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Distribution pattern of the Persian leopard
(Panthera pardus saxicolor) in Iran
AREZOO SANEI1* and MOHAMED ZAKARIA2
This study is a new attempt to identify the latest distribution pattern of the Persian
leopard (Panthera pardus saxicolor Pocock 1927) in its entire range in Iran. Furthermore, the
paper aimed to analyse the climatic factors in the current range of the leopard in the country.
The study was performed in 138 sites (56 protected areas, 34 non-protected areas and
48 meteorology stations) throughout the country for a duration of four years starting in 2002
using rapid survey techniques and collection of secondary data. A total of 74 protected and
non-protected areas are reported here as the leopard detection sites in the country. Although
leopards have a wide distribution in Iran, results indicate that 69% of them are found in the
northern part where a large tract of forests is regarded as one of the most important habitats
for leopards in the country. In general, the leopards are mostly found in habitats with 0 to 20
days per year of ice cover and 58% of its identified range in the country have 3,100-3,600
sunny hours per annum. Leopards inhabit a wide range of temperature, i.e. from -23.10 to
+49.40 ºC however, they are more often found in areas with temperature of 13 to 18 ºC. The
majority (66%) of leopard distribution areas receive more than 200 mm of rain per year.
Findings of this research would help the researchers in conducting further regional studies in
the leopard distribution range described in this paper. It is also recommended that occupancy
modeling on a regional scale should be conducted where leopards are present.
Key words: Panthera pardus saxicolor, Persian leopard, distribution map, climatic factors,
distribution range, protected areas, non-protected areas, meteorology stations, Iran
ASIA LIFE SCIENCES Supplement 7: 7-18, 2011
The Asian International Journal of Life Sciences
1Asian Leopard Specialist Society, Tehran, Iran. e-mail: arezoo.saneii@leopardspecialists.com
& arezoo.sanei@gmail.com Website: www.leopardspecialists.com
2Department of Forest Management, Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400
UPM Serdang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia. e-mail: mzakaria@putra.upm.edu.my
*Corresponding author: Asian Leopard Specialist Society, Tehran, Iran.
e-mail: arezoo.saneii@leopardspecialists.com & arezoo.sanei@gmail.com
Website: www.leopardspecialists.com
Received 27 December 2010; Accepted 31 August 2011.
© Rushing Water Publishers Ltd. 2011. Printed in the Philippines
Distribution pattern of the Persian leopard
(Panthera pardus saxicolor) in Iran
AREZOO SANEI1* and MOHAMED ZAKARIA2
This study is a new attempt to identify the latest distribution pattern of the Persian
leopard (Panthera pardus saxicolor Pocock 1927) in its entire range in Iran. Furthermore, the
paper aimed to analyse the climatic factors in the current range of the leopard in the country.
The study was performed in 138 sites (56 protected areas, 34 non-protected areas and
48 meteorology stations) throughout the country for a duration of four years starting in 2002
using rapid survey techniques and collection of secondary data. A total of 74 protected and
non-protected areas are reported here as the leopard detection sites in the country. Although
leopards have a wide distribution in Iran, results indicate that 69% of them are found in the
northern part where a large tract of forests is regarded as one of the most important habitats
for leopards in the country. In general, the leopards are mostly found in habitats with 0 to 20
days per year of ice cover and 58% of its identified range in the country have 3,100-3,600
sunny hours per annum. Leopards inhabit a wide range of temperature, i.e. from -23.10 to
+49.40 ºC however, they are more often found in areas with temperature of 13 to 18 ºC. The
majority (66%) of leopard distribution areas receive more than 200 mm of rain per year.
Findings of this research would help the researchers in conducting further regional studies in
the leopard distribution range described in this paper. It is also recommended that occupancy
modeling on a regional scale should be conducted where leopards are present.
