.