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Abstract
This article evaluates the nature and incidence of equal opportunities (EO) policies in the UK using data from the 1998 Workplace Employee Relations Survey (WERS 98).The article identifies the types of workplaces that are more likely to adopt formal gender, ethnicity, disability and age policies. It then assesses whether the policies are ‘substantive’ or merely ‘empty shells’: first, by evaluating the extent to which workplaces that have adopted EO policies have also adopted supporting EO practices; and second, by evaluating the proportion of employees who have access to EO practices in workplaces where they have been adopted. On balance, the ‘empty shell’ argument is more convincing. Smaller workplaces, private sector workplaces and workplaces without an HR or personnel specialist are identified as being more likely to have an ‘empty shell’ policy.While unionized workplaces are more likely to have a formal policy, those policies are no less likely to constitute ‘empty shells’. Finally, the policy, economic and legal implications of the findings are discussed.
... Many organisations have therefore issued formal equal opportunities (EO) policies, which generally cover ways of achieving equality and guidelines for dealing with workplace discrimination. However, Hoque and Noon [12] claim that many EO policies are 'empty shells' since they have no substance or value to victims of discrimination. Jewson and Mason [14] report that the liberal and radical approaches are the two main approaches that can deal with equality issues. ...
... As mentioned above, the four main reasons with EO policies that lead to 'empty shells' includes the 'smokescreen' of procedural fairness, designed to avoid liability, selective effects, and the lack of clear procedures. According to Hoque and Noon [12], an analysis of data from the 1998 Workplace Employee Relations Survey [1] demonstrates that the 'empty shell' problem exists in many organisations. ...
... This positive corporate image can make the company more competitive in the labour market and improve employee relations. At the same time, the company can also reap business benefits, for example, by developing a wider talent pool or expanding its client or customer base [12]. ...
Hoque and Noon claim that many workplace equal opportunities policies in the UK are merely ‘empty shells’. This article will discuss this claim and consider the extent to which radical equal opportunities policies may address these shortcomings. Based on the analysis, it is concluded that contemporary society is still far from the goal of fully addressing inequality, and the EO policies still face the problem of the ‘empty shell’.
... Sometimes cross-sectional studies report a positive correlation between policy and representation, but, as most of these authors note themselves, correlation of course does not necessarily imply causation (De Vries et al., 2005;Meerman & Scholten, 2003;compare Cully et al., 1999, in Kirton & Greene, 2005. Furthermore, as noted by various authors, the possibility that diversity policies reflect rather than influence ethnic minority representation is not at all remote (see Hoque & Noon, 2004;Naff & Kellough, 2003;Meerman & Scholten, 2003). Hence the issue of reverse causality should be incorporated in the research design as much as possible. ...
... In other words: even when laws like the Wet SAMEN are perfectly complied with, they may still not impact the inequities that triggered their conception. In their evaluation of "the 'Empty Shell' Hypothesis", Hoque and Noon (2004) find that many organisations adopt equal opportunities policies without also adopting supporting practices that would make their policies more substantive. Also in the UK context, a study of employee perceptions illustrates concerns about the "implementation gap" (Young, 1992, in Creegan et al., 2003, even in an organisation with a long-established and elaborate 'race equality policy' (Creegan et al., 2003). ...
... Hence we still do not know whether the policy of assigning responsibility catalyses the policies of formulating target figures and preferential treatment, as could be derived from the literature . Future studies could also investigate whether the three policies work in combination with other diversity policies (like offering training, see Jonkers, 2003: 159) Hoque & Noon, 2004;Naff & Kellough, 2003;Meerman & Scholten, 2003)? If analysed in this way, we could be looking at the kind of norm or signal expressed by a certain policy in combination with the ethnic minority participation rates in the organisations expressing it. ...
In the past decades governments throughout the world have been promoting diversity policies or ‘employment equity policies’ to fight ethnic discrimination and improve the representation of ethnic minorities in work organisations. Such measures, including more traditional affirmative action/equal opportunities policies and newer managing diversity policies, tend to be highly controversial in society as well as in science. The deadlock in the debate (‘good practice’ or ‘bad idea’?), however, is to a large extent rhetorical as little is known about the effectiveness of different types of diversity policies in increasing ethnic minority representation. This study aims to contribute to the limited available literature by analysing thousands of official reports filed by work organisations in the Netherlands in the context of the Act Stimulation Labour Participation Minorities 1998-2003 (Wet Stimulering Arbeidsdeelname Minderheden). Paradoxically, the quantitative findings suggest that diversity policies primarily aimed at the inflow of ethnic minorities in an organisation do not increase the number of ethnic minority employees in the short run, whereas diversity policies primarily aimed at the already existing diversity in an organisation do have a small positive effect. These and other findings are explored and interpreted ‘qualitatively’ by embedding the statistical analyses in the broader literature on the underlying motivations of organisations to be active in this domain. ‘Hard’ diversity policies like tiebreak preferential treatment (voorkeur geven bij gelijke geschiktheid) and formulating target figures, for example, may be reported by organisations first and foremost to send out a signal to the authorities and society at large. The study also aims at a deeper understanding of the (in) effectiveness of diversity policies in increasing ethnic minority representation by reviewing organisational drivers for unethical behaviour, i.e. ethnic discrimination. Future research may benefit from a similar sceptical perspective, which for instance not only recognizes a potential ‘business case for diversity’, but also a ‘business case for homogeneity’.
... By reducing diversity to demographic organizational commodities (Swan, 2010), organizations only ascribe importance to the attraction of diverse groups, rather than creating a more inclusive workplace where diverse employees can thrive (Köllen, 2019). As such, diversity within the corporate environment acquires a certain sheen, providing organizations with moral credibility (Byrd, 2018;Long, Doerer and Stewart, 694 Kele and Cassell 2015), without them necessarily having substantive actions in place: 'empty shells' (Hoque and Noon, 2004). ...
... Notwithstanding the pictorial diversity portrayed via the external employer branding of the firms, internally, these inclusive images were false signals: the approach that the firms took towards EO, diversity management and HR had traditionally been in a disjointed and sporadic fashion. Our analysis of the organizations' identities misaligned with their external employer image, with a lack of organizational policies, practices and initiatives underpinning a commitment to equality and diver-sity, mirroring Hoque and Noon's (2004) 'empty shells'. We categorize this as a light-touch or superficial approach to diversity management. ...
... Given the likelihood that the employment lawyers, taking on HR tasks, would read these documents, the language used to promote diversity though scaremongering implies that diversity polices are based upon legal compliance, not moral grounds. This apparent apathy to substantive EO and diversity practices internally in the law firms runs contrary to their external employer branding and is mirrored through policies which are, in essence, 'empty shells' (Hoque and Noon, 2004). ...
Drawing upon an employer branding lens to help explore and inform our understanding of the marketing of workforce diversity, here we argue that diversity is understood and used in an aesthetic and commercialized way, rather than with a focus upon the inclusion of disadvantaged groups. Our analysis of the marketing and diversity practices of four small and medium‐sized law firms demonstrates a continued access‐and‐legitimacy approach to diversity: that a desire for successful employer branding still supersedes organizational commitment to equal opportunities and diversity management in practice. We argue that this commercialized approach leads to several contradictions, which in turn reproduce the market‐based perspective of diversity, relegating employees primarily to the aesthetics of race and gender and the affiliated skills and resources. In theorizing the processes by which diversity is undermined and functions solely to enhance business image and increase organizational performance, we highlight how an employer branding lens enables us to identify and understand contradictions between diversity policy and practice in a different way, by linking aesthetics with the marketing of the brand.