Key words: Panthera pardus saxicolor, Persian leopard, distribution map, climatic factors,
distribution range, protected areas, non-protected areas, meteorology stations, Iran
ASIA LIFE SCIENCES Supplement 7: 7-18, 2011
The Asian International Journal of Life Sciences
1Asian Leopard Specialist Society, Tehran, Iran. e-mail: arezoo.saneii@leopardspecialists.com
& arezoo.sanei@gmail.com Website: www.leopardspecialists.com
2Department of Forest Management, Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400
UPM Serdang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia. e-mail: mzakaria@putra.upm.edu.my
*Corresponding author: Asian Leopard Specialist Society, Tehran, Iran.
e-mail: arezoo.saneii@leopardspecialists.com & arezoo.sanei@gmail.com
Website: www.leopardspecialists.com
Received 27 December 2010; Accepted 31 August 2011.
© Rushing Water Publishers Ltd. 2011. Printed in the Philippines
Distribution pattern of the Persian leopard
(Panthera pardus saxicolor) in Iran
Sanei & Zakaria 2011
8 Asia Life Sciences Suppl. 7, 2011
INTRODUCTION
The leopard (Panthera pardus) is known to be the most adaptable Panthera
species which is found in a wide variety of climate types (Beer et al. 2005, Bailey 1993)
ranging across most of sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East and Far East, northwards
to Siberia and southwards to Sri Lanka and Malaysia (Bothma 1998, Alderton 2002).
However, habitat conversion, declining prey populations, commercial exploitation
and active persecution contribute considerably to losses of the individuals (Asadi
1997, unpublished report; Balme & Hunter 2004, Kolowski & Holekamp 2006). Despite
the catholic nature of the leopard (Grassman 1997, Lekagul & McNeely 1977, Mills &
Harvey 2001, Alderton 2002, Hayward et al. 2006) which has enabled it to survive in
a wide range of environmental conditions, the Persian leopard (Panthera pardus
saxicolor Pocock 1927) is classified as an endangered subspecies by IUCN (2009).
Although leopard is considered as a wide ranging species in Iran, there are few
and scattered documentations particularly in terms of leopard distribution range
within the past decades. Joslin (1988) reported that leopards were found widely in
Iran and their occurrence is mainly associated with the two mountain chains of Alborz
and Zagros. Harrison (1968) had plotted the distribution of the species while Etemad
(1985, in Persian) reported several leopard detectionsas well as morphological and
biometric data from leopard individuals detected from various parts of the country.
More recently, studies by Kiabi et al. (2002) revealed that 550-850 individuals of
leopards live in Iran while Khorozyan et al. (2005) estimated that a total number of
less than 1,300 individuals of Persian leopard are left in the Middle East. Sanei (2005,
2007: in Persian) documented the Persian leopard distribution range, its associated
species, habitat types as well as morphological and biometric data from various
provinces of the country.
Knowledge on current distribution of the species is critically essential in the
formulation of a conservation and management plan for the species in the country.
This study is a new attempt to describe the distribution pattern of the Persian leopard
in its entire range in Iran. An analysis of climatic factors in the regions with known
leopard populations may help researchers identify other areas where leopards may
persist. Therefore, a further objective of this study is to come up with an understanding
of the role of climatic factors in determining the present leopard distribution range in
the country.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study area. Iran is a high plateau with 1,623,779 km² area located between 44º 02´ to
63º 20´ E in southwest Asia. There are significant distinctions in climatic factors and
geographic features in different parts of Iran and the altitudes in most parts of the
country are more than 1,200 meters above sea level. The average annual rainfall in the
southwestern forests of the Caspian Sea is more than 2,300 mm. However, drought
condition is common, particularly in the sandy hills of the Lut plateau that usually
occurs for several years (Firouz 2000).
The study was implemented in 138 sites including 56 protected areas, 34 non-
protected areas and 48 meteorology stations (Figure 1; see also Appendix 1) around
Persian leopard distribution range
Asia Life Sciences Suppl. 7, 2011 9
the country. To assess the role of climatic factors in determining the leopard
distribution, a total of 48 meteorology stations were selected. The selected stations
are the ones nearest to the sites identified as leopard detection areas (Appendix 1).
