Utilizing Action Research During Student Teaching Should Every Teacher Preparation Program Be Doing This?

Abstract

Action research has been shown to be effective in a variety of ways for teachers in the classroom setting. While the focus of the action research project has primarily been at the graduate level or tailored to the needs of working professionals, we propose that it is possible to do much more for the student teacher as he or she completes the program requirements through the student teaching experience. Through the incorporation of training in methods of data collection and analysis, student teachers will stand to gain a much greater degree of insight into areas of their professional pedagogical disposition through active reflection. This will develop a reflective habit of mind that is crucial for teachers to be effective in their classrooms and adaptive to the changing needs of their students, and allow for a greater degree of professional self-efficacy and satisfaction on the part of the teachers themselves.

Full text

SAGE Open
January-March 2013: 1 –6
© The Author(s) 2013
DOI: 10.1177/2158244013482468
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Introduction
As faculty members at a school of education, our individual
and program goals for the students we serve revolve around
the synthesis of a potential dichotomy: first, to educate our
students about the challenges they will encounter when they
enter the teaching field, and second, to foster beliefs within
themselves that they are not bound to narrow pedagogical
approaches. They should approach the art of teaching in
ways that lend themselves to thoughtful pragmatic experi-
mentation. However, increasing instructional effectiveness
does not occur in a vacuum. Teachers must implement new
approaches to instruction when an approach is not as effec-
tive as it could be and then collect the necessary data to
evaluate these practices. This involves cultivating the habit
and practice of critical reflection. In this article, we will
make the case that student teaching should involve action
research, which is a type of critical reflection, as a compo-
nent of the school experience. While we recognize that not
all schools practice this approach and that they have their
own unique methods in assessment and evaluation, we will
argue that the addition of action research as a means to cul-
tivate critical reflection better prepares future teachers. With
the attrition rate in teaching between 40% and 50% during
the first 5 years (Ingersoll, 2012), it is a professional respon-
sibility to equip teacher graduates with the resources they
need to obtain greater job satisfaction, which will result in
less attrition. The necessity of critical reflection in teaching
situations also requires that teachers have, as a habit, the
ability to gather relevant data to better understand the
nuanced differences for practices that work versus those that
do not and the reasons for each, for this is how knowledge
and experience through the art of teaching are created
(McNiff & Whitehead, 2010).
For the purpose of this analysis, we utilize Crotty’s (1998)
definition of critical reflection as being comprised of the
synthesis of theory and practice, or praxis. Citing Freire
(1993), Crotty reminds us that critical reflection involves
unifying the dichotomy between objectivity and subjectivity.
Interpreting theory and practice as two separate stages or
events, rather than an event where the two continuously
occur together, robs critical reflection and awareness of
momentum. The false trap that new teachers may fall into is
thinking that theory directly informs practice, or vice versa,
in a positive way every time. Otherwise, theory has no value.
As Dewey (1938) argues through experiential learning, any
body of knowledge must have proactive and practical appli-
cation. Part of this application requires a systematic approach
to the situation at hand, be it teaching or otherwise, to evalu-
ate and improve what comes after.
482468SGOXXX10.1177/215824401
3482468SAGE OpenBarbre and Buckner
2013
1Indiana University East, Richmond, USA
Corresponding Author:
James O. Barbre III, School of Education, Indiana University East, 2325
Chester Blvd., 346 Tom Raper Hall, Richmond, IN 47374, USA.
Email: jbarbre@iue.edu
Utilizing Action Research During Student
Teaching: Should Every Teacher Preparation
Program Be Doing This?
James O. Barbre III1 and Brenda J. Buckner1
Abstract
Action research has been shown to be effective in a variety of ways for teachers in the classroom setting. While the focus
of the action research project has primarily been at the graduate level or tailored to the needs of working professionals,
we propose that it is possible to do much more for the student teacher as he or she completes the program requirements
through the student teaching experience. Through the incorporation of training in methods of data collection and analysis,
student teachers will stand to gain a much greater degree of insight into areas of their professional pedagogical disposition
through active reflection. This will develop a reflective habit of mind that is crucial for teachers to be effective in their
classrooms and adaptive to the changing needs of their students, and allow for a greater degree of professional self-efficacy
and satisfaction on the part of the teachers themselves.
Keywords
teacher education, action research, student teaching

