No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
How Do Relationship Maintenance Behaviors Affect Individual Well-Being?
Abstract
How do relationship maintenance behaviors affect individual well-being? Given that people who invest time and effort toward achieving important goals see their outcomes as more reflective of their skills and abilities than do people who invest less time and effort, engaging in relationship maintenance behaviors may lead people to experience increased individual well-being when those behaviors appear to be successful but decreased well-being when they appear to be unsuccessful. A diary study of romantic relationships, a diary study of friendships, and a longitudinal study of newlyweds provided support for this prediction. In all three studies, relationship maintenance behaviors were negatively associated with depressive mood when followed by relatively high relationship quality, but positively associated with depressive mood when followed by relatively low relationship quality. Accordingly, relationship maintenance processes are not inherently beneficial or harmful; their intrapersonal implications depend on the context in which they occur.
... The three dimensions of marital relations: intimacy, self-realization, and similarity reflect positive attitudes expressed by spouses towards each other, while the dimension of disappointment characterizes a negative approach conveyed by spouses (Plopa, 2008). Overall, these data are consistent with previous assertions in the literature that when spouses understand their partner's thoughts and feelings, and relate to each other in an affirming and constructive way, they tend to experience higher levels of well-being (Carr & Springer, 2010;Musick & Bumpass, 2012;Baker et al., 2013). ...
... These results supported the third hypothesis which assumed that the total psychological well-being depended on the relative contribution of both marital relations and communication styles. They also confirm previous theoretical considerations emphasising the importance of having positive and satisfactory marital relations, and employing constructive communication strategies in order to enhance psychological well-being (Noller & Feeney, 2002;Baker et al., 2013;Carr et al., 2014). Expressing loving and caring attitudes in combination with mature and supportive communication styles among spouses appears beneficial to existential happiness which reflects personal development and self-realization. ...
... Our analysis is also the first we know of to explore the relative contribution of marital relations and communication styles to psychological well-being conducted independently both for wives and husbands. Being based on hierarchical regression analyses, it offers several new insights into the complex associations between marital relations, communication styles, and psychological well-being (Williams, 2003;Baker et al., 2013). For wives, only disappointment predicted lower levels of psychological well-being and one's engagement predicted higher levels of psychological well-being. ...
Social sciences have shown recurrent interest in the associations between marriage and its psychological outcomes. Marriage may provide numerous psychological benefits by offering meaning and purpose, facilitating interactions between spouses, sharing financial resources, and generating emotional and social support. Although previous research has demonstrated clear links between marital quality and well-being (Musick & Bumpass, 2012; Carr, Freedman, Cornman, & Schwarz, 2014), the role of specific marital relations and communication styles in psychological well-being remains not fully discovered. The quality of marital interactions and the ways in which partners communicate with each other appear to be linked to their well-being. The aim of this chapter is to examine the predictive role of marital relations and communication styles in psychological well-being within a model proposed by Ryff (1989, 2014). One hundred and five couples (105 women and 105 men) participated in this study. Their ages ranged from 23 to 62 years (M = 41.83; SD = 11.16). The group was a representative sample of Polish couples in terms of social status and age. They completed three measures: The Matched Marriage Questionnaire, The Marital Communication Questionnaire, and The Psychological Well-being Scale. Findings showed that couples tended to experience numerous psychological benefits through marital interactions and communication skills. Yet, their overall psychological well-being depend on the quality of marital relations and communication styles. The marital relations which were based on intimacy, self-realization, and similarity were positively associated with psychological well-being dimensions, while the marital relations characterized by disappointment were negatively linked to psychological well-being. The relative contribution of marital relations and communication styles to psychological wellbeing was different for wives and husbands. The results lead to the conclusion that a better understanding of marital relations and communication styles is likely to improve partners’ well-being.
... Taken together, these studies suggest that having insight into stress and negative affect helps individuals regulate during times of stress and may be viewed as one example of relational maintenance behaviors (Baker et al., 2013). ...
... Although responsiveness may look like providing visible support (Maisel & Gable, 2009), it may also come in the form of understanding examinees' stress and working to prevent conflict, highlighting the activation of avoidance-oriented goals (Gable, 2008). Although avoidance-oriented goals and suppressing negative affect have been shown to be deleterious for relational well-being (Impett et al., 2010(Impett et al., , 2012Peters & Jamieson, 2016;Rodrigues et al., 2019), it may be the case that when used selectively, these strategies act as relational maintenance behaviors (Baker et al., 2013), ultimately benefiting individuals and relationships. The current study provides one contextual example of how these behaviors may have helped examinees reach their goals and maintain a sense of safety and security (Simpson & Rholes, 2017) during an already stressful time period. ...
A wealth of research suggests that as stress increases, so does conflict in close relationships. But is this always the case? Specifically, how does the trajectory of conflict unfold in the period before and after an acute and anticipated major life stressor? We capitalize on a 44‐day dyadic diary where one partner was preparing for the New York State Bar Exam ( N = 312 couples) to explore the trajectory of conflict leading up to the exam, as well as how these patterns differed once exams finished. Results revealed that examinees and partners reported statistically meaningful decreases in conflict as exams approached, which contrasts prior research. This was followed by a spike in the likelihood of conflict immediately after exams were finished, and a quick return to low likelihoods of conflict one week after exams. This work highlights how couples, even in the face of stress, regulate their emotions and engage in relationship maintenance processes. However, relationship frustrations tend to be expressed—resulting in conflict—once the stressor is over. Not only does this work inform theories about relational conflict during times of stress, but it also highlights the need to study the dynamics of stress before, during, and after meaningful life events.
... Implementing positive behaviors in damaging relationships can negatively impact well-being (L. R. Baker, McNulty, Overall, Lambert, & Fincham, 2012). Therefore continuing research is necessary to further understand under which circumstances and in which contexts these positive relationship behaviors contribute to relationship growth and well-being (L. ...
... Therefore continuing research is necessary to further understand under which circumstances and in which contexts these positive relationship behaviors contribute to relationship growth and well-being (L. R. Baker et al., 2012). It is also suggested that when teaching positive relationship skills and interventions that this needs to be done in a nuanced way, considerate of context and history. ...
The capacity to cultivate flourishing relationships has important implications for health and well-being (Reis & Gable, 2003). There is increasingly a focus in positive psychology, and related fields, on identifying the positive processes and skills that can be employed to foster warm, momentary connections with others, as well as long-lasting, life-enhancing social bonds. At the basis of many of these skills is a requirement to cultivate an interest and concern for others; an orientation towards supporting and promoting other people’s well-being. This orientation towards others has the potential to positively impact well-being beyond the participants in the interaction. The benefits of positive social connections have been found to ripple out to other people in the network (Fowler & Christakis, 2009). Therefore the potential positive impacts of developing and cultivating positive relationships are substantial and wide-reaching.
... For the last point, an inductive approach was used to customize the intervention. Expectations and desires for relationship maintenance often vary by gender, culture, and the specific couple (Baker, McNulty, Overall, Lambert, & Fincham, 2013;Canary et al., 1993;Yum & Canary, 2009). As a result, we allowed couples to decide what actions and behaviors they wanted to receive more of from their partners. ...
... The time period was chosen because daily behaviors across the period would be intense enough to make the partners aware of the maintenance behaviors given and received but not so long that it increased attrition. We also modeled the length of our intervention after other relationship maintenance interventions that have shown that a daily intervention for 2 weeks is an appropriate length of time (e.g., Baker et al., 2013). CRP levels have the ability to change over the course of 2 weeks, much like blood pressure and total cholesterol (Law et al.,2013). ...
Having an adolescent with Type 1 diabetes (T1D) can be stressful for the entire family. This study examined the impact of parents' relationship maintenance on their ability to manage the conflict associated with their child's T1D, the parents' physiological health (inflammation), and the relationships within the family. Sixty couples and their adolescent children with T1D participated. The couples engaged in a stressful conversation about their child's T1D in their home, followed by random assignment to a 2-week intervention designed to increase the relationship maintenance in the marriage. Results from the home visit revealed that when husbands and wives received greater maintenance from each other the past month, they perceived less conflict when talking about their adolescent's T1D, which was associated with less relational load and lower levels of C-reactive protein (CRP). For wives, greater relationship maintenance was also directly associated with less relational load and lower CRP levels. In addition, the relationship maintenance received was directly and positively associated with parent-child relationship quality for fathers, but this association was mediated by interparental conflict for mothers. Finally, the 2-week intervention reduced parents' relational load and the number of stressful conversations and improved the mother-adolescent relationship but did not significantly reduce parents' CRP. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).
... Taken together, these findings on relationship and individual outcomes, paired with cognitive-behavioral couple research and theory, serve as the foundation of a model that highlights the impact of RMBs on couple and individual functioning. Baker, McNulty, Overall, Lambert, and Fincham (2012) explored a component of this model in examining whether relationship satisfaction was a mediator of the impact of RMBs on individual sadness (Baker et al., 2012). The hypothesis of the study was consistent with the notion that RMBs directly impact relationship functioning, which in turn impacts individual well-being; however, the investigators did not find that relationship satisfaction mediated this association. ...
... Taken together, these findings on relationship and individual outcomes, paired with cognitive-behavioral couple research and theory, serve as the foundation of a model that highlights the impact of RMBs on couple and individual functioning. Baker, McNulty, Overall, Lambert, and Fincham (2012) explored a component of this model in examining whether relationship satisfaction was a mediator of the impact of RMBs on individual sadness (Baker et al., 2012). The hypothesis of the study was consistent with the notion that RMBs directly impact relationship functioning, which in turn impacts individual well-being; however, the investigators did not find that relationship satisfaction mediated this association. ...
Romantic long-distance relationships (LDRs) are becoming increasingly prevalent as individuals seek educational and employment opportunities across the globe. LDRs create unique challenges for couples, potentially impacting couple and individual well-being. It is important to understand efforts that LDR partners make to stay engaged, known as relationship maintenance behaviors (RMBs), and whether common RMBs facilitate or hinder relational and individual functioning. This study has two goals: (a) to examine whether RMBs predict relationship satisfaction and (b) to investigate whether relationship satisfaction mediates the association between RMBs and individual functioning. Eighty-seven adults in LDRs participated in our online survey. Results indicated that RMBs predicted relationship satisfaction, some negatively, and that relationship satisfaction was a mediator between RMBs and individual well-being.