Figure 1. Location of Persian leopard (Panthera pardus saxicolor Pocock 1927)
distribution study sites in Iran.
Distribution studies. The study was conducted over a time span of four years starting
in 2002 and covering a total of 90 sites. To collect the data on current leopard range
in country, staff from the Department of Environment (DoE) of each state filled up
questionnaires dealing with new reports of direct observations of leopards, attacks
on humans or livestock and leopard’s secondary signs such as tracks or feces. Daily
and annual reports from protected areas in each state detailing reports of conflicts as
well as camera-trapping results were also studied. Subsequently, interviews were
conducted with the local people, shepherds and guards of DoE (in protected areas)
on their knowledge of leopards and other wild animals of the area Site visits and
detection/non-detection studies were done based on direct observations and
secondary signs (e.g. tracks, scats and scratches on the trees) of leopards in a cluster
of sites which had been obtained from reports, questionnaires and interviews. Field
surveys for the whole study period were done by first author and a network of local
people around the country who are skilled in techniques to achieve the objectives of
Sanei & Zakaria 2011
10 Asia Life Sciences Suppl. 7, 2011
the study was established. It should be noted here that distribution map provided in
this study is the outcome of both field surveys and secondary data collection.
Consequently, a questionnaire checklist of abiotic factors such as types of detection
(direct, indirect), locations, dates and other related observations was filled up for
each study site. For this study, Iran is divided into four main regions i.e. north, east,
west and south based on 32º 58´ N - 54º 37´ E to record the findings. These divisions
were in accordance with the objectives of the study. ArcGis version 9.1 was used for
mapping.
Climate data. Data were obtained from 48 meteorology stations (either synoptic or
climatology) during a five-year period (1999-2003). Meteorology stations that are
close to the study sites with confirmed leopard presence (Figure 1)were selected.
Consequently, the average mean monthly data on different meteorological factors
(i.e. temperature, rainfall per year, sunny hours per year and the number of ground ice
covered-days per year) in each station were obtained from annual meteorological
record books of Iran (1999 to 2003).
RESULTS
Distribution of leopard. Distribution map of the leopards has been verified in 74 out
of 90 study sites (82.22%; see also Table 1, Figures 1 & 2). However, 69% of recorded
leopard signs were in the northern part whereas only 31% of them were in the south.
A total of 55% of leopards has been detected in protected areas while 45% of them
were found in non-protected habitats (Table 1). The presence of leopards outside of
protected areas and not inside them is particularly remarkable in Angooran Wildlife
Refuge and Protected Area located in Zanjan Province. Since leopards have been
reported frequently from non-protected areas of the province (e.g. highlands of
Parangin and non-protected habitats of Tarom Township) while there had not been
any sign of leopards in Angooran (WR/PA) for almost three decades (Moradi 1999).
Although, there is a lack of detailed information concerning leopard distribution and
population trends within the region over the last several decades, anecdotal information
obtained from local people suggest that leopard distribution in the west (Kurdistan
Province) has declined severely. Several livestock-leopard and human-leopard
conflicts have been reported from various places such as Rakhshan, Bazman and
Saravan in Sistan and Baluchestan Province, Ariz in Yazd Province, Ghazvin Township
in Ghazvin Province and Daregaz in Razavi Khorasan Province. Sanei (2007) revealed
that the leopard caused the second highest level of conflicts next to wolf (Canis
lupus) in 2002 and the third highest level of conflicts in 2003, after the wolf and brown
bear (Ursus arctos). Some other conflicts included a leopard attack on a local shepherd
in 2001, an attack on a dog in 2002, as well as on a goat and sheep in 2002-2003. These
reports came from places around Khar and Touran National Park in Semnan Province.
Persian leopard distribution range
Asia Life Sciences Suppl. 7, 2011 11
Table 1. Locations of leopard detections in Iran.