... However, human resource practices such as diversity polices can either generate or reduce inequality depending on how they interact with locally negotiated claims to produce and maintain inequality regimes (Tomaskovic-Devey & Avent-Holt, 2019). This is underlined by previous research showing that some implemented diversity policies achieve their goals (Dobbin & Kalev, 2016;Kalev et al., 2006), some are inefficient and solely symbolic (Hoque & Noon, 2004), while others can bolster stereotypes and trigger perceptions of unfairness (Dobbin & Kalev, 2016, 2019Rainey & Melzer, 2021;Williams et al., 2014). Scholars have pointed out that the different conceptualizations and strategies of diversity polices influence their success in achieving employment equality (for a comprehensive overview, see Dobbin & Kalev, 2016). ...
... Public sector workplaces experience a high level of political monitoring and public scrutiny (Verheij et al., 2017) to successfully implement diversity policies (Soohan et al., 2012). In contrast, private sector workplaces often implement diversity policies as a part of publicity work and solely for image strategies, resulting in strictly symbolic policies that can be classified as "empty shells" (Hoque & Noon, 2004). 3 As the success of diversity policies is strongly linked to the underlying motivation for their implementation (Groeneveld & Verbeek, 2012;Soohan et al., 2012) and the rigidity of the power relations to be dismantled, we assume the following: ...
... While this mechanism seems to apply to public sector workplaces, mixed teams do not have a significant relationship with immigrants' wages in the private sector. This corresponds to previous findings showing that diversity policies in the private sector are often simply "empty shells" (Hoque & Noon, 2004) that are implemented to improve image rather than change power structures or reduce prejudices. ...
We investigate how the institutional context of the public and private sectors regulates the association of workplace diversity policies and relational status positions with first- and second-generation immigrants’ wages. Using unique linked employer–employee data combining administrative and survey information of 6,139 employees in 120 German workplaces, we estimate workplace fixed-effects regressions. Workplace processes are institutionally contingent: diversity policies such as mixed teams reduce inequalities in the public sector, and diversity policies such as language courses reinforce existing inequalities in the private sector. In public sector workplaces where natives hold higher relational positions, immigrants’ wages are lower. This group-related dynamic is not detectable in the private sector.
... Second, and relatedly, information needs to be readily accessible and made available to information users; disclosure then helps to address the information asymmetry between organisations and those to whom they are accountable (Landau and Marshall 2018, p. 329; Fung, Graham, and Weil 2007, p. 40). It is only when information is easily accessible that it can enter into users' calculus and inform their actions (Fung, Graham, and Weil 2007, 54): "the cost of acquiring and using new information must be low enough to justify users' efforts in relation to expected benefits" (Fung, Graham, and Weil 2007, p. 56). ...
... The human rights protected by the Charter include the right to: enjoyment of human rights without discrimination, 39 equal protection of the law without discrimination, and equal and effective protection against discrimination. 40 'Discrimination' is defined as that within the scope of the Equal Opportunity Act 2010 (Vic). 41 The Charter duty cannot be pursued independently as a cause of action, and a breach of the Charter does not sound in damages. ...
... While transparency was a key aim in developing the Charter, there was no subsequent requirement to be proactively transparent or report specific data: accessibility and transparency are only achieved by challenging government actions in superior courts (Brett Young 2015, p. 39 Charter of Human Rights and Responsibilities Act 2006 (Vic) s 8(2). 40 Ibid s 8(3). 41 Ibid s 3(1). ...
Transparency is a radical expectation in the context of equality law. In a system highly dependent on individual enforcement, the lack of transparency in the treatment of individual claims dramatically limits the potential of equality law to achieve systemic change. Overcoming discrimination that is systemic, embedded, and pervasive requires moving beyond confidential mechanisms for addressing discrimination. Given that the implementation of workplace equality law occurs in practice at the organisational level, there is a growing need to focus on what employers are actually doing to achieve equality, and how their practices are accountable to those affected and the broader community.
... Despite a vast majority of global leaders professing their support for diversity and inclusion (OECD, 2020;PwC, 2021), there often exists a disconnect between the rhetorical support for allyship within organisations and the actual implementation of diversity and inclusion practices (Özbilgin, 2024). This discrepancy has led to an evolution in the allyship literature, which now critically distinguishes between mere verbal claims often devoid of meaningful action, termed as empty shells by Hoque and Noon (2004), and performative actions that fail to combat inequality (Thorne, 2022) effectively. Furthermore, some forms of allyship might unintentionally reinforce the systems of oppression they aim to dismantle, thereby deepening inequalities (Edwards, 2006). ...
... There is a pervasive expectation that atypical leaders will inherently act as dedicated allies and champions of diversity. Nevertheless, diversity management initiatives risk becoming empty shells without establishing norms and regulations to endorse diversity (Hoque and Noon, 2004). Particularly in contexts where diversity policies are overlooked, atypical leaders are frequently seen as the primary allies for diversity, notably in the silence of typical leaders (Küskü et al., 2022). ...
Organisations increasingly embrace allyship as a strategy to enhance support for diversity. The rise of atypical leaders offers hope to individuals from marginalised backgrounds, fostering the belief that these leaders would align themselves as allies and actively promote diversity within organisations. However, this assumption remains empirically untested. This paper investigates the tendency of atypical leaders to engage in allyship behaviours in contexts where regulatory and normative support for diversity is absent. Within unregulated neoliberal environments, the significance of atypical leaders is amplified, as diversity initiatives frequently receive limited backing from typical leaders, and the lack of a regulatory framework subjects these initiatives to considerable strain and risk. Through a qualitative study involving 33 atypical leaders from Turkey, we explore whether atypical leaders exhibit allyship towards diversity. Our findings delineate the conditions that enable and limit the effectiveness of atypical leaders’ allyship in a country with a toxic triangle of diversity. This study illuminates the critical influence of the regulatory environment on the allyship behaviours of atypical leaders, underlining the complex interplay between leadership, regulatory contexts, and allyship practices.
... These policies may include, for example, provisions for monitoring and reviewing recruitment and promotions procedures, pay rates, etc. Unfortunately, WERS 2011 does not include questions appearing in the 1998 edition of the survey that might have allowed checking how effective the policies in place are (see Hoque and Noon, 2004) 1 . ...
... WERS 1998 includes questions in the employee questionnaire about, e.g.,the frequency of conversation with the employee's boss about pay and promotion, which are used byHoque and Noon (2004) to estimate the extent of effective discrimination in British workplaces. ...
Purpose
The paper investigates the effects of individual employees' empowerment on different forms of job satisfaction in British workplaces while controlling for the presence of job demands and whether these effects depend on the presence of an equality plan in the workplace. The demand-control model that the authors test proposes that imbalances between the demands placed on employees and the control they have in their job negatively affect employee well-being and health. Control may also be strengthened, and demands mitigated, by effective equality policies. This study looks at nine forms of job satisfaction and examines the individual effects of job demands, job control, the interaction of control and demands and their joint effects with equality plans.
Design/methodology/approach
The study uses matched employee–employer British data from the 2011 Workplace Employment Relations Survey (WERS). The authors conduct principal component analysis (PCA) and logit estimations and estimate a recursive simultaneous bivariate probit model.
Findings
Employee empowerment, or job control, is a key predictor of job satisfaction, and job demands are negatively associated with various aspects of job satisfaction. The presence of equality plans strengthens the positive effects of job control and mitigates the detrimental effects of job demands. Consistent with the demand-control model, employees are more likely to be satisfied in low strain jobs (jobs with low demands and high control) than in high strain jobs (jobs with high demands and low control). Employees in passive jobs (jobs with low demand and low control) on the other hand are less likely to be satisfied with achievement and influence than employees in low strain job.
Originality/value
Much of the empirical literature has focused on collective empowerment practices and none has tested the demand-control model. This paper adds to the literature on employee empowerment practices with a focus on individualised job control and the way its effects interact with equality plans. In the process, the authors provide novel and rigorous empirical evidence on an extended version of the demand-control model.