... Research also found that the fulfillment of daily maintenance expectations in friendships is a predictor of overall satisfaction (Hall et al. 2011). More importantly, past research showed that FM behaviors are negatively related to loneliness (Oswald and Clark 2003), and depressed mood only if the friends were satisfied with the friendship (Baker et al. 2013), while positively associated with happiness (Demir et al. 2011a). ...
... The empirical investigation of PRCA in friendships and FM behaviors yielded two major findings: they have implications for relationship well-being and are positively associated with happiness (e.g., Baker et al. 2013;Gable and Anderson 2016). Following the example given earlier, why would Alex's perception of positive responses from Simon about his sharing of success promote his relationship maintenance behaviors? ...
Friends share positive events with each other, and the perception of the responses as active and constructive (i.e., enthusiastic) is related to happiness. Two studies (N = 685) investigated friendship maintenance (FM) in same-sex best friendships as the mediator of the relationship between perceived responses to capitalization attempts (PRCA) and happiness. Results in both studies showed that PRCA was positively related to FM, and that FM explained why PRCA was associated with happiness, even when different measures of happiness were utilized. Although women reported higher levels of PRCA and FM compared to men, the associations of the friendship experiences with happiness were similar and the model was supported for both women and men. The results are discussed in terms of the importance of understanding the role of friendship experiences in the capitalization process. Also, directions for future research were provided.
... Indeed, being both the benefactor and beneficiary of sacrifice tends to increase liking during relationship initiation (Algoe et al., 2008). Similarly, other behaviors that are considered relationship maintenance strategies (see Baker et al., 2013), such as self-disclosure (see Collins & Miller, 1994), active listening and being responsive (Sprecher, 2023), and sharing tasks (Aron et al., 1997), tend to increase liking among strangers. Given that many of these relationship maintenance strategies also operate outside of established relationships, future research could address whether people are more likely to engage in these processes when they desire new relationships. ...
Quality friendships are highly beneficial, yet relatively little research has identified processes that facilitate the initiation of friendships. One process that motivates relationship maintenance—forming positive illusions about another person—may also occur when interacting with strangers and similarly motivate friendship initiation. We tested this idea in three studies. Study 1 was a dyadic observational study of strangers who had introductory conversations with one another. In Studies 2–3, participants evaluated strangers’ profiles on an online friendship service that was ostensibly being developed. Results indicated that people who were more motivated to form friendships were more likely to form positive illusions about strangers (Studies 2–3) and people were more likely to desire friendship from those strangers to the extent that they formed positive illusions about them (Studies 1–3). Together, these results suggest that people generate positive illusions about unfamiliar others and those illusions increase their desire to form friendships with them.
... For example, after discovering that his partner, Lucy, would rather watch a movie instead of the hockey game that he prefers, Ricky must decide whether to prioritize his own well-being by watching the game or Lucy's well-being by watching the movie. The decisions that result from these interdependence dilemmas have important implications [3]; although being willing to behave selflessly tends to improve relationship quality [4], such selfless acts can also harm individual well-being [5], especially when they fail to improve relationship quality [6]. ...
Perceiving that a partner is highly committed tends to benefit close relationships. However, there may be relational drawbacks to perceiving high commitment. In particular, given that high commitment may signal that a partner is unlikely to leave the relationship, perceiving that a partner is highly committed might lead people low in agreeableness to feel comfortable behaving more selfishly toward that partner. One correlational study consisting of a highly diverse sample of individuals (n = 307), one observational study of newlywed couples (n = 202), and one experiment with undergraduate couples (n = 252) examined whether the implications of perceived partner commitment for selfish behaviors depend on agreeableness. Results demonstrated that perceiving high commitment resulted in more selfish behavior among disagreeable participants (Studies 1–3), but less selfish behavior among agreeable participants (Studies 1 and 3). Together, these results suggest that signaling commitment to disagreeable partners may backfire in romantic relationships.
... In addition, fathers' increased turbulence may be related to their personality and life experience. Furthermore, Baker et al. (Baker et al., 2013) found that, among newlyweds, increased relational maintenance was associated with improved individual well-being when followed by improved relationship quality. ...
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a pervasive and often difficult health condition, especially during the stage in which children with ASD enter school, which can have ripple effects throughout family relationships. This study applied relational turbulence theory (which addresses communication in intimate relationships) and the actor–partner interdependence model, to examine how self-disclosure communication and relationship intimacy between parents of children with ASD affects dyadic coping during a major transitional period in their child’s life. Transition processing includes parental self-disclosure and parental intimacy, which can help parents navigate difficult life events by promoting connection, interaction, and confidence in the relationship. A total of 201 married couples parenting a child with ASD who was beginning school or who had started school in the past six months completed three questionnaires and provided demographic information. The study examined the effects of partners’ intimacy and disclosure levels on their own and their spouses’ experiences of relational uncertainty, changes in interdependence, and relational turbulence. The findings suggest that parental intimacy and self-disclosure in dyadic coping significantly affect some relationship qualities. In addition, individuals’ perceptions of their spouses’ dyadic coping abilities were a stronger predictor of relational turbulence than self-reported dyadic coping. This study’s results provide several implications for understanding how married partners can protect their marriage when dealing with their child’s health-related transitions.
... One fascinating development in this literature is the suggestion that even seemingly "positive" traits and processes such as forgiveness, benevolent partner attributions, and kindness can backfire in certain types of relationships (McNulty & Fincham, 2012). For example, forgiving a partner who engages in hostile behavior can reduce marital satisfaction over time, likely because the partner continues to act in a hostile manner (McNulty, 2008; also see Baker, McNulty, Overall, Lambert, & Fincham, 2013). The RC-BT seems to bypass some of these complications, perhaps because effectiveness is scored with respect to a large variety of behaviors in a variety of situational contexts (Grover et al., 2012). ...
... The results of the analysis of the first hypothesis in this study indicate that relationship maintenance behaviors can significantly predict marital satisfaction in individuals undergoing commuter marriages, with a prediction up to 19.9%. These results are in line with previous studies which state that the use of relational maintenance behavior strategies is a predictor of marital satisfaction (Baker et al., 2013;Canary & Stafford, 1992;Dainton et al., 1994;Ogolsky & Bowers, 2012;Stafford, 2003). This study shows that the dimension of relationship maintenance behaviors that can significantly predict marital satisfaction is positivity, with a positive relationship direction. ...
This study aims to examine the predictive role of Relationship Maintenance Behavior and its strategies (positivity, understanding, self-disclosure, relationship talk, assurances, sharing tasks, social network) on marriage satisfaction among commuter marriage couples. Instruments used included the Relational Maintenance Behavior (self-reported and partner-reported) to see the use of RMB strategies, and the Relationship Assessment Scale (RAS) to see the marriage satisfaction. Data were collected from 152 individuals who participated in commuter marriage, aged below 38, and have been married for less than 13 years (the adjusting type). Finding reveals that both the use of Relationship Maintenance Behavior and perception of partner’s use of Relationship Maintenance Behavior significantly predict marriage satisfaction in commuter marriage. Specifically, the Relationship Maintenance strategy that significantly predicts marital satisfaction is positivity, and the Relationship Maintenance strategies used by the partner that significantly predict marital satisfaction are shared task and positivity.
... By contrast, research on the benefits of romantic relationships has been found to serve as a buffer to negative mental health outcomes [42,44,45], particularly for women's levels of depressive symptoms [46]. Even intrapersonal affects have been noted, with romantic relationships boosting self-esteem and self-concepts for an individual [43,47]. ...
This research investigated the interpersonal impact of self-reported mental health diagnoses and/or perceptions on undergraduate students’ current or most recent romantic relationship. Analysis of data from a 43-item online questionnaire completed by 267 undergraduates revealed that 68.3% of women and 52.5% of men reported having either been professionally diagnosed with a mental illness or perceive themselves to be mentally ill based on DSM criteria, with women and white students reporting significantly higher levels. Sociologically speaking, mental illness was found to influence relationship initiation, maintenance, and dissolution in this study. The mental health of the respondents’ potential partners was an important consideration in deciding to form a relationship, particularly for male, white, heterosexuals. When the respondents reported relationship problems, men were more likely to blame such problems on mental health issues than women. Finally, though more respondents reported having broken up with a romantic partner who had mental health issues than had romantic partners break up with them, there were no significant gender, race, or sexual orientation differences in the termination of these romantic relationships. Study findings emphasize the importance of acknowledging and providing mental health resources—particularly interpersonal options—for emerging adults in the college setting.
... For instance, interaction with family, friends and neighbors increased levels of subjective well-being. Three diary studies (about romantic relationship, friendship, and newlyweds) showed that relationship maintenance behaviors were negatively associated with depressive mood when followed by relatively high relationship quality [12] . The studies imply that good quality of relationship supports well-being. ...
This study aimed to understand the social well-being in rural society and to examine the strength of justice that could predict social well-being. The strength of justice is defined as broadly interpersonal, relevant to the optimal interaction between the individual and the community. This research was a qualitative descriptive study at two villages (mountains and coast area) in Bantaeng Regency, South Sulawesi. A total of 52 fathers and 60 mothers (wives) were interviewed, whereas 99 adolescents completed an open-ended questionnaire. The result showed that most fathers, mothers, and adolescents were very grateful for their lives in the village. The three groups also perceived that the citizens were harmonious. Most fathers and mothers viewed that society's well-being increased. Only a part of adolescents did perceive that youth well-being increased. The main factors that caused their gratefulness and well-being were the acceptance that the area has been their homeland and has been giving livelihood; the area is secure and peaceful; they are close to their family; and the people are good, friendly, supportive and helpful. Father and mother emphasized the improvement of facilities and agriculture technology and the increase in income to define the society's well-being. Adolescents emphasized on education development, positive activities, broad sociality, high aspiration and motivation, harmonious and helpful society, and obedient people. In conclusion, the factors refer to the strength of citizenship, such as social responsibility, teamwork, loyalty, and obedience that reflect togetherness and collectivity in rural culture.