Sanei & Zakaria 2011
12 Asia Life Sciences Suppl. 7, 2011
Table 1. Cont.
Southeast Southwest
Status Status
Hormod
Rochun
Khabr
Saravan
Iranshahr
Neyriz
Bam
Zarand
Haji Abad
P = Protected area; N-P = Non-Protected area; X = Leop ard detection.
*Denotes protection status during the resea rch period; status was changed thereafter.
Figure 2: Distribution of leopard in Iran [Note: This map is an extension of the map
reported by Sanei (2007)].
Persian leopard distribution range
Asia Life Sciences Suppl. 7, 2011 13
Climate. Results indicated that leopards survive in a wide range of temperature
ranging from -23.10 to +49.40 ºC. However, most of their distribution in the country
was found at areas with mean annual temperature of 13 to 18 ºC of which 53% of these
are located at the northwest. In addition, 62.5% of the areas with high temperature
averages (23-28 ºC) are found in the southeastern region of the country.
A total of 66% of the leopard locations were found in areas with more than
200 mm of rain per year. However, only 4% of its distribution has average rain of more
than 1,200 mm per year. Almost 42% of leopard habitats are in the northwest with
200-400 mm of rain per year. In addition, less than 11% of their habitats in the
northwestern region have less than 200 mm rain per year. Almost 70% of their
distribution in the southeast are also throughout areas with less than 200 mm rain per
year.
Furthermore, results suggested that leopards in Iran are mostly distributed
throughout areas with ice cover from 0 to 20 days per year However, 35.7% of the
leopard distribution in northwestern Iran has 80-100 icy days per year. Even though
58% of leopard distribution was throughout the areas with 3,100-3,600 sunny hours
per year, almost 77% of its distribution in northwestern Iran has less than 3,100
sunny hours per year. More than 80% of its distribution in the northeast, southeast
and southwest is in areas with 3,100 to 3,600 sunny hours per year. As shown in Table
2, habitats which are distributed in the southern part of the country received more
sunny hours per year. In contrast, those areas which are in the western part of the
country had more days where the ground was covered with ice.
Table 2. Analysis of climatic factors1 in areas with leopard detection in Iran.
Parameter
Direction Average Rain Ground ice- Sunny
temperature (mm covered days hours
(ºC per year) per year) (per year) (per year)
Mean Northeast 17.9 233 42.83 2879.29
Northwest 14.4 522 60.02 2656.28
Southeast 22.1 118 22.91 3458.06
Southwest 17.2 421.50 55.12 3456.92
Minimum 3.0 24.00 0.00 1662.80
Maximum 27.7 1364.60 142.00 5171.90
Most observed 13.0-18.0 < 200 0-20 3100-3600
in leopard range
1Source: Annual Meteorological Records of Iran from 1999 to 2003.
Sanei & Zakaria 2011
14 Asia Life Sciences Suppl. 7, 2011
DISCUSSION
The study indicated that leopards have a wide distribution in Iran. However,
this is mostly associated with the two mountain chains consisting of Alborz running
northwest to northeast and Zagros from northwest to the south. This fact is also
reported almost two decades ago by Joslin (1988) when human disturbances and
habitat destruction were considerably less than the present time. Results also revealed
that most of the leopard areas are found throughout the northwest region which
crosses these mountain chains. Previous study by Kiabi et al. (2002) also indicated
that leopards are more abundant in the northern part of the country compared to the
southern part. There are also a few scattered mountains in the middle, east and south
where leopards were found (Figure 3). It should be added that the Hyrcanian forests
located in the north and along the Alborz chain are considered as one of the most
important habitats for leopards in the country. Various species of potential leopard
preys such as wild pig (Sus scrofa), wild goat (Capra aegagrus), red deer (Cervus
elaphus) and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) are found in these forests. Sanei and
Zakaria (2008) indicated that 88% of leopard distribution sites (in the same study
sites as in the current study) in habitats with mountainous forests are located in this
area. Most of the desert areas are located in the east where the two main deserts,
namely: Lut and Kavir are situated. Except for the scattered mountains located in
these places, most of the desert areas are unsuitable for this species due to low prey
base and absence of water.