... However, organisational practices-such as equal opportunity policies, inclusive workplace declarations and symbols of positivity about disabled people-may be merely symbolic 'window dressing' decoupled from actual organisational practices, which instead exclude workers that do not fit with the image of an ideal worker (Edelman, 2016;Foster & Wass, 2013;Hoque & Noon, 2004;Hoque, Bacon, & Parr, 2014). Employers may declare positive attitudes and commitment to the inclusion of persons with disabilities, but their affective reactions and actual practices can be less positive and can negatively impact hiring decisions, reasonable adjustment arrangements and work performance appraisals (Burke et al., 2013;Kuznetsova, 2016). ...
... Seen this way, the advertisements represent a demonstration of how formal policies targeting workers with disabilities can be 'empty shells' (Hoque & Noon, 2004). If so, diversity declarations are mere talk and have not motivated altered organisational practice, as previous studies have indicated (Kuznetsova & Yalcin, 2017). ...
This article contributes to the research on inequality in organisations by analysing job advertisements that include a diversity clause stating that minority or disadvantaged jobseekers are welcome. The diversity clause appears as a response to expectations from the organisations’ environment, namely anti-discrimination regulations and activation policies that aim to persuade employers to counteract inequality and include minorities and marginalised groups. With disability as a case, the analysis demonstrates how the mundane organisational practice of advertising for new employees fails to avoid reproducing the inequality that it aspires to reduce. A predominant distinction in the advertisement texts between desired employees and disabled applicants (addressed in the diversity clause) shows how organisations, while acting properly and performing the benevolent practice of championing diversity, can still subtly signal the inferiority of disability.
... The disconnect between the noble aims of policies and their real-world application is starkly visible across various organisations. Hoque and Noon (2004) coin the term "symbolic policy" to describe the phenomenon where organisations ostensibly commit to diversity policies yet fall short in their actualisation. The UK Workplace Employee Relations Survey highlights this gap, showing that fewer than half of organisations with diversity policies effectively implement supportive measures, such as flexible working arrangements for women transitioning between full and part-time roles, with access to these measures often contingent upon one's role within the organisation (Kirkpatrick and Hoque, 2022). ...
This research project aimed to explore the issue of gender and racial inequality within the London Ambulance Service through the lens of Pierre Bourdieu’s concepts, such as field, capital, habitus, and symbolic violence. The findings of the study highlighted how existing structures, gendered practices, and racial biases shaped the career experiences of women and employees from Black, Asian, and Minority Ethnic (BAME) backgrounds.
By conducting in-depth interviews with 23 individuals working at the London Ambulance Service, this research revealed dynamics across different aspects of the organisation. The competitive nature of the ambulance service created an environment where certain cultural capital was highly valued but predominantly held by men. Consequently, those lacking capital faced disadvantages in their advancement. Furthermore, leadership practices reinforced norms that hindered efforts towards equality while subjecting minorities to heightened scrutiny and penalising behaviour among women.
The study also found that the recruitment and promotion process perpetuated biases favouring traits traditionally associated with masculinity and leadership styles. Additionally, these processes framed women and BAME employees' capabilities as deficiencies. Exclusionary social networks concentrate decision-making power within dominant groups sharing privileged backgrounds and conforming to normative values.
However, it is important to note that this study also sheds light on how women and BAME employees employ approaches to gain leadership capital by regulating their identity performance and leveraging support networks among peers who share experiences. These strategies help counterbalance their exclusion from privileges typically associated with proximity to identities. However, managing one’s identity constantly takes a toll on well-being. This highlights the necessity for reforms rather than relying solely on individual negotiations. The research illustrates how Bourdieu’s theoretical concepts can help us better understand the dynamics of inequality within public service organisations. It suggests that by disrupting barriers and going beyond surface-level diversity initiatives, we can bring about cultural change. Conducting research could provide valuable insights into how complex identities contribute to the experiences of minority women facing compounded symbolic violence. Ultimately, this study emphasises the significance of approaches that challenge structures by acknowledging diverse capabilities and promoting inclusive cultures.
... The findings on vacuous allyship align with the literature (Hoique & Noon 2004). Pointing out that vacuous allyship is an empty shell in literature means that it is the bottom step on the allyship pyramid, which aligns with the research findings. ...
The COVID-19 Pandemic brought to light the
racial inequities in the United Kingdom through
its disproportionate impact on racialised
minority communities. The murder of George
Floyd in the hands of people who should have
been protecting him reinvigorated the Black
Lives Matter (BLM) social movement in the
United States of America (USA). Inspired by
social media reports, BLM messages were
appropriated and adopted in many
countries across the world, including the United
Kingdom (UK). The BLM protests in the UK, on
the one hand, highlighted the racial inequalities
in the UK and on the other hand reminded the
public of the UK's colonial history.
It is not surprising that BLM protests led
corporate entities, foundations and churches in
the UK to commission inquiries to research their
possible connections to colonialism, slavery, and
indentured labour. Many would later issue
statements and commit to investing in initiatives
aiming to address racial inequalities. These
institutions stated that they were shifting from
standing against racism to becoming antiracist.
In effect, they were committing to becoming
allies in promoting racial equity and addressing
the structural challenges standing in the way of
racial equity. Allyship is not a new concept;
literature has covered allyship polarities ranging
from performative to authentic/substantive
allyships.
The paper is informed by The Open University's
Centre for Voluntary Sector Leadership's
research on collaboration and engagement
between the leadership of racialised minority
networks and service providers in promoting
racial equity. The empirical research is
complemented by my lived experience as a
racialised minority leader engaged in social and
political practices promoting racial equity. This
autoethnographic paper seeks to explore
whether, four years after George Floyd's murder,
approaches to allyship have changed to embody
the commitment to antiracist practices on the one
hand and a move away from tokenism and
promoting emancipatory allyship.
... None of this should imply that the discrimination experienced by any of the social identity categories has been eliminated, that equal opportunities have been achieved or even that the adoption of EDI policies has moved far beyond legal compliance in many instances. That is, there may well be a range of EDI policies in place which are frequently not supported by appropriate employment practices (Hoque and Noon 2004;Van Wanrooy et al. 2013). Furthermore, policies on EDI may be restricted to those instances where there is a 'business case' to show likely improvements in organisational performance, financial returns or recruitment. ...
Purpose
The paper reviews Fox’s frames of reference against subsequent changes in the composition of the labour force, shifts in social values and the arrival of the politics of identity.
Design/methodology/approach
A close reading of the frames of reference is placed in the context of Fox’s writing on the search for managerial legitimacy. That search is then considered in relation to the subsequent revolution in equal opportunities and contemporary efforts to promote equality, diversity and inclusion (EDI).
Findings
At the core of Fox’s frames lies the fundamental question of whether employers accept trade unions as a legitimate expression of employee interests. Changes in the composition of the labour force and the related arrival of identity politics has led to the emergence of a new set of interests based on social identity. These interests exist because of state legislation, social pressure from campaign groups and the awareness of the right to equal treatment regardless of gender, race, sexuality etc. It follows that the emergence of these identity-based interests means that employers are all pluralists now. This new pluralism has the ideological challenge of gaining approval not only from employees but also from the public in a world where errant employers are vulnerable to hashtag activism.
Originality/value
By revisiting Fox’s frames of reference, and emphasizing the role of employee interests, the paper shows that Fox's original insights on managerial authority and the need for “legitimising sentiments” are still relevant even if his frames are now outdated.
... The D&I perspective has, however, been criticised, as it can result in managers preferring to deal with individual differences on a case-by-case basis, rather than implementing changes in a more standardised way, especially if those changes bear a cost to the business (Williams, 2014;Kirton and Greene, 2015). Hoque and Noon (2004) observe that these practices and policies implemented as part of a D&I approach can become 'empty shells' or 'box ticking' measures. These measures are not always supported in practice or might be restricted to certain groups of employees. ...