... Ob und wie sich Prozesse zur Beziehungsgestaltung und -aufrechterhaltung wie das Verzeihen im Alltag auf das Wohlbefinden einwirken, hängt jedoch auch vom jeweiligen, sozialen Kontext ab. Beziehungserhaltende Verhaltensweisen wirken sich unter hoher Beziehungszufriedenheit günstig auf das Wohlbefinden aus, während sie bei einer geringen Beziehungszufriedenheit sogar negativ für das Wohlbefinden sind(Baker, McNulty, Overall, Lambert & Fincham, 2013). ...
... Furthermore, respondents were not only appreciating the good things they already had; some were also seizing the opportunity to spend the gift of time they had received on nurturing and improving their relationship. This effort will likely pay off, as research suggests ongoing relationship maintenance is important for maintaining long-term wellbeing (Levi et al., 2012). Some of the specific improvements they mentioned, such as discussing relational issues (Ogolsky & Bowers, 2012) and pursuing new interests together (Harasymchuk et al., 2020) have been associated with improved relationship wellbeing in past research. ...
Media attention has highlighted the COVID-19 pandemic’s negative effects on romantic relationships (e.g., increased partner aggression). The current mixed-method study also explored potential positive effects, and how the relative balance of positive versus negative effects might have changed over time during the first pandemic wave. Individuals (N = 186) who participated in a pre-COVID study were recruited through MTurk to participate in a four-wave longitudinal follow-up, every 2 weeks from mid-April to late May 2020. Participants completed an 8-item self-report measure assessing perceived negative and positive effects of the pandemic on their romantic relationship. Multi-level models revealed that perceived positive effects were substantially higher than perceived negative effects at each timepoint, even amongst those who reported being more heavily impacted by the pandemic. Both positive and negative effects were stable across time. Open-ended questions at the final time point were coded for common themes. Positive themes were more frequent than negative themes. The most common negative theme centered on increased stress or tension in the relationship, while the most common positive theme discussed the importance of focusing on and appreciating the relationship, including taking advantage of the gift of increased time together the pandemic had brought. Amongst all of the pandemic’s bad news, it is refreshing to consider the possibility of pandemic-related benefits for people’s romantic relationships.
... Relationship maintenance, however, does not always translate into resilience. It could actually make a relationship worse if it is not reciprocated or if everyone involved is not motivated to improve the relationship (see also Baker et al., 2012). Being quarantined with one's romantic partner during COVID-19 could damage the relationship if the partners are spending every minute together and have little autonomy. ...
Scholarly knowledge about the communication dimensions of the COVID-19 pandemic contributes to interdisciplinary lessons for future public health emergencies. This collection nurtures further thinking about the ‘messiness’ that comes with communication during an infectious disease outbreak such as COVID-19, and how we can embrace and learn from it. The chapter highlights the importance of communication preparedness and the urgency to make meaningful efforts to improve communication knowledge, especially during times when public health measures are highly reliant on communication, without which health messages remain unheard and unattended to. It further discusses the need for partnerships to address communication inequalities between health authorities and trusted community organisations; and the mobilisation of community-led organisations as key partners for the people most severely impacted by COVID-19. The chapter concludes by suggesting areas of future research to contribute to a nuanced understanding of the diverse pandemic experiences of specific sub-groups and populations with varying cultural and ethnic influences.
... In the present study, weak correlations were observed between RMBs and life satisfaction. This is consistent with some previous studies in which the mediating effect of RMBs on individual characteristics such as sadness (Baker et al., 2013) and life satisfaction was not significant (Belus et al., 2019). It can be assumed that people in LDRs may have different views and attitudes toward marital relationships, and their happiness and life satisfaction depend on sources other than the relationship itself. ...
This study investigated relationship maintenance behaviors in a sample of 451 married individuals in Tehran and was conducted as an online survey. Confirmatory factor analysis showed that, unlike intrapersonal and dyadic behaviors, social network behaviors did not have an acceptable factor loading. The regression model showed that dyadic behaviors at all three levels including before separation, during separation, and after separation could positively predict good relationship quality. Individual behaviors during separation and after separation predicted it positively and negatively, respectively. Social network behaviors could not predict relationship quality at any level. The implications of these findings are discussed.
... Marriage is significant in itself, yet its innate direction to the bearing and raising of children adds to its particular structure, including standards of monogamy and loyalty [1]. The development and maintenance of relationships between couples have always served as a fascinating topic and close relationship requires engaging in a variety of relationship maintenance behaviors such as forgiving, accommodating, providing support, self-disclosing, and expressing gratitude [2][3][4][5]. ...
Background: The quality of marital relationships has been demonstrated to be an important indicator of adult, couple, and child well-being. There is considerable evidence that low marital quality is a significant risk factor for developing psychiatric disorders. The gold standard Revised Dyadic Adjustment Scale (RDAS) is widely used to assess couple relationships and quality of marriage. Aim: The purpose of the study was to develop a culturally adapted and validated Bangla version of RDAS for Bangladeshi couples. Methods: The descriptive type of cross-sectional study was conducted in the Department of Psychiatry, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujib Medical University, Dhaka, during the period from July 2017 to June 2018. Total of 100 samples were taken. After taking informed consent, couple of both sex, aged > 18 were asked to complete the socio-demographic questionnaire and bangle version of RDAS. RDAS Bangla was applied by 2 raters for inter-rater reliability. Validity was assessed by content validity and factor analysis. Reliability was assessed by internal consistency and inter-rater reliability. Results: Content validity was perfect as item-level content validity indexes (I-CVIs) were one except for two items and scale-level content validity index (S-CVI) was 0.90. In two factor model, no item had salient loading on more than one factor and there were no items that failed to load on either factor. Communalities were ranged from 0.39 to 0.87. Cronbach's alpha value for R-DAS Bangla total, consensus, satisfaction and cohesion subscales were 0.85, Journal of Psychiatry and Psychiatric Disorders J Psychiatry Psychiatric Disord 2020; 4 (6): 437-448 438 0.78, 0.80 and 0.62 respectively. Intra-class correlation coefficients (ICCs) for inter-rater reliability were ranged from 0.68 to 0.97 and Cohen's kappa was 0.89. All values represented that the R-DAS Bangla was valid and reliable scale. Conclusion: RDAS Bangla is a valid, reliable and useful scale for a assessing couple relationship and quality of marriage Bangladesh context.
... From this perspective, forgiveness is defined as changes in TRIMs over time, that is, avoidance and revenge decrease over time, whereas benevolence may increase (McCullough et al., 2003;see Worthington, 2005 for other concepts). As a possible result of these motivational changes, maintaining or repairing emotionally close relationship becomes easier and thus stabilizes emotional functioning and social relationships (Baker, McNulty, Overall, Lambert, & Fincham, 2012). ...
In the field of forgiveness interventions, little research has been done on the comparative effects of learning-oriented versus action-oriented routes in managing unresolved interpersonal transgressions. In this study, 73 older adults ( M = 68.8 years) were randomized to either a learning-oriented group intervention condition that emphasized learning factors by helping older adults to understand the transgression in a more adaptive way; or to an action-oriented group intervention condition that emphasized action factors by helping older adults to practice new behaviors and skills to manage the transgression. The findings indicated that both conditions resulted in decreases in revenge, transgression-related thoughts and feelings, negative affect, and psychological distress as well as increases in life satisfaction. We were able to demonstrate that both routes are equally effective in reducing negative states and producing positive states.
... Second, there is reason to believe that expected alternatives are similarly relevant to commitment-related decisions. In particular, given that there can be costs to investing the time, effort, and resources necessary to maintain a close relationship (Baker, McNulty, Overall, Lambert, & Fincham, 2013), intimates may become less committed to maintaining a relationship if they believe they will have more desirable options available to them in the future. In contrast, intimates who believe they will have fewer desirable options in the future may become more committed to their current relationship so they do not eventually lose that relationship and are forced to contend with those limited options. ...
Interdependence, Interaction, and Close Relationships - edited by Laura V. Machia June 2020
... Second, there is reason to believe that expected alternatives are similarly relevant to commitment-related decisions. In particular, given that there can be costs to investing the time, effort, and resources necessary to maintain a close relationship (Baker, McNulty, Overall, Lambert, & Fincham, 2013), intimates may become less committed to maintaining a relationship if they believe they will have more desirable options available to them in the future. In contrast, intimates who believe they will have fewer desirable options in the future may become more committed to their current relationship so they do not eventually lose that relationship and are forced to contend with those limited options. ...
Cambridge Core - Social Psychology - Interdependence, Interaction, and Close Relationships - edited by Laura V. Machia
... Similarly, SCS was associated with both partners' daily sexual and relationship satisfaction, even on days when partners had different sexual interests (Day et al., 2015). These findings are consistent with several theoretical perspectives, including attachment theory (Brennan & Shaver, 1995), interdependence theory (Reis, 2014;Rusbult et al., 1994), the ideal standards model (Fletcher & Simpson, 2000), and transactive goal dynamics theory (Fitzsimons et al., 2015), which all suggest that relationships are strengthened when partners meet each other's needs (see Baker et al., 2013). ...
Maintaining sexual satisfaction is a critical, yet challenging, aspect of most romantic relationships. Although prior research has established that sexual communal strength (SCS)—i.e., the extent to which people are motivated to be responsive to their partner’s sexual needs—benefits romantic relationships, research has yet to identify factors that promote SCS. We predicted that gratitude would increase SCS because gratitude motivates partners to maintain close relationships. These predictions were supported in three studies with cross-sectional, longitudinal, and experimental methods. Specifically, experiencing and receiving expressions of gratitude were associated with greater SCS. These studies are the first to investigate the benefits of gratitude in the sexual domain and identify factors that promote SCS. Together, these results have important implications for relationship and sexual satisfaction in romantic relationships.
... Moreover, it is often the case that social behaviors that can benefit partners and relationships can potentially incur costs to personal wellbeing. Although compromising, sacrificing and forgiving may help maintain relationships, these behaviors can also lead to lower self-worth and greater depressed mood if partners are not responsive (Baker et al., 2013;Luchies, Finkel, McNulty & Kumashiro, 2010) or if these behaviors are motivated by fears of rejection or avoidance of conflict (Impett, Gable & Peplau, 2005;Lemay & Dudley, 2011;Righetti & Visserman, 2018). Thus, variability in relationship maintenance behaviors, indexing sensitivity to an array of important contextual and situational demands (e.g., issue importance, relative needs across partners, equity, partners' reciprocation), may reflect a healthier pattern of balancing both personal and relationship wellbeing. ...