The results showed that 34% of leopard distribution receives less than 200 mm
rain per year. Generally, Iran being considered as a dry country hence, the distribution
records showed that leopards did not prefer areas with little annual rainfall. However,
temperature is highly variable even on a regional scale and it may have influenced
distribution of the leopards directly or through prey availability which is affected by
vegetation cover. The implication of ice-covered terrain is that such terrain will result
in a leopard being denied adequate supply of prey for survival. Thus, leopards will
follow the seasonal migrations of prey (mostly wild sheep and wild goat) away from
ice-covered terrain. It is therefore not unusual to find leopards migrate from high
altitudes to the lower terrain especially in the months of January, February and
March.
In a number of sites (e.g. Lashgardar in the State of Hamedan), there has been
no sign of leopards for many years. However, it is believed that non-detection of
cryptic and low-density species such as leopards in some sites (particularly those
with sufficient food sources and suitable habitats) does not imply that the species
was truly absent there (MacKenzie 2005).
The present work recommends that further studies should be conducted on
leopard occupancy modeling based on detection/non-detection surveys on a regional
scale and for a multiple year-time frame. Identification of leopard main corridors in its
current distribution particularly between the main national parks (with leopard
detection) and their surrounding leopard habitats is critical to prevent isolation of
subpopulations. The Department of Environment of Iran conducts annual wildlife
counts in various habitats which provide plenty of useful information regarding
Persian leopard distribution range
Asia Life Sciences Suppl. 7, 2011 15
Figure 3. Locations of the two main deserts of Kavir and Lut as well as Alborz and
Zagros mountainous chains and regions with altitudes of more than 1,200 m above
sea level (Iran).
wildlife status. Therefore, it is suggested to re-organize these surveys in a systematic
manner to obtain reliable population trends of prey species.
CONCLUSION
The findings presented here exemplify an understandingt of the latest
distribution pattern of the Persian leopard in Iran. Leopards were detected in 74 out
of a total of 90 study sites. However, 69% of the leopard locations were found in the
northern part of the country. Almost 45% of these sites were found in non-protected
areas. Results show that the species can survive in a wide range of climate types.
However, they were mostly found in areas with annual average temperature of 13 to
18 ºC, with more than 200 mm of rain per annum; grounds covered with ice for 0-20
days per year and 3,100-3,600 sunny hours per annum.
Sanei & Zakaria 2011
16 Asia Life Sciences Suppl. 7, 2011
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was conducted in a large number of study sites throughout Iran. Without
the generous help of the local people, this study would not be possible. The authors also
thank the guards and Staff of the Department of Environment, Iran throughout the study
sites, especially Ajami, Torbati, Kheirkhah, Dehghan, Eliasy, Alamshahi, Mahnayee, Zamanlu,
Bayati, Valian, Gholami, Shakiba, Sehhati Sabet, Ghaffari, Esmat Kadkhoda, Baluch , Esfandiari,
Dianati Nasab, Ameri Far, Shahnazari and Mahmoudi for providing information on the area
and the species. The authors truly appreciate the consultation time afforded by the late Dr. H.
Asadi, Dr. H. Tajbakhsh, Mr. H. Ziaie and Dr. B.H. Kiabi. Finally, it is with great indebtedness
that the authors acknowledge the kindness of Gh. Sanei and Sh. Hermidas, Behshahr Kar Co.
for generously funding this study.
Appendix 1. Locations and types1 of meteorology stations in Iran.
1Cl = Climatology station, an observation station which measures one or several climatic elements;
Sy = Synoptic station, one where observations are made based on the processes of the general
atmospheric circulation taken during synoptic hours of 00:00, 06:00, 12:00 and 18:00, Universal
Time.(World Meteorological Organization 1989).
Persian leopard distribution range
Asia Life Sciences Suppl. 7, 2011 17
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