... The D&I perspective has, however, been criticised, as it can result in managers preferring to deal with individual differences on a case-by-case basis, rather than implementing changes in a more standardised way, especially if those changes bear a cost to the business (Williams, 2014;Kirton and Greene, 2015). Hoque and Noon (2004) observe that these practices and policies implemented as part of a D&I approach can become 'empty shells' or 'box ticking' measures. These measures are not always supported in practice or might be restricted to certain groups of employees. ...
... Formality may be pursued for legitimacy purposes or to secure reputational benefits, only to be forgotten over time, as studies of the Investors in People (IiP) accreditation in SMEs have shown (Hoque & Bacon, 2008;Ram, 2000). Thus, formality may represent nothing more than an 'empty shell' (Hoque & Noon, 2004;Kitching, 2016). While it is important to acknowledge that degrees of formality might be present in SMEs in the sense that indicators can be identified, what is more important is the examination of how formality is implemented and whether it is consistently and appropriately used to manage the employment relationship, what Marlow et al. (2010) refer to as embedded formality. ...
The formality-informality dynamic represents an interesting yet underexplored tension in the SME employment relationship. Much HRM research plays formality and informality off against each other, where the former is seen a progressive and natural and the latter is dismissed as backward or deficient. Informality is considered an inevitable consequence of a lack of formality and a direct function of scale, rather than as a legitimate approach in its own right. This chapter explores this tension, arguing that HRM research, by definition, must acknowledge the operation of degrees of (in)formality in all types of firms if it is to capture the reality of workplace relations. This emphasises the importance of understanding the logic underpinning the practices in use by paying greater attention to issues of context. We suggest that formal and informal HRM can be simultaneously complementary and substitutive within SMEs. However, current understanding and operationalisation of informality needs to be more nuanced and considered if this feature of SMEs is to be accommodated and appropriately researched. The result is a research agenda to further progress our understanding of the dynamics of informality and its relationship to formality.
... where non-discrimination laws may be relatively weaker or suggestive in nature, rather than indicating an effective corpus of directives with a long history of strong enforcement (Hoque & Noon, 2004). ...
Deploying institutional theory to analyze the transfer of transgender diversity policy in Pakistan, our research highlights the crucial influence of national context with respect to the development and implementation of transgender‐supportive equality measures in multinational corporation subsidiaries. Based on semi‐structured interviews with 4 government officials, and 30 managers, HR leads, and diversity officers working in subsidiary organizations, our thematic analysis highlights how regulatory institutions, normative and cognitive institutions, and institutional distance inform the conditions of possibility for the transfer and execution of diversity policy across national boundaries. Moreover, by highlighting the inadequacy of etic understandings of diversity categories and practices in settings where social structures and ideologies can be different, we argue that utilizing an emic approach is essential in the global diversity field. Our research emphasizes the value of context‐sensitive research instead of generic, and universalistic, applications of ‘Western’ diversity understandings.
... For example, Skadi Loist and Elizabeth Prommer 11 empirically highlight how gender imbalance in the German film industry contributes to the unsustainability and precarity of women creative professionals' careers (directors, producers, cinematographers, and scriptwriters). Organisational processes within TV production are predominantly characterised by precariousness, informality, requirements for flexibility 12 , and 'bulimic' working patterns 13 that intensify inequalities, restrict employment prospects, and render equal opportunity policies ineffective 14 , turning them into "empty shells" 15 . These labour conditions have proven to disadvantage women's careers in comparison with men's 16 (e.g., in terms of pay, contractual status or seniority) and often this disadvantage intersects with categories of ethnicity, age, sexuality and class, among other characteristics 17 . ...
... management interventions may be stillborn. Once a general understanding of diversity is garnered through dialogue with stakeholders, diversity definitions, statements, and policies could be shaped. In this phase, it is important to note that these policies serve as bylaws, and organisations become responsible and accountable by issuing statements.Hoque and Noon (2004) caution about diversity statements becoming empty shells if the organisation does not effectively monitor and ensure compliance.Developing a business case for diversity management interventions is important for overcoming the trust deficit that the leadership may suffer when approving diversity interventions. Such business case argument ...
... management interventions may be stillborn. Once a general understanding of diversity is garnered through dialogue with stakeholders, diversity definitions, statements, and policies could be shaped. In this phase, it is important to note that these policies serve as bylaws, and organisations become responsible and accountable by issuing statements.Hoque and Noon (2004) caution about diversity statements becoming empty shells if the organisation does not effectively monitor and ensure compliance.Developing a business case for diversity management interventions is important for overcoming the trust deficit that the leadership may suffer when approving diversity interventions. Such business case argument ...
... management interventions may be stillborn. Once a general understanding of diversity is garnered through dialogue with stakeholders, diversity definitions, statements, and policies could be shaped. In this phase, it is important to note that these policies serve as bylaws, and organisations become responsible and accountable by issuing statements.Hoque and Noon (2004) caution about diversity statements becoming empty shells if the organisation does not effectively monitor and ensure compliance.Developing a business case for diversity management interventions is important for overcoming the trust deficit that the leadership may suffer when approving diversity interventions. Such business case argument ...
... management interventions may be stillborn. Once a general understanding of diversity is garnered through dialogue with stakeholders, diversity definitions, statements, and policies could be shaped. In this phase, it is important to note that these policies serve as bylaws, and organisations become responsible and accountable by issuing statements.Hoque and Noon (2004) caution about diversity statements becoming empty shells if the organisation does not effectively monitor and ensure compliance.Developing a business case for diversity management interventions is important for overcoming the trust deficit that the leadership may suffer when approving diversity interventions. Such business case argument ...
... management interventions may be stillborn. Once a general understanding of diversity is garnered through dialogue with stakeholders, diversity definitions, statements, and policies could be shaped. In this phase, it is important to note that these policies serve as bylaws, and organisations become responsible and accountable by issuing statements.Hoque and Noon (2004) caution about diversity statements becoming empty shells if the organisation does not effectively monitor and ensure compliance.Developing a business case for diversity management interventions is important for overcoming the trust deficit that the leadership may suffer when approving diversity interventions. Such business case argument ...
... management interventions may be stillborn. Once a general understanding of diversity is garnered through dialogue with stakeholders, diversity definitions, statements, and policies could be shaped. In this phase, it is important to note that these policies serve as bylaws, and organisations become responsible and accountable by issuing statements.Hoque and Noon (2004) caution about diversity statements becoming empty shells if the organisation does not effectively monitor and ensure compliance.Developing a business case for diversity management interventions is important for overcoming the trust deficit that the leadership may suffer when approving diversity interventions. Such business case argument ...
... management interventions may be stillborn. Once a general understanding of diversity is garnered through dialogue with stakeholders, diversity definitions, statements, and policies could be shaped. In this phase, it is important to note that these policies serve as bylaws, and organisations become responsible and accountable by issuing statements.Hoque and Noon (2004) caution about diversity statements becoming empty shells if the organisation does not effectively monitor and ensure compliance.Developing a business case for diversity management interventions is important for overcoming the trust deficit that the leadership may suffer when approving diversity interventions. Such business case argument ...
... management interventions may be stillborn. Once a general understanding of diversity is garnered through dialogue with stakeholders, diversity definitions, statements, and policies could be shaped. In this phase, it is important to note that these policies serve as bylaws, and organisations become responsible and accountable by issuing statements.Hoque and Noon (2004) caution about diversity statements becoming empty shells if the organisation does not effectively monitor and ensure compliance.Developing a business case for diversity management interventions is important for overcoming the trust deficit that the leadership may suffer when approving diversity interventions. Such business case argument ...