Based on growing evidence that negative-direct behavior that addresses important contextual and situational demands is less harmful than negative-direct behavior that occurs irrespective of current demands, the current investigation tests whether the longitudinal impact of partners' negative-direct behavior depends on whether that behavior is more variable versus stable across couples' daily life and conflict interactions. In Studies 1 and 2, participants rated how much their partner behaved in critical and unpleasant ways every day for 21 days. In Study 3, couples were video-recorded discussing an important area of conflict, and independent coders rated how much partners expressed criticism and hostility within every 30-s segment of the discussion. In each study, the repeated assessments were used to calculate average levels (within-person mean across days or couples' discussions) and variability (within-person SD across days or couples' discussions) of partners' negative-direct behavior. Participants also reported on the severity of their relationship problems and relationship satisfaction at the beginning of each study and then 9 months later (Studies 1 and 2) or repeatedly across the following year (Study 3). High mean levels of partners' criticism and hostility predicted greater relationship problems (Studies 1-3) and lower relationship satisfaction (Study 3) when partners' negative-direct behavior was stable across time (low within-person variability), but was less harmful when partners' negative-direct behavior varied across time (high within-person variability). These novel results illustrate that behavioral variability offers a valuable way to understand and examine behavioral patterns that will be more helpful versus harmful in navigating the challenges of social life. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).
... Participants reported on the pro-relationship behaviors their romantic partners enact using four items from an adapted version of the Relationship Maintenance Behaviors Scale (Baker et al. 2013). Response options ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree) and encompass perceptions of relationship efforts enacted by partners like problem resolution, supportive, and affectionate behaviors. ...
US Latino/as experience high rates of discrimination, resulting in personal and relational distress. A sample of 238 Latino/a young adults (Mage = 25.37 years; 57.6% men; 54.4% Mexican) was used to investigate how perceived discrimination was associated with romantic relationship instability via young adults' depressive symptoms. The moderating roles of ethnic identity and romantic relationship maintenance on these associations were examined. Greater relationship maintenance and ethnic identity affirmation were associated with less depression and relationship instability. Under conditions of high ethnic identity exploration and resolution, the association between discrimination and depressive symptoms was stronger, leading to greater relationship instability. The findings reveal that the protective roles of cultural and relational factors may depend on the stressor and outcomes examined.
... The second contribution of the paper is its focus on gender specific perspectives. Existing studies consider standpoints of both partners (Baker, McNulty, Overall, Lambert and Fincham, 2012), rather than one of them. Besides, they do not explicitly acknowledge gender differences to draw inferences about behaviour. ...
Long duration absence of one spouse is a growing trend in many households. Considering the effect of the absence of the husband on the wife at home, the paper contends that the absence weakens emotional bonds, and can lead to avoidance in the relationship. Absence of the husband from home increases workload and isolation for the wife that results in her feeling stressed and lonely. Using attachment theory, the paper proposes that her pessimism about fulfillment of her attachment needs while experiencing stress and loneliness makes her attachment avoidant over time. The paper argues that relationship maintenance behaviours of the husband can help contain avoidance and sustain a healthy relationship.
... Furthermore, the increased interdependence that characterizes romantic relationships can result in disagreement and conflict regarding competing goals and self-interests (Murray, Holmes, & Collins, 2006;Rusbult, Olsen, Davis, & Hannon, 2001) that can directly affect both partners' wellbeing. Given that relationship problems can erode relationship quality (e.g., McNulty, O'Mara, & Karney, 2008;McNulty & Russell, 2010;Neff & Karney, 2004) and thus individual psychological and physical well-being (Baker, McNulty, Overall, Lambert, & Fincham, 2013;Proulx et al., 2007;Robles et al., 2014), people often attempt to resolve, or minimize the severity of, their relationship problems by influencing their partners' behavior; for example, they might demand partners change their behavior, provide partners with assistance, or encourage partners who doubt their ability to enact necessary behaviors. ...
In this article, we synthesize existing literatures across numerous domains to introduce a novel model—the Relationship Problem Solving (RePS) model—for understanding the process through which romantic partners influence one another to resolve relationship problems. The first section briefly describes the key constructs and stages of the model. The second section details the interpersonal behaviors that influence various intrapersonal factors (e.g., affect, self-efficacy) that ultimately influence partners’ motivation and ability to progress through the stages of the model. The third section uses the model to generate novel predictions that suggest that the effectiveness of these interpersonal behaviors often depends on contextual factors. Finally, the fourth section discusses the implications of this model for understanding relationship problem solving, highlights the need to consider the role of context in the problem-solving process, and offers numerous specific predictions to be addressed by future research.
... [32,35,101,124] Behaviors (9) Negative maintenance behaviors; authenticity; theory of mind; sexual compliance; self-control. [59,69,76,79,108,113,125,143,149] Motivation (8) Forgiveness; approach and avoidance motives; emotional suppression and expression; sacrifice. [79,[103][104][105]113,135,148,150] Coping (4) Explicit attitudes towards partner; mindfulness; coping strategies. ...
Adolescence and emerging adulthood are both stages in which romantic relationships play a key role in development and can be a source of both well-being and negative outcomes. However, the limited number of studies prior to adulthood, along with the multiplicity of variables involved in the romantic context and the considerable ambiguity surrounding the construct of well-being, make it difficult to reach conclusions about the relationship between the two phenomena. This systematic review synthesizes the results produced into this topic over the last three decades. A total of 112 studies were included, following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Protocols (PRISMA-P) guidelines. On the one hand, these works revealed the terminological heterogeneity in research on well-being and the way the absence of symptoms of illness are commonly used to measure it, while on the other hand, they also showed that romantic relationships can be an important source of well-being for both adolescents and emerging adults. The findings underline the importance of providing a better definition of well-being, as well as to attribute greater value to the significance of romantic relationships. Devoting greater empirical, educational, and community efforts to romantic development in the stages leading up to adulthood are considered necessary actions in promoting the well-being of young people.
... For instance, FM has a positive relationship with ego-resiliency and adaptive coping (Canute 2016;Lozano et al. 2016). Interestingly, Baker et al. (2012) found a negative association between friendship maintenance behaviors and depressive mood only when individuals reported being satisfied in their friendships. In addition, O'Brien (2014) reported that friendship maintenance behaviors were negatively related to loneliness. ...
Displaying compassion for others (CFO) and utilizing friendship maintenance (FM) behaviors are positively associated with happiness. Two studies investigated FM as a mediator of the relationship between CFO and happiness (Study 1: N = 273; Study 2: N = 368). FM mediated the CFO-Happiness relationship in both studies regardless of the way happiness was measured. Although women had higher scores on both CFO and FM, the model was supported for both genders. The implications of the findings are discussed and suggestions for future research are provided.
... Although this was accepted by the couple, such an imbalance is a potential weakness. Baker, McNulty, Overall, Lambert, and Fincham (2012) found that unsuccessful, one-sided maintenance effort can lead to a depressive mood. Prolonged asymmetry may in the long run lead to the dissolution of the practice. ...
Many routine relationship maintenance activities, such as supporting each other in the household, rely on responsive interaction. Unfortunately, the physical separation typical for long-distance relationships severely limits the opportunities to support each other in everyday life. This paper reports an autoethnographical research through design of this, in human–computer interaction (HCI) still quite uncharted, territory. In over two years of design research, the first author developed four concepts, materialized them as functional artifacts, and used them extensively with Claire, his partner. His designerly journey into alternative practices for Claire and him revealed the complexities and intricacies of designing “couple technologies” for the real world. For instance, it highlighted the importance of going beyond mere abstracted presence toward enabling meaningful everyday responsive interaction. We found that such meaningful interaction can be created by focusing on possible practices of mutual caring. Besides providing valuable insights for designers of technology-mediated relatedness, we discuss autoethnographical research through design as a mode of knowledge production in the context of HCI.
... Although people may impulsively want to behave in a more selfish manner, people regularly control these automatic selfish impulses in order to make themselves act in ways that yield social acceptance. However, this is costly, given that self-regulation not only consumes resources but also is often used to forego selfish benefits and pleasures (e.g., Baker, McNulty, Overall, Lambert, & Fincham, 2013). But those acts of self-control help one achieve social acceptance and belongingness, and the benefits of belongingness outweigh the costs of exerting self-control. ...
... The mixed results of the relationships between tangible support with emotional well-being indicators suggest that the strength and the direction of the relationships may be conditional on certain other factors. For example, it may be that the beneficial effects of tangible support will be consistently found in satisfying relationships (Baker, McNulty, Overall, Lambert, & Fincham, 2013). In addition, the relationships between tangible support with relationship quality indicators were consistent, with higher levels of tangible support associated with higher levels of relationship satisfaction and shared identity. ...
This study examined tangible support and supportive communication as predictors of emotional well-being and relationship quality for post-1980s mothers of children less than three years old in mainland China. The sample consisted of 366 first-time mothers who participated in an online survey about their experiences in receiving support from their mothers-in-law. The results indicate that receiving tangible support from a mother-in-law had mixed effects on women’s emotional well-being. Perceived supportive communication from the mother-in-law played a more significant role than tangible support in improving emotional well-being and relationship quality. Implications for social support research in relationship contexts are discussed.
Negative communication between partners can impede the enactment of prosocial, relationship maintenance behaviors. These processes are especially critical to consider for Latine young adults who hold cultural values, like familism, which emphasize the great importance of personal relationships. Using a sample of 475 Latine young adults (M = 24.8 years, SD = 3.22), we examined the moderating role of familism on the association between negative communication (e.g., partners’ propensity to withdraw or criticize during interactions) and relationship maintenance (e.g., affectionate and supportive efforts to sustain the relationship). We found that negative communication was inversely associated with individuals’ own relationship maintenance enactment. However, familism buffered the association between negative communication and relationship maintenance; under conditions of high familism, the association between negative communication and relationship maintenance remained negative, but with a weaker effect than under conditions of low familism. Findings reinforce the negative effects of maladaptive communication in relationships more broadly and highlight the protective role of relationally oriented cultural values.