2 SAGE Open
The focus of this article will be the student teaching com-
ponent of teacher education programs and the addition of an
action research component to that same experience. We will
address and refine the concept of reflection as it impacts
teaching practice and its improvement. We shall also describe
what we see as a useful compliment of training for student
teachers so that the data they gather, while pragmatic and
contextual in nature, can be of use to them. Gaining more
knowledge will not involve a range of added responsibilities,
but instead, a modification of the same responsibilities. This
focus will also address improving the student teaching expe-
rience and present a proposal that will benefit professionals
entering the field, in terms of the experience and knowledge
gained, and the evidence they are able to present in the port-
folios that show this same competence. Although not all
schools of education utilize teaching portfolios as a require-
ment for program completion, there are many that do. In this
context, portfolios occupy high levels of importance with
regard to completing the program and gaining employment.
Adding a component that shows the systematic approach
taken to gain the insights that allow student teachers to
improve professionally provides strong evidence of a com-
mitment to professional growth.
When we hear student teachers or 1st year teachers some-
times refer to the fact that they “survived or are surviving
their student teaching,” it greatly troubles us. We are left
wondering what might have been better learned and internal-
ized if they had been looking at the same situation from the
perspective of a teacher-researcher. Informing this perspec-
tive would involve the formal gathering of data for analysis
so that a particular area of their practice could be better scru-
tinized over a longer period.
Reflection is of vital importance to the teaching process
(Buehl & Fives, 2009; Canning, 1991). At the preservice
level, this habit of mind is cultivated through the coursework
at the university and through conversations held with coop-
erating teachers in whose classrooms the preservice teachers
are placed. It becomes vitally important as the teacher or stu-
dent teacher encounters students in classes who have back-
grounds different from that of the teacher, be that difference
grounded in language, religion, culture, socioeconomic
level, or any other aspect (Atiyat, 2006; Li, 2007).
Cultivating the habit of critical reflection has the function
in itself of grooming the preservice teacher to think in a for-
ward manner and gaining from hindsight. As teacher identity
is something that develops over time and is not arbitrarily
built by the student teacher, this habit of mind becomes even
more important. Through the synthesis of theory and prac-
tice, a teacher develops the necessary praxis (Crotty, 1998).
Tabacbinick and Zeichner (1984) find that teacher identity
occurs more in a latent fashion as teachers are exposed to and
interact with students in their classroom, other teachers, and
the overall culture of the school. The relevant component
here, again, is the habit of mind teachers take with them into
a career that, by nature, means their personal perspective will
change over time. On the scale of the everyday classroom
setting, changes occur as any school day proceeds, and small
adjustments are commonplace from one class period or sub-
ject to the next. The difference in what we propose is taking
steps to make critical reflection active and ranging across the
spectrum of responsibility that student teachers have through
their placements in schools. The process of critical reflection
we refer to here is that of active reflection. We define active
reflection as being quite different from passive reflection
since it implies that a teacher will not necessarily wait until
the end of a particular unit to adjust his or her instruction just
because the curriculum design of that unit does not lend
itself to flexibility. They will also not just simply think about
the reactions of their students to particular blocks of instruc-
tion based on students’ body language, facial gestures, physi-
cal or emotional responses, and the like. In this process of
active reflection, the student teacher is deconstructing their
pedagogy. This type of deconstruction addresses the larger
process of the teaching/learning context, of which the teacher
is but one component. The part played is often multifaceted
and facilitative in nature, and requires that the student teacher
go beyond a simple look in the mirror to see whether the
students are engaged or accepting of the content they are
teaching and the manner in which they are teaching it.
A potential shortcoming in reflecting on practice lies in
the nature of the information and sources used in reflecting
on their teaching practice. If a person does not have the kind
of in-depth information that may be acquired through vari-
ous means in addition to strict observation or keeping some
sort of journal for the day’s events, the postteaching reflec-
tion will not have the scope or depth that would help to refine
practice more effectively.
In our program, students are placed “in the field” exten-
sively prior to student teaching as a part of other methods
courses they take. This is done so that they will be more
familiar with both the subtle and overt changes from one
location, grade, or subject, versus that of another, and become
more proficient in the numerous roles a teacher must play.
This also enables them with the capacity to stand back at
particular points in their program and really observe how
events and interactions play out to the fullest. This observa-
tion offers the ability to reflect on what is occurring before
them in a way that they could not if they were in the middle
of teaching the lesson. They have the ability to observe
nuanced differences in the body language and reactions of
students in class after the teacher has moved on to ask another
student a question or to another part of the lesson and so on.
Many times, these observations are what provide the greatest
degree of insight when viewing someone else’s teaching
style and the reaction or participation it elicits from their
students.
For themselves though, this useful observation is not
always possible when they are teaching. During the student
teaching experience, many times, the student teachers are
just a few steps ahead of their students. At this point, the