... Importantly, the '"designing-out" of otherwise motivated and qualified disabled people from meaningful work and participation in society' (Harpur & Blanck, 2020, p. 517) does not only occur through bricks and mortar, but increasingly through technology (Knights & Latham, 2020). Such studies conclude that the policies created for breaking down barriers in the social environment oftentimes are too reactive (Woodhams & Corby, 2007) and constitute little more than an 'empty shell' (Hoque et al., 2014;Hoque & Noon, 2004) while possibilities for reasonable accommodations are underutilised out of fear of bullying (Foster, 2007;Robert & Harlan, 2006) or lack of employers' willingness to adapt work practices (Harlan & Robert, 1998). ...
This chapter discusses the different disability models that underlie contemporary research efforts in the field of management and organisation studies (MOS). It draws attention to the different emphases that result from this paradigmatic diversity in terms of knowledge building and praxis in human resource management. By classifying recent empirical research papers related to disability in various contexts of employment, we compare three broad categories, labelled as the ‘medical model’, ‘social models’ and ‘extended social interpretations’ of disability, highlighting their notable differences and similarities. We outline a number of enduring points of discussion identified within our domain and conclude on the strengths of different models. We end the chapter with a call for future researchers to collaborate, not only with human resources (HR) practitioners and disabled people themselves, forming meaningful alliances, but also with one another to transcend the emphases and limitations inherent to different sub-disciplines and create knowledge that has the potential to support disabled people’s participation in work and employment.
... Notably, some researchers question the logical integrity of the business case as well as how the notion of diversity is utilized (Metcalfe & Woodhams, 2012;Noon, 2007). Others dispute the extent to which diversity policies are implemented when they exist (Hoque & Noon, 2004) and the degree to which the change from equal opportunities to diversity management is accompanied by a shift in practice (Tatlı, 2010). More compelling evidence from a range of settings influenced by a wide variety of conditions, as well as a more comprehensive interpretation of techniques relevant to D&I management, are required to better understand the causes, consequences, and approaches to D&I management. ...
... The question of why GEDIs are failing (Benschop et al., 2015;Dobbin et al., 2015;Holck, 2016) has been raised, with suggestions that effectiveness may be dependent on organizational leaders' design of GEDIs (Pitts et al., 2010;Strachan and French, 2015;Verbeek and Groeneveld, 2012), their translation into substantive policy and strategy (Hoque and Noon, 2004) and their implementation (Pitts, 2005;Pitts et al., 2010). O'Leary and Sandberg (2017) posit that understanding how GEDIs are designed and implemented may assist in developing more effective policy and strategy and creating substantive equality and inclusion outcomes. ...
Organisations across the private, public, and not-for-profit sectors require active Diversity, Equality and Inclusion (DEI) policies and programs, and are increasingly subject to
meeting legislative standards around the DEI principles of equal opportunity, anti-discrimination, and human rights. Bringing together more than 20 insightful contributions
from a diverse range of researchers, this dynamic Field Guide examines diversity management's theories, practices, and policies.
... Despite the cynicism that pervades both academic and popular understandings of diversity initiatives, their pursuit remains a critical focus of study and an important aspect of organizational life. With few exceptions (e.g., Ely and Thomas, 2001), most research on diversity initiatives has focused on its implementation in large, white-collar organizations that have legal or institutional mandates to deliver results (Hoque and Noon, 2004;Dobbin et al., 2015;Dobbin and Kalev, 2016). Such research findings may not be applicable to creative industries, which vary in several ways. ...
This article examines how creative industry workers engage with diversity, absent a formal organizational mandate to do so. Through in-depth interviews with independent music industry personnel (N = 50), the article identifies how marquee quotas—racially diverse representation on rosters and festival bills—are used to pursue and implement diversity. Such quotas are justified via four distinct valuations of diversity: aesthetic, economic, reputational and moral. Both people of colour and white participants justify the importance of diversity on moralistic grounds. By contrast, white participants more often justify the value of diversity by making claims about the aesthetic, economic and reputational benefits of marquee quotas. The deployment of these more self-serving valuations has consequences for the extent to which people of colour can feel authentically included. The analysis contributes to critiques of the socio-economic role and consequences of diversity valuations, within the context of a creative industry.
... Moreover, longitudinal evidence indicates that having disability-related hiring policies is associated with actual hiring of disabled workers (Araten-Bergman, 2016; see also Beatty et al., 2019). In addition, research suggests that equal opportunities policies may be less likely to be "empty shells" in larger workplaces, public sector workplaces and workplaces with HR professionals (Hoque and Noon, 2004). ...
Recent field experiments have documented that discrimination constitutes a barrier to employment for people with disabilities. Less is known about how disability discrimination varies across contexts in the labor market. This study explores whether hiring discrimination based on a history of mental health problems and against wheelchair users varies with company size using data from two field experiments. The study provides mixed evidence suggesting that the negative effect of disclosing a history of mental health problems on employers' hiring decisions does not vary with company size, whereas discrimination against wheelchair users occurs less often in large companies.
... Furthermore, the UK's implementation of equal opportunities policies in the workplace is not promising. Research has found that many employers only pay verbal support to equal opportunity policies without engaging in the in-depth implementation of related policies [12]. ...
... Avery and McKay (2006) review evidence showing that employers who signal diversity and tolerance in their recruitment materials attract higher levels of applications from women and ethnic minorities. Such 'organizational impressions' need not necessarily be accurate to affect job seekers' behaviour; indeed, it is well established that organizational policy on equality, diversity and inclusion does not always translate into practice (Hoque & Noon, 2004). ...
Using linked employer–employee data for Britain, we examine ethnic wage differentials among full‐time employees. We find substantial ethnic segregation across workplaces. However, this inter‐workplace segregation does not contribute to the aggregate wage penalty in Britain. Instead, most of the ethnic wage gap exists within the workplace, between observationally‐equivalent co‐workers. Lower pay satisfaction and higher levels of skill mismatch among ethnic minority workers are consistent with discrimination in wage‐setting on the part of employers. The presence of recognized trade unions and the use of job evaluation schemes within the workplace are associated with a smaller ethnic wage gap. These findings indicate that more attention should be placed on ensuring fairness in wage determination.
... Many studies confirming the relationships between diversity management and organizational outcomes were based on a variable that included implemented diversity management tools and their relationship to innovation, creativity, and intellectual capital enhancement for organizations (Mitchell et al. 2017). However, a much stronger relationship has been demonstrated when diversity is built into belief, belief in its contribution, and the subconscious orientation of managers to its use compared to realistically implemented tools, which can often be formal, symbolic, and unsuccessful (Hoque and Noon 2004). Groeneveld and Verbeek (2012) highlight this fact in their research, namely that human resource management in public sector organizations is generally more standardized and formal than in private sector organizations, because of which a more formal adoption of diversity policies can be expected. ...
The presented monograph deals with the issue of diversity management
and organizational culture in facilities providing health care in Slovakia.
Management theory is constantly evolving depending on changes in the
environment – political, economic, social, or technological. As a result
of globalization of markets, the aging of the population or a change in
the perception of the role of men and women, the Slovak Republic has
not avoided significant changes in the composition of its population
and social climate. The diversity of the population in Slovakia is more
pronounced than before and is increasingly the focus of legislators,
organizations, and the general public. The concept of management
diversity comes to the Slovak Republic from abroad, especially from the
western and northern states, where the managed treatment of diversity
has already been relatively well established and developed in various
directions in the past.
The main goal is to comprehensively clarify the concept
of diversity management as part of organizational culture, describe the
role not only of the personnel department, but also the role of managers
and top management in diversity management using resources from
professional literature.