This study investigates individuals’ perceptions of reciprocal relationship maintenance in their marriage over time during the Coronavirus Pandemic (COVID-19). Using a Qualtrics Panel, married individuals (N = 3,601) completed online surveys at four time points during the initial 3 months of the pandemic. Both the between- and within-person effects were consistent with the theory of resilience and relational load. On average, married individuals who reported giving greater relationship maintenance to their partners also reported receiving greater relationship maintenance from them, as well as reported greater communal orientation and flourishing and lower relational load. Giving relationship maintenance to one’s partner was a stronger predictor of receiving maintenance than the reverse, even though both influenced each other. Giving relationship maintenance to one’s partner was also a stronger and more consistent predictor of communal orientation, relational load, and flourishing than maintenance received. Finally, relational load in one’s marriage was the strongest predictor of flourishing.
This study tested an actor-partner interdependence mediation model (APIMeM) in which dyadic relational maintenance behaviors (RMBs) mediate the relationship between romantic attachment (i.e., anxious and avoidant) and multiple indicators of relationship quality among couples in long-distance relationships (LDRs). Data were collected from 137 couples (women’s mean age = 20.37 years; men’s mean age = 21.93) who were in a serious romantic LDR and who completed an attachment measure, a measure of dyadic RMBs, and four measures of relationship quality (i.e., relationship satisfaction, relational commitment, closeness with the partner, and connection with others). Path analyses revealed significant actor and partner effects. Moreover, a total mediation between women’s anxious attachment and both partners’ relationship quality, and a partial mediation between men’s and women’s avoidant attachment and their own relationship quality were uncovered. Overall, the results suggest that, for couples in LDRs, one partner’s behaviors, cognitions, or emotions influence each member of the dyad as well as the quality of the relationship.
Family-of-origin systems are consequential for the emotional well-being of offspring. These influences are likely to last into adulthood, affecting adult children's romantic relationships. The mechanisms by which family-of-origin environments influence adult romantic relationships are not fully understood. In a sample of 118 different-sex couples, we tested the effects of negative family-of-origin conflict on adult offspring's provision of relationship maintenance to their romantic partner using structural equation modeling. We evaluated emotional dysregulation as a mediator of this effect, using two measures of emotional dysregulation. Results from structural models demonstrated a negative effect of family-of-origin conflict on the provision of relationship maintenance via higher levels of emotional dysregulation. Our results highlight emotional self-regulation as a valuable intervention point for couple therapists.
Maintaining satisfying close relationships is important for individuals’ well-being. In the digital age, artificial intelligence (AI) has growing applications for relationship maintenance and thus implications for relational well-being. We hypothesize that although using AI to help with relational maintenance may reduce an individual’s effort, their partner may perceive AI-augmented activities negatively. According to the investment model and equity theory, perceptions of diminished effort in a relationship may lead to less satisfaction and greater uncertainty about the partner’s involvement in the relationship. In an online experiment, we presented participants (N = 208) with hypothetical scenarios of relational maintenance initiated by a fictional close friend, with a 3 (agency: self-without-augmentation vs. AI-augmented vs. human-augmented) × 3 (relational task: support-giving vs. advice-giving vs. birthday celebration) between-subjects design. Compared to the self-without-augmentation condition (i.e., the control condition) where the friend completed a relational task with no external aid, using AI assistance led participants to perceive the friend expended less effort, reducing participants’ relationship satisfaction and increasing uncertainty. Getting help from another person was not significantly different from using AI in terms of perceived partner effort, relationship satisfaction, uncertainty, and perceived appropriateness. We discuss the implications of the findings for relational maintenance and technology-mediated communication.
El presente estudio tuvo como objetivo conocer la estructura factorial de la escala de mantenimiento en las relaciones de pareja en hombres y mujeres. Participaron de manera voluntaria y confidencial de 731 voluntarios (49.8% hombres y 50.2% mujeres). Se elaboró una escala de 178 reactivos, para evaluar el mantenimiento de las relaciones de pareja con base en un estudio exploratorio, con un formato de respuesta tipo Likert de 5 puntos. Esta consta de cuatro subescalas: Significado (46 reactivos y 6 factores), Motivos (30 reactivos y cuatro factores), Estrategias (46 reactivos y 6 factores) y Consecuencias (56 reactivos y 4 factores). Para cada subescala se obtuvo el análisis psicométrico. Los resultados indican una escala valida y confiable en sus cuatro subescalas, a través de análisis factoriales exploratorios y análisis de consistencia interna. Los hallazgos permiten contar con un instrumento robusto que permite evaluar en sus diferentes subescalas las áreas que componen el mantenimiento. Esto con la finalidad de realizar evaluaciones en las relaciones diádicas que fomenten parejas saludables, así como intervenciones, basadas en esta primera aproximación.
Long distance relationships (LDR) are increasingly common, particularly among postsecondary students. The geographic separation inherent in LDR, and related relationship factors, may have implications for the health of individuals in LDR. However, little current work examines these potential associations. The current study examined associations between relationship-level predictors (satisfaction, stress, maintenance) and individual-level health (e.g., anxiety, depression, sleep disturbance, fatigue) and health behaviors (e.g., alcohol and cigarette use, sex) in LDR. Participants ( N = 100) were postsecondary students and romantic partners of postsecondary students, recruited from October 2018–June 2019, who completed an online survey on relationships and health. Here, we report sample characteristics; correlations between key study variables; and, results of stepwise hierarchical regressions testing whether relationship-level variables predicted individual-level health. Results indicated that relationship satisfaction and relationship stress predicted self-reported health in multiple domains, in the expected directions; but, neither relationship satisfaction nor relationship stress predicted health behaviors. Relationship maintenance predicted neither self-reported health nor health behaviors. Overall, some, but not all, relationship-level variables influenced some, but not all, individual-level health variables among postsecondary students and partners of postsecondary students in LDR. Future work can clarify relationship-level predictors of individual-level health behaviors in postsecondary students, among whom LDR are prevalent.
COVID-19 has brought with it unprecedented and simultaneous experiences of stress and uncertainty across every community globally. This chapter summarises what we know about experiences of uncertainty and how individuals cope with application to the COVID-19 pandemic. Defined broadly as an inability to predict (or explain) outcomes, uncertainty has consistently been linked to negative psychological states, especially when it involves potential threats to important goals. Uncertainty and its effects have long been studied, but there is a long-standing need for an organising approach to better understand the ways people cope with community-wide experiences of uncertainty. This chapter introduces the CARE framework in an effort to fill that gap. It then reviews the theory of resilience and relational load (TRRL) in order to elevate the relational context as one in which important uncertainty-management work is done. The TRRL argues that long-term relationship maintenance moderates the impact of uncertainty-producing events on people’s personal and relational health, and builds resilience. Ultimately, this chapter explores both relational and individual efforts to manage uncertainty experiences resulting directly or indirectly from COVID-19, and offers a lens through which to understand health outcomes.
This study presents an initial exploration and conceptualization of relational surprise experiences (RSEs) as communication phenomenon involving strategic relational maintenance behaviors with potential for positive and negative outcomes. University students in the Southeastern United States (N = 203) described a RSE that occurred with a close relational partner (romantic partner, friend, or family member), explained how deception was used to achieve the surprise, and reported relational benefits and drawbacks in an online survey. Seven types of RSEs were reported including gifts, events, visits, and destinations. Responses revealed that people considered surprises as relationally beneficial with minimal drawbacks. Although over one-third of the participants described their partner’s pants perceived the surprise as a violation of relational rules. Some participants reported both benefits and drawbacks to RSEs, thereby illuminating a nuance for traditional relational maintenance typologies. This study establishes a path to explore implications of RSEs for individual and relational satisfaction, happiness, and well-being.
Interpersonal relationships are essential to well-being, and gifts are often given to cultivate these relationships. To inform gift givers of what to give and to gain insight into the connecting function of gifts, this research investigates what type of gift is better at strengthening relationships according to gift recipients—material gifts (objects for recipients to keep) or experiential gifts (events for recipients to live through). Experiments examining actual gift exchanges in real-life relationships reveal that experiential gifts produce greater improvements in relationship strength than material gifts, regardless of whether the gift giver and recipient consume the gift together. The relationship improvements that recipients derive from experiential gifts stem from the intensity of emotion that is evoked when they consume the gifts, rather than when the gifts are received. Giving experiential gifts is thus identified as a highly effective form of prosocial spending.
Previous research suggests both relationship status and relationship quality correlate with well-being. The present study extended these findings in three ways. First, we benchmarked individuals with various-quality relationships against uncoupled people to determine whether even low-quality relationships are associated with greater well-being than being unpartnered. Second, research suggests global well-being (e.g., life satisfaction) and experiential well-being (e.g., momentary affect) oftentimes have different predictors. Thus, we tested whether individuals report greater experiential well-being while with their partners. Finally, we examined whether daily time invested into one’s relationship predicted well-being. Results indicated that being in a romantic relationship, interacting with one’s partner, and investing greater time into the relationship all predicted greater well-being. However, these effects were moderated by relationship quality, such that being in even relatively neutral relationships and interacting therein were associated with lower well-being than being unpartnered.
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a pervasive and often difficult health condition, the consequences of which ripple through family relationships. This paper engages relational turbulence theory, which addresses communication in romantic relationships, and the experiencing life transitions model, from the field of nursing, to examine how communication between parents affects the marital relationship during a major transition in the life of a child with ASD. Transition processing communication (TPC) includes four forms of communication that can help married partners navigate difficult life events: increasing interaction, promoting connection, promoting feeling situated, and increasing confidence in the relationship. This study examines the effects of partners’ TPC on their own and their spouse’s experiences of relational uncertainty, changes in interdependence, and relational turbulence. A total of 33 couples and 60 married, female individuals, parents of a child with ASD who was starting school for the first time, completed a pre-test, 14 dairies, and a post-test; diaries were completed every three days over a 42-day period, beginning on the child’s first day of school. Findings suggest that partners’ engagement in TPC significantly affects some relationship qualities. In addition, an individual’s perceptions of his or her spouse’s communication were a stronger predictor of relational turbulence than the spouse’s self-reported communication. Results point to several implications for understanding the ways in which married partners can protect their marriage in the face of their child’s health-related transitions.