Barbre and Buckner 3
systematized observation of and reflection on what is trans-
piring or what happened earlier, regardless of the context or
example, become impossible and turn to water under the
bridge. They may be able to go back and think about a few
situations in general, but in-depth reflection on smaller
points becomes all but impossible. There must be a way to
counter this happening.
Action Research
Tomal (2003) refers to the strength of action research as
obtaining findings and understandings that are particularized
to a specific teaching setting and less concerned with gener-
alizing them from one setting to another. This is the kind of
insight that student teachers should be hungry for. Action
research has been shown to be an invaluable tool for self-
improvement in both practice and planning (McNiff &
Whitehead, 2010; Patton, 2002). A formidable challenge for
new teachers is often how to merge theory they have learned
in their undergraduate classes with the conditions and
dynamics they find within the classroom setting. Using
teacher inquiry and reflection offers them this opportunity
(Dawson, 2006). The difference between the type of research
we propose in this situation versus that of everyday reflec-
tion about the day’s events is that taking the approach of
action research means that there is a structure and plan in
place for the manner in which student teachers will gather
their information, analyze it, and develop subsequent action
plans. Depth of understanding is the end goal for anyone
desirous of being highly effective in the classroom. This is a
fundamental and necessary component that the experience
of student teaching should offer future teachers through the
host teacher’s classroom (Weasmer & Woods, 2003).
The incorporation of action research into the student
teaching experience might at first seem daunting, given the
perception of the workload. This is partly because student
teaching is an experience that can be intimidating because of
the lack of complete familiarity with the curriculum and/or
classroom responsibilities. McGlinn (2003) also agrees with
the “short circuiting” that occurs in student teaching through
these “facts on the ground.” It would be natural for student
teachers to say that they just don’t have time or even know
where to begin. Having been through this and having had
numerous student teachers come through our doors over the
years, we dispute that contention. In addition, the mentoring
function of the cooperating teachers would be a natural asset
here. They would be able to support the student teacher in
gathering this data and making sense of it. Weasmer and
Woods (2003) assert that the mentoring function of cooperat-
ing teachers should necessitate that the student teacher be
equipped to thrive, not just survive.
Arguably, student teaching offers almost as much prepa-
ration for a teaching career as the university program itself;
components of university programs must enable the system-
atic approach to research and reflection as to teaching
through methods courses. Deemer (2009) reports that stu-
dents utilizing action research projects as a component of
their classes experienced a better appreciation and under-
standing of methodically exploring a variety of issues related
to education. Similarly, Rogers et al. (2007) show that teach-
ers conducting action research projects in their classrooms
are able to cultivate a more personal and productive relation-
ship with their students. Citing van Manen’s concept of
“teacher as researcher” and instilling it within the framework
of the action research project resulted in more of a “mindful
orientation to their students” (Rogers et al., 2007, p. 218).
Doveston (2007) cites an example of an action research proj-
ect where the teacher and students worked side-by-side. This
collaboration focused on the development of active listening
skills in working within groups. In taking purposeful steps to
gather data, both the students and teacher developed ways to
work together more productively. This occurred between
students and their peers, as well as the teacher.
Naturally, an action research project would require meth-
odology training on the part of the student teacher. This
would be in addition to the teaching methodology. Although
this would be an additive, we would argue that it would not
present a burden to the extent that the student teacher would
be overwhelmed. It would require some additional research
methods to be taught, but these are complimentary to what is
already being covered. Other artifacts and data naturally
gathered as a part of teaching students would also lend them-
selves and their use to an action research project. Student
teachers are trained to plan for and execute instruction. They
are also trained in classroom management and evaluation.
They would be collecting different forms or artifacts of stu-
dent work to demonstrate their competency as educators, and
those entries will be part of their teaching portfolio or could
serve as assignments throughout their educational course-
work. Videotaping lessons also comes in as a course require-
ment or portfolio artifact so that they can analyze their
effectiveness and presence in the classroom. As we acknowl-
edge at the beginning of this article, not every teacher educa-
tion program utilizes portfolios, but there are some that do.
The relevant issue is that the data that are being collected
could serve more than a single evaluative use as they relate
to the student teacher’s evaluation. We propose that the stu-
dent teacher should also receive training in two additional
areas, namely, that of interviewing and data analysis. With
the tools of interviewing and data analysis, qualitative
“chunking of data” could be done, and emergent themes and
larger patterns analyzed. An analysis of the usefulness of this
chunking from one class or setting to another, for example,
could tell the student teachers whether they have a proclivity
that lends itself to showing favoritism based on personality,
and so on. The possibilities are endless.
The benefits to this additional training can be exponential
in that the student teachers can apply them to an area of con-
cern they have during their student teaching. Having been
trained in this sort of data collection and analysis will help