In the empirical part, the main goal is to describe, analyze and
evaluate in more detail the current state of diversity and its management
in selected health facilities.
Subsequently, in order to meet the main goal, partial goals of the
work and hypotheses will be set, which we will verify in the work.
... The question of why GEDIs are failing (Benschop et al., 2015;Dobbin et al., 2015;Holck, 2016) has been raised, with suggestions that effectiveness may be dependent on organizational leaders' design of GEDIs (Pitts et al., 2010;Strachan and French, 2015;Verbeek and Groeneveld, 2012), their translation into substantive policy and strategy (Hoque and Noon, 2004) and their implementation (Pitts, 2005;Pitts et al., 2010). O'Leary and Sandberg (2017) posit that understanding how GEDIs are designed and implemented may assist in developing more effective policy and strategy and creating substantive equality and inclusion outcomes. ...
... Avery and McKay (2006) review evidence showing that employers who signal diversity and tolerance in their recruitment materials attract higher levels of applications from women and ethnic minorities. Such 'organizational impressions' need not necessarily be accurate to affect job seekers' behaviour; indeed, it is well established that organizational policy on equality, diversity and inclusion does not always translate into practice (Hoque & Noon, 2004). ...
Using linked employer-employee data for Britain, we examine ethnic wage differentials among full-time employees. We find substantial ethnic segregation across workplaces. However, this inter-workplace segregation does not contribute to the aggregate wage penalty in Britain. Instead, most of the ethnic wage gap exists within the workplace, between observationally equivalent co-workers. Lower pay satisfaction and higher levels of skill mismatch among ethnic minority workers are consistent with discrimination in wage-setting on the part of employers. The presence of recognised trade unions and the use of job evaluation schemes within the workplace are associated with a smaller ethnic wage gap. These findings indicate that more attention should be placed on ensuring fairness in wage determination.
... For those that had received some support, it had been both difficult to find or inconsistently implemented. This finding is consistent with research that suggests that even when workplaces adopt formal disability policies, these are often not followed by changes in practice (Hoque & Noon, 2004). ...
This research sought for the first time to identify the extent to which autistic people, and those with high levels of autistic traits, are pursuing careers in the performing arts, and to examine the experiences and support needs of this population. In Chapter 2, I determined that there are significant relationships between autistic traits, occupational self-efficacy, quality of life, mental health, and need for support in performing arts professionals, as well as qualitatively analysed professionals’ experiences of accessing support in the industry. I showed that there a significant minority of autistic professionals in the performing arts who may have unmet support needs. In Chapter 3, I found similar significant relationships between autistic traits, educational self-efficacy, quality of life, mental health, and need for support in the performing arts student population. Additionally, I compared their experiences to students studying other subjects and found very few differences, suggesting that performing arts education is not a uniquely challenging environment compared to other higher education courses. In Chapter 4, I analysed, in-depth, the support needs and views of autistic performing arts professionals on working in the industry, and the attitudes and levels of autism knowledge of performing arts employers. Some autistic professionals had access to support, but the majority felt that there was not enough available and highlighted many ways in which they could be better supported. Performing arts employers varied in their experiences of working with autistic people, many had limited knowledge about autism-specific support or relied on other professionals to provide it. In Chapter 5, I tested the feasibility and acceptability of professional mentoring as a form of employment-based support for autistic performing arts professionals. I found it to be an acceptable and workable method of support, with many participants reporting increased occupational self-confidence. Finally, in Chapter 6, I summarise the main findings from the empirical studies presented in this thesis. I discuss the contributions the studies have made towards our understanding of the experiences and support needs of autistic performing arts professionals. I describe the limitations of my research, and I outline the implications and possible future directions for this research.
The Equality Act 2010 places a duty on employers to provide reasonable adjustments for disabled employees to remove the disadvantage faced by a disabled person. Examples of adjustments include modifying premises, altering equipment, or changing work patterns or absence procedures. The reasonable adjustment duty was revolutionary when introduced, but its implementation is problematic as evidenced by the high numbers of Employment Tribunal cases where a failure to make a reasonable adjustment is claimed. This chapter, therefore, outlines the legal position, HR literature and case law, and delves into the features of reasonable adjustment claims to find out how they fare inside the Employment Tribunal and what factors affect their success. We find that they are the most common form of disability discrimination claimed at the Employment Tribunal and are often claimed in combination with unfair dismissal. There was no statistically significant difference in the number of men and women bringing claims for a failure to make a reasonable adjustment, but reasonable adjustment claims were more common in the public sector than the private sector. In line with the findings in other chapters, legal representation increased the likelihood of success at a full hearing for reasonable adjustment claims.
Purpose
A key meta-narrative of Employment Relations in the UK over recent decades has been that of labour market deregulation. However, governments have simultaneously introduced workplace rights legislation that juridified individual employment relationships. Within this process, employers and their representatives, Employers’ Organizations (EOs), are generally depicted as opposing the introduction of employment law or attempting to weaken its application. Contrary to this belief, our research identified a range of other responses to ask: how and why have EO responses varied?
Design/methodology/approach
This article draws on primary qualitative and quantitative data from three projects; one examined the totality of EOs in the UK while the others examined topic-specific behaviour of EOs and other actors. The main source is the first project and its 98 interviews with representatives of EOs and related organisations between 2013 and 2017.
Findings
We demonstrate that opposition is not the only EO response to individual employment law by identifying three others: compliance, advocating for law and going beyond legally stipulated requirements by promoting voluntary standards/best practice. The article argues that there are two explanations for this pattern. One is that individual EOs possess different sets of member interests, the other relates to differences in their organizational characteristics.
Originality/value
The article makes two contributions to the literature. One is that our identification of varying responses challenges more unitary accounts emphasising neoliberal and deregulatory patterns. The other lies in our identification of causal forces not previously identified. Both combine to illustrate how the neo-liberal order is not characterised by employer consensus as to regulation.
Despite various efforts and some notable gains, women's representation in wage employment remains low, forming less than 30% of wage employment in Kenya. The main objective of this study was to identify the levels and the social-cultural factors that influence gender disparities at the selected organizations in the manufacturing, the service sector and the related trade unions in Kenya. The disparities were examined at three levels, namely: the operational, the management and the trade union. Although several socio-cultural factors influencing gender disparities at work have been enumerated, the study investigated their relative importance to the industrial occupations in the selected organizations and the respective trade unions in Kenya. The study was guided by the structuralism theory and the concepts of division of labor. The fundamental conceptual proposition was that social structure influences socialization, which may lead to gender disparities and the related division of labour. The study used the descriptive survey research design to obtain data from the manufacturing and service sector industries and the related trade unions. Primary data were obtained from 208 respondents drawn from operational, management and trade union levels using interviews and questionnaires, while organizations' records were used for secondary data. The data were then coded and converted to numerical codes, which represent the attributes of the various variables of the proposed study. Data were summarized using percentages, ratios, frequencies and the measures of central tendency. The findings revealed that despite the many strategies employed, gender disparities continue to persist in formal employment in Kenya. The margins of disparities were seen to increase up the organizational hierarchy. Some of the specific possible causes of disparities included family responsibilities, social stereotypes and spouse income. The key recommendations made included the introduction of flexi-time working arrangements and care centres at the workplace.