Direct and overt visible support promotes recipients’ relationship satisfaction but can also exacerbate negative mood. In contrast, subtle and indirect invisible support can bypass costs to mood, but it is unclear whether it undermines or boosts relationship satisfaction. Because invisible support is not perceived by recipients, its relational impact may be delayed across time. Thus, the current research used three dyadic daily diary studies (total N = 322 married couples) to explore, for the first time, both the immediate (same day) and lagged (next day) effects of visible and invisible support on recipients’ mood and relationship satisfaction. Consistent with prior research, visible support was associated with recipients reporting greater relationship satisfaction and greater anxiety the same day. In contrast, but also consistent with prior research, invisible support had no significant same-day effects, and thus avoided mood costs. Nevertheless, invisible support was associated with recipients reporting greater relationship satisfaction the next day. Study 3 provided evidence that such effects emerged because invisible support was also associated with greater satisfaction with partners’ helpful behaviors (e.g., household chores) and relationship interactions (e.g., time spent together) on the next day. These studies demonstrate the importance of assessing different temporal effects associated with support acts (which may otherwise go undetected) and provide the first evidence that invisible support enhances relationship satisfaction but does so across days.
This study drew on uncertainty reduction and decision‐making theories to investigate how perceptions of approval of romantic relationships from family and friends can influence romantic partners' dynamics. Using a dyadic approach, the authors examined whether expectations of a partner's behavior in the relationship mediated the associations between perceived social network approval and relationship maintenance behaviors in a sample of 137 couples. The actor–partner interdependence mediation model (APIMeM) was applied. Results showed that women's and men's perceptions of approval from their own and their partner's network were associated with their own level of expectations of their partner's behaviors. In turn, women's and men's expectations were associated with their own and their partner's maintenance behaviors.
Contemporary perspectives on relationship commitment posit that intimates decide whether or not to maintain a relationship based on their commitment to that relationship, and that they base such commitment partially on their current satisfaction with that relationship. Nevertheless, given that ending a relationship requires knowing about both the current state of the relationship and the likely future state of the relationship, we propose that people base their commitment to a relationship more on their expected future satisfaction with the relationship than on their current satisfaction with that relationship. Six studies provided evidence for these ideas. Study 1 demonstrated that expected satisfaction is shaped by not only current satisfaction but also several unique indicators of the likelihood of future satisfaction, including anticipated life events, plans to improve the relationship, and individual differences. Then, using a combination of cross-sectional, experimental, and longitudinal methods, Studies 2 through 6 demonstrated that (a) expected satisfaction was a stronger predictor of relationship commitment, maintenance behaviors, and/or divorce than was current satisfaction and (b) expected satisfaction mediated the association between current satisfaction and these outcomes. These findings highlight not only the need to incorporate expected satisfaction into extent perspectives on commitment, but also the importance of expectations for decision-making processes more broadly. (PsycINFO Database Record
Can people use consumption to manage their social relationships? Across three essays, this dissertation explores why and how people make consumer choices that socially connect or distance themselves from others. Essay 1 examines how motives to signal social identity and uniqueness can lead people to make choices that both connect and distance them from other members of their social group. People are often conflicted between wanting to fit in and be different. This research demonstrates how consumers simultaneously satisfy competing motives for group identification and individual uniqueness along different dimensions of choice, thus allowing them to be similar and different at the same time. Essay 2 studies how consumers' gift choices can change how socially connected their recipients feel to them. This research examines actual and hypothetical gift exchanges in real-life relationships and reveals that experiential gifts (events recipients live through) make recipients feel more connected to their gift giver than material gifts (objects for the recipient to keep), regardless of whether the gift is consumed together. Experiential gifts have this connecting effect because of the greater emotion they evoke when consumed. Essay 3 investigates how the emotion that motivates gift giving can affect how connected or disconnected gift givers and recipients feel to each other. This research shows that the same situation of social inequity can elicit feelings of gratitude or guilt, and explores the downstream social consequences of gifts that say "thanks" versus "sorry." Gifts can help restore relationships, but with differential effects for gift givers and recipients. Gift givers report greater improvements in social connection when giving out of guilt, whereas recipients report greater improvements when receiving a gift given out of gratitude. By studying relationships between people, this dissertation provides a richer understanding of the role of consumption in people's social lives and offers guidance to help people foster closer relationships with others.
This chapter highlights the contextual nature of intimate relationships. The first two sections review evidence that the implications of four key processes for relationship functioning—behavior, cognition, emotion, and hormones—depend on the context in which the relationship is situated; whereas certain processes are associated with less desirable outcomes on average, all appear to offer interpersonal benefits in certain situations. The third section highlights the importance of these contextual effects for relationship science by reviewing evidence that even the three personal qualities most consistently associated with less desirable interpersonal outcomes on average—attachment insecurity, low self-esteem, and neuroticism—are just as contextual; although they are consistently associated with undesirable outcomes on average, (a) they do not always lead to the processes that are typically harmful and, even when they do, (b) those processes can be beneficial in some contexts. The fourth section organizes the contextual factors into four classes—qualities of the individual, qualities of the partner, qualities of the relationship, and qualities of the environment. Finally, the fifth section challenges researchers to take a more contextual approach to the study of relationships, including focusing on within-person tendencies to properly calibrate psychological processes to different situations as they fluctuate over time.
How spouses help each other contend with personal difficulties is an unexplored but potentially important domain for understanding how marital distress develops. Newly married couples participated in 2 interaction tasks: a problem-solving task in which spouses discussed a marital conflict and a social support task in which spouses discussed personal, nonmarital difficulties. Observational coding of these interactions showed that wives’ support solicitation and provision behaviors predicted marital outcomes 2 years later, independent of negative behaviors during marital problem-solving discussions. In addition, couples who exhibited relatively poor skills in both behavioral domains were at particular risk for later marital dysfunction. These results suggest that social support exchanges should be incorporated into social learning analyses of marriage and into programs designed to prevent marital distress.
Although much has been learned from cross-sectional research on marriage, an understanding of how marriages develop, succeed, and fail is best achieved with longitudinal data. In view of growing interest in longitudinal research on marriage, the authors reviewed and evaluated the literature on how the quality and stability of marriages change over time. First, prevailing theoretical perspectives are examined for their ability to explain change in marital quality and stability. Second, the methods and findings of 115 longitudinal studies—representing over 45,000 marriages—are summarized and evaluated, yielding specific suggestions for improving this research. Finally, a model is outlined that integrates the strengths of previous theories of marriage, accounts for established findings, and indicates new directions for research on how marriages change. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In a prospective study, we examined the relationship between internal representations of attachment and accommodation. Participants consisted of both members of established young couples (N = 128; mean age = 24.4 years at time 1; mean relationship length = 47 months at time 1). Participants were administered the Peer Attachment Interview and a relationship satisfaction scale twice over 8 months. At time 2, participants completed the Accommodation Scale to assess responses to potentially destructive behavior by romantic partners. Current and previous attachment representations predicted the use of accommodation strategies. In particular, security was associated with the use of constructive accommodation strategies and fearfulness was associated with the use of destructive accommodation strategies. With few exceptions, the pattern of correlations between attachment ratings and accommodation responses was the same after the effects of relationship satisfaction were partialled out. The results suggest that accommodation may be one avenue through which attachment representations contribute to the quality of relationships.
This study examines the manner in which perceptions of relational maintenance strategies used in romantic dyads vary according to relationship type (married, engaged, seriously dating and dating) and gender. Additionally, this study investigates how perceptions of partners' maintenance behaviors differentially affect the relational characteristics of control mutuality, commitment, liking and satisfaction. Research assumptions were cast within a developmental framework. Five maintenance strategies were derived through factor analyses: positivity, assurances, openness, sharing tasks and social networks. Results indicate that relationship type moderately affected perceptions of partner maintenance strategies and gender weakly affected perceptions of maintenance behaviors. The findings also reveal that positivity, assurances and sharing tasks were consistent and strong predictors of control mutuality, commitment, liking and satisfaction.
The goal of the present study was to examine the patterns of relationships between routine and strategic maintenance enactment. Data were collected from 189 individuals in a romantic relationship. Results indicated that positivity and sharing tasks were more often performed routinely than strategically. Second, moderate to strong, positive correlations were found among the strategic use of maintenance behaviors, and also moderate to strong, positive correlations among the routine use of maintenance behaviors. However, virtually no relationships emerged between the routine and strategic use of maintenance. Next, both strategic and routine maintenance efforts were important in predicting satisfaction and commitment, but routine maintenance was slightly more important in predicting both satisfaction and commitment. Finally, three significant, positive correlations were found between the length of the relationship and routine maintenance performance (network, conflict management, and sharing tasks), and one significant, negative correlation was found between the length of the relationship and the strategic use of openness.
Previous research on multiple role stress has hypothesized the existence of two types of stress contagion: spillover, in which the stresses experienced in either the work or home domain lead to stresses in the other domain; and crossover, in which the stresses experienced by one's spouse at work lead to stresses for oneself at home. However, empirical evidence of these processes has been largely indirect and qualitative. This study provides the first direct quantitative evidence on the causal dynamics of stress contagion across work and home domains in married couples. Contrary to previous thinking, results indicate that husbands are more likely than their wives to bring their home stresses into the workplace. Also, stress contagion from work to home was evident for both husbands and wives. Furthermore, the contagion of work stress into the home sets in motion a process of dyadic adjustment, whereby individuals, particularly wives, appear to modify their housework efforts to compensate for the work stresses of their spouses. Such findings provide important insights into the dynamics of gender differences in role stress and confirm the value of studying chronic stress processes at the level of analysis where such stresses are inevitably manifest—in day-to-day events and activities.