This article contributes to debates on equality, diversity and inclusion by exploring the efficacy of employers’ equality certifications, focusing on the UK government's Two Ticks and Disability Confident certifications. In Study 1, using data on Two Ticks certification matched into the nationally representative Workplace Employment Relations Study 2011, we found the adoption of disability equality policies and practices, the prevalence of disabled people in the workforce and disabled people's experience of work were no better in Two Ticks than in non‐Two Ticks workplaces. In Study 2, using Department for Work and Pensions data on Disability Confident certification matched into WorkL 2021–2023 data (the world's largest employee experience database), we found that the proportion of the workforce that is disabled is no higher in Disability Confident Level 1 ‘Committed’ organisations and Level 3 ‘Leader’ organisations than in non‐Disability Confident organisations. While the proportion of the workforce that is disabled is higher in Disability Confident Level 2 ‘Employer’ organisations than in non‐Disability Confident organisations, just 22 per cent of Disability Confident organisations are at this level. Disabled people's experience of work was no better in Disability Confident than in non‐Disability Confident organisations. Our findings therefore question the efficacy of these employers’ equality certifications.
We introduce the notion of rainbow burning and develop the concept of rainbow washing, which draws on the concept of genderwashing, to explicate the instrumentalization of LGBT+ inclusion. s. Rainbow burning happens when LGBT+ rights and visibility are targeted through hate to divert attention from economic, social, and political decline. For example, LGBT+ rights are unjustly blamed for the decline of the social and economic fabric. Rainbow washing happens when an organization uses or instrumentalizes LGBT+ concerns for commercial and social ends. We draw on examples from unsupportive and supportive capitalist market systems and explore how rainbow burning and washing manifest in each. The paper explores the antecedents, correlates and consequences of rainbow burning and washing in unsupportive and supportive contexts. We identify regulatory, cultural and governance measures that can be taken against rainbow burning and rainbow washing to foster LGBT+ inclusion.
This paper contributes to understandings of how Athena SWAN (AS) is shaping contemporary equality work in the context of the neoliberal university, and whether it is contributing to performative ways of doing equality work. We center our research on the exploration of the question of how the gender‐agenda is being captured by the neoliberal agenda, drawing on 35 in‐depth qualitative interviews with AS champions across the UK and Republic of Ireland. The core aim of the study is to explore how AS has been co‐opted and mobilized as a vehicle for contemporary (neoliberal) equality work. We argue that rather than contributing to transformational change, AS serves as an effective tool for institutional reputation gains and (extended) virtue signaling, conceptualized and coined here as “institutional peacocking.” This in turn, functions and is implemented in diverse institutional settings, with primarily institutional benefit, at the cost of AS champions who carry out gender equality work. We contribute empirically and conceptually to theorizations and current understandings of gender equality work in higher education, especially through AS champions' experience and the institutional benefits that present opportunity costs for some individuals, potentially serving to further entrench stereotyped perceptions of who should be doing equality work in universities, and critically, how institutions benefit.
i>Reflective Public Administration: Context, Knowledge and Methods is the contribution to the two-part series on an updated approach to the first edition, Reflective Public Administration: Views from the South . The editors, Wessels, Pauw and Thani, present this topic as a reflection on issues such as conduct of public officials, budgets, affirmative action, and the responsibilities of the executive authority from an ethical perspective. This title is applicable to practitioners, academics and philosophers interested in the ethical debate regarding public administration.
Disabled people face many forms of exclusion on the labour market. To what extent is work in the disability sector a manifestation of this exclusion or a solution to it? Defined here as working for a disability organisation or specialising in disability in one’s occupation, work in the disability sector represents an under-documented aspect of the employment experiences of disabled people. This article uses it as a point of departure to theoretically and methodologically operationalise Carol Thomas’s social relational approach of disability to the study of employment. Drawing on biographical interviews conducted in France with people with either mobility or visual impairments, this study shows the ambivalent nature of work in the disability sector, which is diversely experienced as a form of occupational segregation or a means of self-fulfilment.
Many more autistic women than men do not receive diagnosis in childhood. In addition, they are often socialised from an early age to conceal or ‘camouflage’ their differences in order to fit in. Gendered prejudices often dictate workplace roles which serve to further disadvantage women. Employers are often unaware of how to ensure their workplaces are accommodating for autistic women, and it may seem inconvenient or unnecessary to make adjustments. This article seeks to highlight some issues related to promoting the meaningful recruitment and inclusion of autistic women in the workplace. It draws on qualitative research data to highlight the intersectional dimensions of being an autistic woman at work. The emerging themes are discussed with a view to improving knowledge about how to improve workplace environments and practices thereby support autistic women to succeed.
• Points of interest
• Autistic women ‘camouflage’ or ‘mask’ aspects of their autism in order to conceal or compensate for their differences.
• This may mean they appear to cope and consequently, their needs for support or adjustments at work are overlooked.
• The research methods use the narratives of autistic women to illuminate the difficulties and advantages of being both autistic and a woman in the workplace.
• This research suggests that sexist expectations of women to interact as non-autistic person would at work, particularly in relation to emotions, impacts upon their opportunities to progress in their chosen careers.
• The research discusses barriers and support at work. It contributes to improving awareness of the diverse and complex challenges faced by autistic women.
Project-based organizations (PBOs) in engineering-construction are persistently among the most male-dominated world-wide and as such are potentially missing out on numerous performance gains derived from diversity. Organizations are seeking to develop human resource (HR) initiatives designed to change equality and diversity outcomes. Their effectiveness is increasingly noted as dependent on selection and implementation. The dominant paradigm for the design of HR initiatives is organizational justice theory. However there are limitations in its use. The various models of justice are complex; lack recognition of substantive barriers arising from structural inequalities; and the broadened HR agenda may be inadequate to address it. Inattention theory offers a further explanation for leaders’ selection and implementation of HR initiatives. The aim of this study is to explore the decision perspectives of leaders related to the selection and implementation of formal HR initiatives designed to address equality and diversity. Our research explores their impact on equality and diversity in five (5) PBOs in engineering-construction. Data were gathered from organizational and government documents; and interviews with senior leaders. The findings indicate that despite significant progress in the offering of various formal HR initiatives, leaders select employment equality and diversity initiatives based on their personal views of justice and individual bias. PBOs may be well positioned to improve and maximize equality and diversity benefits but HR initiatives need improvement and leader decisions underpinned by better understandings of structural and cultural inequalities, justice and bias.
Despite the introduction of anti-discrimination legislation and significant changes in the nature of gender relations throughout the 20th century, men and women continue to be segregated into different kinds of jobs within the UK labour market. This book provides a theoretical and empirical analysis of the ways in which sex discrimination can be reproduced within the recruitment process. It also examines the rationalization provided by those who perpetrate these unlawful practices and some of the forms of resistance which can be mobilized in order to challenge and even eliminate sex discrimination. "Managing to Discriminate" is a theoretical development of a research project sponsored by the Equal Opportunities Commission designed to examine whether, and if so, how, the recruitment process can contribute to the continuation of gender divisions and inequalities in employment. The EOC was acutely aware of the absence of evidence concerning the specific methods and procedures or organizational recruitment and of the particular ways in which sex discrimination could characterize this process. The recruitment process is especially vague, nebulous, and indeterminate and can be shrouded in secrecy. Equally, since sex discrimination is illegal, its observation can be very difficult. By examining particular recruitment exercises as they actually happened, and at every stage of their process, this book presents rich, detailed qualitative material that makes it a landmark in the
research of the recruitment process and sex discrimination in employment.
(21) Managing to Discriminate. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318430718_Managing_to_Discriminate [accessed Feb 17 2018].
This paper considers the significance of self-organization for black and minority workers in trade unions. It embodies a review of the theoretical and empirical evidence in support of black self-organization within unions; that is, a strategy of relative autonomy rather than separatism or submersion within a race-blind union. The theoretical support is derived from arguments concerning identity, participation and power. Much of the empirical material is based upon interviews with black and white lay members and shop stewards from three branches (‘Helthten’, ‘Shaften’ and ‘Mounten’) of the National and Local Government Officers union (NALGO) and with NALGO national officials between 1989 and 1990.
Over the past twenty years there has been considerable debate within both the academic and the business community about the purpose and effectiveness of equal opportunities policies. Jewson and Mason (1994) summarise this debate, beginning with the view in the 1970s that equal opportunities was an issue of social justice and should be pursued for its own sake. In the 1980s the debate moved on as the ‘business case’ for equal opportunities was promoted, in response to the individualistic values and right-wing economic philosophies of the decade; since then newer approaches such as ‘managing diversity’ have gained prominence, and many organisations promote a commitment to equal opportunities as part of their business objectives. Why this should be so is addressed by Jewson and Mason (ibid.), and also considered by Dickens (1994). Academic and policy debate as to the effectiveness of such policies continues.
This article examines the equal opportunities policies of a local authority which were intended to improve the representation of black women managers. It reports the types of initiatives and proportions of black women employed in different grades over time; and discusses the organisational context, contrasting the views of personnel and line managers, and EO specialists, with those of black women who had achieved senior positions. These latter accounts illustrated how inequalities were sustained despite, and at times in articulation with, an EO policy which was relatively successful in formal terms. Findings are discussed with reference to two criticisms made of EO policies: inadequate implementation, and a failure to redress the effects of social inequalities or challenge white, male work norms. The article suggests that increasing formal controls or the range of initiatives is insufficient: better ways of understanding and challenging the role of organisational structures, cultures and politics in sustaining inequality is needed.
This article examines the equal opportunities policies of a local authority which were intended to improve the representation of black women managers. It reports the types of initiatives and proportions of black women employed in different grades over time; and discusses the organisational context, contrasting the views of personnel and line managers, and EO specialists, with those of black women who had achieved senior positions. These latter accounts illustrated how inequalities were sustained despite, and at times in articulation with, an EO policy which was relatively successful in formal terms. Findings are discussed with reference to two criticisms made of EO policies: inadequate implementation, and a failure to redress the effects of social inequalities or challenge white, male work norms. The article suggests that increasing formal controls or the range of initiatives is insufficient: better ways of understanding and challenging the role of organisational structures, cultures and politics in sustaining inequality is needed.
The article examines whether ethnic minority employees report poorer treatment at work than white employees, and evaluates the impact of three key features - gender differences, formal equal opportunities policies and trade union recognition. The analysis reveals that ethnic minority men and women receive poorer treatment than their white counterparts. In addition, there is evidence to suggest that ethnic minority women receive poorer treatment than ethnic minority men. Equal opportunities policies are effective in ensuring equal treatment, but the presence of a recognised trade union is not. White men and women in unionised workplaces enjoy better treatment than their white counterparts in non-union workplaces, but the same is not true for ethnic minorities. By contrast, there is very little evidence of unequal treatment in non-union workplaces.
Here the author considers the reasons for the current disillusionment of many concerned with ‘equal opportunities’ policies in employment and reviews the potential of an EO orientation for progressive change within organisations and draws on her current research on responses to EO, citing a company in the retail sector.
John Storey and Nick Bacon discuss trade union reactions to HRM initiatives with John Edmonds and Phil Wyatt.
John Storey and Nick Bacon are respectively Senior Lecturer in Human Resource Management and Research Fellow at Loughborough University Business School. John Edmonds is General Secretary and Phil Wyatt Research Director of the General, Municipal and Boilermakers’ Union.
Women make up the majority of local government employees in Great Britain but are not, however, evenly represented throughout the employment structure. Rather, women are overwhelmingly concentrated in low paid, low status and often part-time jobs, and are under-represented as decision makers, either as managers or elected council members. The situation of black and ethnic minority women is one of even greater marginalization. From 1982–7 over 200 local authorities adopted equal opportunity (EO) policies, both for employment practice and service delivery, the aims of which included redressing this inequitable situation for women. The achievements of these EO policies have proved to be very limited. Most have been introduced with few resources and little managerial or political support and without mechanisms for implementation or management accountability. EO reforms have been contained within the existing relationships and structures of local authorities when by definition, successful EO policies will upset the status quo. Nevertheless important lessons have been learned from this first pioneering phase of EO policy development.
This article examines the seeming contradiction between the publicly stated objective of successive governments to promote greater equality of opportunity for racial minorities and the limited impact of successive policies and programmes on processes of racial discrimination and exclusion in British society. The article begins by outlining the different conceptual approaches used to analyse the development of public policies on racial inequality. It then analyses the main aspects of national policy change in this area over the past two decades, and more recent initiatives which have sought to use local government as a vehicle for promoting racial equality. This analysis offers a critical review of the achievements and limitations of both past and present policies. The concluding section takes up the question of the prospects of change in the future.
This paper attempts to provide a broad overview of the recent history of equal opportunities, particularly of work-place policies and programmes directed towards ethnic minorities. It identifies three main stages in the recent history of equal opportunities at the work-place and seeks to connect these with an analysis of the economic arrangements and dominant political philosophies characteristic of each phase. The paper concludes by noting that there is currently a widespread view that equal opportunities policies represents a happy coincidence of principle and expediency for firms in the 1990s. It suggests that whilst a number of trends with the potential to realise this promise can be discerned, other outcomes are possible. Writing in mid-1992, it remains to be seen whether the new rhetoric of citizenship and business efficiency can secure both the continuing commitment of those with the power to make changes and the enduring support of the disadvantaged.
This article explores the implications of deregulation for gender equality. Comparative, outcomes-based analyses suggest that deregulated systems are characterized by inequality. A critical case study of British Gas is used here to evaluate the prospects for equality bargaining, that is the use of voluntary, joint regulation to further equality, in the wake of radical deregulation. Responsibility for equality in the workplace is found to have been privatized. The state as regulator has stood back and managers have reclaimed equality policy within managerial prerogative. Action on inequality has become conditional upon the existence of a business case, an approach that is insufficient for the task. Some re-regulation is required to help bargainers exploit fully the potential of joint regulation for equality.
Several problematic aspects of women's paid employment - e.g. low pay and lack of promotional opportunities - are exacerbated by the segregation of women and men into different occupations. In this article, the potential of in-store equal opportunities policies to break down such gender segregation will be explored, through consideration of the existence and implementation of these policies in twenty-two multinational retail companies in Dublin and Paris. It will be argued that, with one notable exception, the instore equal opportunities policies are effectively neutralized, and furthermore are neutralized in nationally specific ways which can be related to differences between France and Ireland in the organization of labour-market regulation and in women's labour-force participation (LFP). The case-study findings also suggest that the 'country' variable has a stronger effect on the existence and implementation of these policies than the extent of a shop's links to an overseas headquarters. The findings of this study have implications for both the equity of women's incorporation into the paid labour force and understanding of aspects of HRM in branches of multinational companies.
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Hoque is a senior lecturer in Human Resource Management at Nottingham University Business School. His current research interests include gender and race disadvantage, training, HRM in small and medium-sized enterprises and the nature and development of the personnel/HR function
- Kim Kim Hoque
Kim Hoque
Kim Hoque is a senior lecturer in Human Resource Management at Nottingham
University Business School. His current research interests include gender and race disadvantage, training, HRM in small and medium-sized enterprises and the nature and
development of the personnel/HR function.
Address: Nottingham University Business School, Jubilee Campus, Wollaton Road,
Nottingham, NG8 1BB, UK.
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His current research interests include: the effects of work transformation on employees, equality and discrimination, and contemporary developments in HRM
Mike Noon
Mike Noon is Professor of Human Resource Management and Head of the
Department of HRM at Leicester Business School, De Montfort University. He has previously researched and taught at Imperial College, Cardiff University and Lancaster
University. His current research interests include: the effects of work transformation on
employees, equality and discrimination, and contemporary developments in HRM.
Address: Leicester Business School, De Montfort University,The Gateway,
Leicester, LE1 9BH, UK.
E-mail: mnoon@dmu.ac.uk
Date submitted March 2002