A theory of accommodation processes is advanced, and the results of 6 studies are reported. Accommodation refers to the willingness, when a partner has engaged in a potentially destructive act, to inhibit impulses to react destructively and instead react constructively. Studies 1 and 2 demonstrated that accommodation is lower under conditions of reduced social concern and lower interdependence. Studies 3, 4, and 5 revealed that accommodation is associated with greater satisfaction, commitment, investment size, centrality of relationship, psychological femininity, and partner perspective taking and with poorer quality alternatives. Commitment plays a fairly strong role in mediating willingness to accommodate. Study 6 showed that couple functioning is associated with greater joint and mutual tendencies to inhibit destructive reactions. Study 6 also demonstrated that self-reports of accommodation are related to relevant behavioral measures. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
We present a revision of the 1978 reformulated theory of helplessness and depression and call it the
hopelessness theory of depression. Although the 1978 reformulation has generated a vast amount of empirical work on depression over the past 10 years and recently has been evaluated as a model of depression, we do not think that it presents a clearly articulated theory of depression. We build on the skeletal logic of the 1978 statement and (a) propose a hypothesized subtype of depression—
hopelessness depression, (b) introduce hopelessness as a proximal sufficient cause of the symptoms of hopelessness depression, (c) deemphasize causal attributions because inferred negative consequences and inferred negative characteristics about the self are also postulated to contribute to the formation of hopelessness and, in turn, the symptoms of hopelessness depression, and (d) clarify the diathesis—stress and causal mediation components implied, but not explicitly articulated, in the 1978 statement. We report promising findings for the hopelessness theory and outline the aspects that still need to be tested. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
360 undergraduates rated their affective reactions to hypothetical test failures under conditions of high or low effort and in the presence or absence of self-serving excuses. Then, in the role of teachers, they administered punishment to hypothetical students under the same failure conditions. Inability attributions and negative affect were greatest when failure followed much effort. Conversely, failure reflected less on ability, and shame was correspondingly reduced when students studied little—the same failure condition that Ss, in the role of teachers, punished most severely. (64 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The field of positive psychology rests on the assumption that certain psychological traits and processes are inherently beneficial for well-being. We review evidence that challenges this assumption. First, we review data from 4 independent longitudinal studies of marriage revealing that 4 ostensibly positive processes-forgiveness, optimistic expectations, positive thoughts, and kindness-can either benefit or harm well-being depending on the context in which they operate. Although all 4 processes predicted better relationship well-being among spouses in healthy marriages, they predicted worse relationship well-being in more troubled marriages. Then, we review evidence from other research that reveals that whether ostensibly positive psychological traits and processes benefit or harm well-being depends on the context of various noninterpersonal domains as well. Finally, we conclude by arguing that any movement to promote well-being may be most successful to the extent that it (a) examines the conditions under which the same traits and processes may promote versus threaten well-being, (b) examines both healthy and unhealthy people, (c) examines well-being over substantial periods of time, and (d) avoids labeling psychological traits and processes as positive or negative.
The association between marital dissatisfaction at baseline and 12-month incidence of major depressive episode (MDE) was examined in a community sample of married individuals from the New Haven Epidemiologic Catchment Area program (N = 904) who did not meet criteria for MDE at baseline. Results indicate that marital dissatisfaction was associated with increased incidence of MDE, with a significant risk ratio of 2.7 and an attributable risk of 29.5%. Thus, dissatisfied spouses were nearly 3 times more likely than nondissatisfied spouses to develop an MDE during the year, and nearly 30% of the new occurrences of MDE were associated with marital dissatisfaction. The association between marital dissatisfaction and risk of MDE (a) remained significant when controlling for demographics and depression history and (b) was not moderated by sex or by depression history. Findings suggest that marital dissatisfaction may be etiologically related to major depression.
We proposed that expressing gratitude would increase positive perception of a relationship partner, thereby increasing comfort in expressing relationship concerns, which is a form of relationship maintenance. Study 1 (n = 159) showed a relationship between naturally occurring expressions of gratitude and comfort in voicing relationship concerns. Study 2 (n = 178) provided longitudinal evidence for direction of effects because Time 1 gratitude expression predicted Time 2 comfort in voicing relationship concerns, controlling for baseline comfort in voicing relationship concerns. Study 3 (n = 225) showed that expressing gratitude to a friend did increase voicing relationship concerns, compared with positive thought and neutral control conditions. In Study 4 (n = 74), we explored the mechanism through a longitudinal, experimental design and found that participants assigned to express gratitude reported higher comfort voicing concerns and more positive perception of partner than did control participants. Moreover, positive perception of partner mediated the relationship between condition and comfort in voicing relationship concerns.
Should intimates respond to their interpersonal mistakes with self-criticism or with self-compassion? Although it is reasonable to expect self-compassion to benefit relationships by promoting self-esteem, it is also reasonable to expect self-compassion to hurt relationships by removing intimates' motivation to correct their interpersonal mistakes. Two correlational studies, 1 experiment, and 1 longitudinal study demonstrated that whether self-compassion helps or hurts relationships depends on the presence versus absence of dispositional sources of the motivation to correct interpersonal mistakes. Among men, the implications of self-compassion were moderated by conscientiousness. Among men high in conscientiousness, self-compassion was associated with greater motivation to correct interpersonal mistakes (Studies 1 and 3), observations of more constructive problem-solving behaviors (Study 2), reports of more accommodation (Study 3), and fewer declines in marital satisfaction that were mediated by decreases in interpersonal problem severity (Study 4); among men low in conscientiousness, self-compassion was associated with these outcomes in the opposite direction. Among women, in contrast, likely because women are inherently more motivated than men to preserve their relationships for cultural and/or biological reasons, self-compassion was never harmful to the relationship. Instead, women's self-compassion was positively associated with the motivation to correct their interpersonal mistakes (Study 1) and changes in relationship satisfaction (Study 4), regardless of conscientiousness. Accordingly, theoretical descriptions of the implications of self-promoting thoughts for relationships may be most complete to the extent that they consider the presence versus absence of other sources of the motivation to correct interpersonal mistakes.
We build on principles from interdependence theory and evolutionary psychology to propose that forgiving bolsters one's self-respect and self-concept clarity if the perpetrator has acted in a manner that signals that the victim will be safe and valued in a continued relationship with the perpetrator but that forgiving diminishes one's self-respect and self-concept clarity if the perpetrator has not. Study 1 employed a longitudinal design to demonstrate that the association of marital forgiveness with trajectories of self-respect over the first 5 years of marriage depends on the spouse's dispositional tendency to indicate that the partner will be safe and valued (i.e., agreeableness). Studies 2 and 3 employed experimental procedures to demonstrate that the effects of forgiveness on self-respect and self-concept clarity depend on the perpetrator's event-specific indication that the victim will be safe and valued (i.e., amends). Study 4 employed a longitudinal design to demonstrate that the association of forgiveness with subsequent self-respect and self-concept clarity similarly depends on the extent to which the perpetrator has made amends. These studies reveal that, under some circumstances, forgiveness negatively impacts the self.
How should partners discuss the problems that arise over the course of their intimate relationships? Prior studies have provided inconsistent answers to this question, with some suggesting that partners benefit by avoiding negative behaviors and others suggesting that partners benefit by engaging in negative behaviors. The 2 longitudinal studies of newlyweds described here reconcile these inconsistent findings by revealing that direct negative problem-solving behaviors interact with the severity of the problems couples face in their relationships to account for changes in relationship satisfaction. Whereas spouses' tendencies to blame, command, and reject their partners predicted steeper declines in their own marital satisfaction when exhibited in the context of relationships facing only minor problems, those same behaviors predicted more stable satisfaction in relationships facing more severe problems. Subsequent analyses revealed that changes in the severity of the problems themselves mediated these effects. By contrast, indirect negative communications were associated with stably lower levels of satisfaction regardless of problem severity. The current findings join others in highlighting the theoretical importance of accounting for the relational context when examining the implications of various interpersonal processes.
This research investigated whether self-handicapping preserves specific conceptions of ability in a particular domain despite poor performance. Reports of preparatory behaviors and stress among introductory psychology students were measured prior to an exam and subsequent performance, attributions for the performance, and measures of global self-esteem and specific self-conceptions were measured after the exam. Results indicated that high self-handicappers reported reduced effort and more stress prior to the exam, performed worse on the exam, and made different attributions following the exam than did low self-handicappers. Although reported self-handicapping was detrimental to performance, male HSH individuals maintained positive conceptions of specific ability in psychology in spite of poorer performance. Moreover, the results of path analyses indicated that it was these changes in specific ability beliefs that mediated changes in global self-esteem. These findings suggest that the primary motivation underlying self-handicapping may be to protect conceptions of ability in a specific domain, which thereby serves to protect global self-esteem.
Given the emphasis on within-subject associations between depression and marital quality in recent theory and practice, this study was undertaken with three goals: to examine within-subject associations between depressive symptoms and marital quality over time, to address gender differences in the magnitude and direction of these associations, and to determine whether neuroticism moderates the strength of these associations. A total of 164 newly wed couples provided 8 waves of data over 4 years of marriage. Hierarchical linear modeling confirmed the existence of bidirectional within-subject associations between marital satisfaction and depressive symptoms. Gender differences were rarely significant. Although neuroticism strengthened the effect of marital distress on symptoms as predicted, it weakened the effect of symptoms on marital distress among husbands. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.
This article describes a program, PRODCLIN (distribution of the PRODuct Confidence Limits for INdirect effects), written for SAS, SPSS, and R, that computes confidence limits for the product of two normal random variables. The program is important because it can be used to obtain more accurate confidence limits for the indirect effect, as demonstrated in several recent articles (MacKinnon, Lockwood, & Williams, 2004; Pituch, Whittaker, & Stapleton, 2005). Tests of the significance of and confidence limits for indirect effects based on the distribution of the product method have more accurate Type I error rates and more power than other, more commonly used tests. Values for the two paths involved in the indirect effect and their standard errors are entered in the PRODCLIN program, and distribution of the product confidence limits are computed. Several examples are used to illustrate the PRODCLIN program. The PRODCLIN programs in rich text format may be downloaded from www.psychonomic.org/archive.
The current longitudinal study examined the consequences of spouses' tendencies to forgive their partners over the first 2 years of 72 new marriages. Though positive main effects between forgiveness and marital outcomes emerged cross-sectionally, spouses' tendencies to forgive their partners interacted with the frequency of those partners' negative verbal behaviors to predict changes in marital outcomes longitudinally. Specifically, whereas spouses married to partners who rarely behaved negatively tended to remain more satisfied over time to the extent that they were more forgiving, spouses married to partners who frequently behaved negatively tended to experience steeper declines in satisfaction to the extent that they were more forgiving. Similar patterns emerged for changes in the severity of husbands' problems, such that husbands married to wives who frequently behaved negatively reported sharper increases in problem severity to the extent that they were more forgiving but reported more stable problem severity to the extent that they were less forgiving. These findings question whether all spouses should benefit from forgiveness interventions and thus highlight the need for further research on the most appropriate targets for such interventions.
To maintain intimate relationships in the face of negative experiences, many recommend cognitive strategies that minimize the implications of those experiences for global evaluations of the relationship. But are such strategies always adaptive? Suggesting otherwise, 2 longitudinal studies spanning the 1st 4 years of 251 new marriages revealed that the effects of benevolent cognitions on relationship development depended on the initial levels of negativity in the relationship. Cross-sectionally, the tendency to make positive attributions or otherwise disengage global evaluations of the relationship from negative experiences was associated with higher levels of satisfaction in marriages characterized by more frequent negative behavior and more severe problems. Longitudinally, in contrast, such strategies only demonstrated benefits to healthier marriages, whereas they predicted steeper declines in satisfaction among spouses in more troubled marriages by allowing marital problems to worsen over time. These findings highlight the limits of purely cognitive theories of relationship maintenance and suggest that widely recommended strategies for improving relationships may harm vulnerable couples by weakening their motivations to address their problems directly.
The present study developed a theoretical framework for understanding the social mechanisms underlying disclosure and its link with relationship satisfaction in a full family design. A study among 262 intact families, consisting of 2 children and 2 adults and involving 1,048 individuals, applied the social relations model. Results showed that disclosure was more important to satisfaction in horizontal relationships than vertical ones. Further, relationship-specific disclosure was more important to satisfaction than dispositional disclosure. These results have implications for the examination of relationship regulation and maintenance in (non)voluntary relationships and the development of psychosocial problems in parent- child relationships.
The CES-D scale is a short self-report scale designed to measure depressive symptomatology in the general population. The items of the scale are symptoms associated with depression which have been used in previously validated longer scales. The new scale was tested in household interview surveys and in psychiatric settings. It was found to have very high internal consistency and adequate test- retest repeatability. Validity was established by pat terns of correlations with other self-report measures, by correlations with clinical ratings of depression, and by relationships with other variables which support its construct validity. Reliability, validity, and factor structure were similar across a wide variety of demographic characteristics in the general population samples tested. The scale should be a useful tool for epidemiologic studies of de pression.
Social policy in the United States is inconsistent in its treatment of cohabiting-parent households. For example, although welfare policy generally assumes that marital status should not affect the extent to which children benefit from each adult's income, tax policy and the poverty classification assume income pooling among married but not cohabiting parents. Neither assumption has been adequately tested against actual household economic behavior. I use data on couples’ money management and expense division from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study to examine household availability of cohabiting fathers’ income. Although their mechanisms for combining income differ, the results suggest that cohabiting parents do generally pool resources, so the income of both parents should be considered in setting family policy.
Based on a robust literature indicating that happy couples tend to think and behave more positively in their relationships than less happy couples do, most interventions designed to treat and prevent marital distress tend to encourage couples to engage in more-positive cognitive and behavioral processes and avoid more-negative ones. Consistent with the limited effectiveness of such interventions, however, findings from four independent longitudinal studies of newlyweds indicate that positive processes may not only fail to help distressed couples, they may hurt them. Specifically, although more-positive expectations, more-positive attributions, less-negative behavior, and more forgiveness most effectively maintained satisfaction among spouses facing infrequent and minor problems, less-positive expectations, less-positive attributions, more-negative behavior, and less forgiveness most effectively maintained satisfaction among spouses facing more-frequent and more-severe problems, partly because those processes helped spouses acknowledge, address, and resolve those problems. Accordingly, distressed and at-risk couples may benefit from interventions that teach them to think and behave in ways that motivate them to resolve their problems, even if those thoughts and behaviors are associated with negative emotions in the moment.
Interest in forgiveness has exploded in recent years as researchers and clinicians have begun to recognize its value for maintaining emotional well-being, physical health, and healthy intimate relationships. Forgiveness appears to be especially important in the marital relationship. This article offers an overview of forgiveness in marriage including a review of major research and clinical efforts in this area. A number of recommendations are offered for practitioners and future research directions are outlined. Marital forgiveness is seen as an exciting area for future exploration and one that is ripe with possibility.
The escalating costs of health care and other recent trends have made health care decisions of great societal import, with decision-making responsibility often being transferred from practitioners to health economists, health plans, and insurers. Health care decision making increasingly is guided by evidence that a treatment is efficacious, effective–disseminable, cost-effective, and scientifically plausible. Under these conditions of heightened cost concerns and institutional–economic decision making, psychologists are losing the opportunity to play a leadership role in mental and behavioral health care: Other types of practitioners are providing an increasing proportion of delivered treatment, and the use of psychiatric medication has increased dramatically relative to the provision of psychological interventions.
Research has shown that numerous psychological interventions are efficacious, effective, and cost-effective. However, these interventions are used infrequently with patients who would benefit from them, in part because clinical psychologists have not made a convincing case for the use of these interventions (e.g., by supplying the data that decision makers need to support implementation of such interventions) and because clinical psychologists do not themselves use these interventions even when given the opportunity to do so.
Clinical psychologists' failure to achieve a more significant impact on clinical and public health may be traced to their deep ambivalence about the role of science and their lack of adequate science training, which leads them to value personal clinical experience over research evidence, use assessment practices that have dubious psychometric support, and not use the interventions for which there is the strongest evidence of efficacy. Clinical psychology resembles medicine at a point in its history when practitioners were operating in a largely prescientific manner. Prior to the scientific reform of medicine in the early 1900s, physicians typically shared the attitudes of many of today's clinical psychologists, such as valuing personal experience over scientific research. Medicine was reformed, in large part, by a principled effort by the American Medical Association to increase the science base of medical school education. Substantial evidence shows that many clinical psychology doctoral training programs, especially PsyD and for-profit programs, do not uphold high standards for graduate admission, have high student–faculty ratios, deemphasize science in their training, and produce students who fail to apply or generate scientific knowledge.
A promising strategy for improving the quality and clinical and public health impact of clinical psychology is through a new accreditation system that demands high-quality science training as a central feature of doctoral training in clinical psychology. Just as strengthening training standards in medicine markedly enhanced the quality of health care, improved training standards in clinical psychology will enhance health and mental health care. Such a system will (a) allow the public and employers to identify scientifically trained psychologists; (b) stigmatize ascientific training programs and practitioners; (c) produce aspirational effects, thereby enhancing training quality generally; and (d) help accredited programs improve their training in the application and generation of science. These effects should enhance the generation, application, and dissemination of experimentally supported interventions, thereby improving clinical and public health. Experimentally based treatments not only are highly effective but also are cost-effective relative to other interventions; therefore, they could help control spiraling health care costs. The new Psychological Clinical Science Accreditation System (PCSAS) is intended to accredit clinical psychology training programs that offer high-quality science-centered education and training, producing graduates who are successful in generating and applying scientific knowledge. Psychologists, universities, and other stakeholders should vigorously support this new accreditation system as the surest route to a scientifically principled clinical psychology that can powerfully benefit clinical and public health.
The concept of situation has a long and venerable history in social psychology. The author argues that recent approaches to the concept of situation have confused certain important elements. Herein, the author proposes that attention to three of these elements will reinvigorate the concept of situation in social psychology: (a) that the analysis of situations should begin with their objective features; (b) that situations should be conceptualized as affordances; and (c) that the interpersonal core of situations, in particular the extent to which they are influenced by relationships, is the proper and most profitable focus for social psychology. These elements are consistent with recent developments in the study of situated social cognition and may help better define social psychology's position within the sciences.
How spouses help each other contend with personal difficulties is an unexplored but potentially important domain for understanding how marital distress develops. Newly married couples participated in 2 interaction tasks: a problem-solving task in which spouses discussed a marital conflict and a social support task in which spouses discussed personal, nonmarital difficulties. Observational coding of these interactions showed that wives' support solicitation and provision behaviors predicted marital outcomes 2 years later, independent of negative behaviors during marital problem-solving discussions. In addition, couples who exhibited relatively poor skills in both behavioral domains were at particular risk for later marital dysfunction. These results suggest that social support exchanges should be incorporated into social learning analyses of marriage and into programs designed to prevent marital distress.
An ideological and scientific struggle spanning decades has borne fruit with the development and documentation of psychological interventions for a variety of disorders and problems with proven efficacy. Termed variously 'empirically supported treatments' or 'evidence-based psychological practice' highly regarded scientific methods have established these interventions as effective as, and often more effective than, pharmacological treatments, particularly in the long run. In some cases, combined efficacious psychological and pharmacological treatments are most effective. Despite these developments, evidence exists that these psychological treatments are not readily available to the public who requires them, because they have not been effectively disseminated to the mental health professionals who deliver them. The variety of barriers to successful dissemination are outlined, and recent developments in clinical research and public health policy are described that may facilitate the advancement of evidence-based psychological practice.
Baker is a PhD candidate in the psychology program at Florida State University
- R Levi
Levi R. Baker is a PhD candidate in the psychology program at
Florida State University.
McNulty is an associate professor at Florida State University
- K James
James K. McNulty is an associate professor at Florida State
University.
Lambert is an assistant professor at the Brigham Young University in the School of Family Life
- M Nathaniel
Nathaniel M. Lambert is an assistant professor at the Brigham
Young University in the School of Family Life.
Overall is a senior lecturer at the University of Auckland in the department of Psychology
- C Nickola
Nickola C. Overall is a senior lecturer at the University of Auckland
in the department of Psychology.
Fincham is an eminent scholar and director of the Family
- D Frank
Frank D. Fincham is an eminent scholar and director of the Family
Institute at Florida State University.
Feeling comfortable voicing concerns in a relationship: The role of gratitude
- N M Lambert
- F D Fincham
- S M Graham
Lambert, N. M., Fincham, F. D., & Graham, S. M. (2011). Feeling
comfortable voicing concerns in a relationship: The role of gratitude. Emotion, 11, 52-60.