4 SAGE Open
cultivate that same reflective mind-set recognized as being
so necessary. The action research focus during their student
teaching could be in any area they choose from classroom
management to questioning techniques. They would have
the ability to tailor it to what they know or what their coop-
erating teacher has observed to be a particular area of need.
Understanding the particular needs of a certain instruc-
tional setting requires feedback and support. Student teach-
ers rely on the feedback and support their cooperating
teachers offer. This is one of the aspects that lead to their
improvement as time goes by. They also rely on what their
university supervisor has to say. A potential flaw with both of
these lies in the fact that the cooperating teacher at one point
is no longer in the room, and the safety net they provide goes
away. The university supervisors have a limited number of
visits in which they can offer any input for the student teach-
er’s consideration. We are not saying that both of these do
not present a valuable contribution to the insights the student
teachers gain through their experience; rather, we are pro-
posing a way to deepen it and promote a habit that will be
taken forward into a teaching career. Citing Dewey (1933)
and Kolb (1984), McGlinn (2003) contends that the learning
cycle must be experiential in nature and must, perhaps most
importantly, possess the necessary elements of reflection to
be effective. This reflection is further facilitated through
approaches such as interviews and other means of data gath-
ering that comes with an action research project.
The reflective component is one that is active and ongo-
ing. Any teacher will attest to this. Reflection enables the
development of critical reflection that will benefit teachers
retrospectively for what they have just taught. This also
gives them insight into how they can improve their instruc-
tion in the future, regardless of the particular context of
teaching in which they find themselves, be it urban, rural, or
suburban (Canning, 1991; Pai, Adler, & Shadiow, 2005). In
this way, they are able to view themselves, and the execution
and effectiveness of their pedagogy. More importantly, they
are able to see themselves through the eyes of another, and
this sort of deep reflection can have the most lasting impact
on just how their pedagogy works. Many times, teachers do
reflect; this happens instinctively not only from one class to
the next through the school day, but also from one unit to the
next, depending on the subject and grade they teach.
There are numerous forms that action research can take in
the classroom. The strength here lies in what Erlandson,
Harris, Skipper, and Allen (1993) refer to as emergent design.
The teacher-researcher has the option to choose data sources
that are best suited to the particular questions they are
attempting to answer, and these sources, as well as the cate-
gories and data that emerge, can be adapted to the needs of
the study. It should be both remembered and heavily empha-
sized that it is the reflective habit that is most important here.
The amount of work involved in collecting and analyzing the
data is minimal in comparison with the benefits that it will
reap for the educator. Teachers who are proficient and effec-
tive in their art, for that is what teaching truly is, realize the
value of feedback. Stairs (2007) refers to improving teaching
through being culturally responsive. The particular needs of
an urban English class required that teachers renegotiate
many aspects of their methods, including teaching, curricu-
lum choice, assessment, and feedback used to improve the
instruction. These pragmatic changes facilitated a better
experience for both the teacher and the students.
Data Sources
While some of the sources of data to be gathered may
require consent forms, this is still quite feasible. Nolen and
Putten (2007) cite the necessity for protecting the identities
of students who participate in research conducted by teach-
ers. This would be a natural component for any research
project. The ethical dimension and principles of action
research would need to be addressed through training at the
university prior to student teaching. An advantage here is
that student teachers will have the guidance of the faculty
within their respective programs. Through the training that
can be afforded by the faculty, the ethical dimensions of
research are soundly adhered to by the design of the action
research projects. Since the results of this research are not
going to be disseminated, and the student teachers would be
able to utilize pseudonyms, they would still be able to con-
duct the action research. Tomal (2003) and Erlandson et al.
(1993) cite options for conducting action research, but con-
tend that the choice for sources of data depend on the emer-
gent design of the study itself. As can be seen below, the
kinds of data sources we refer to are also utilized in a variety
of other forms of evaluation in educational settings. Listed
below are common options available to action researchers:
•videotaping their teaching (also utilized by the
National Board of Professional Teaching Stan-
dards);
•interviewing students for feedback (also utilized
through course evaluations in higher education
courses);
•observation (conducted through watching planned
activities or group work, but can also be accom-
plished through the presence and contribution of a
colleague);
•surveying students (anonymously or not); and
•archival resources for methods previously tried and
found to be effective or ineffective.
The use of videotaping in teaching will enable the student
teachers to better assess their method of instruction, ques-
tioning techniques, habits of language, and habits of eye
contact. Although these are not the only features of teaching
that can be evaluated through the use of video, being able to

Barbre and Buckner 5
see them when a person is not in that particular moment will
lend an element of critical pedagogical insight that they
might otherwise not be privy to.
The use of interviewing students might at first make a
person uncomfortable, especially if it concerns evaluating
teacher instruction. Teaching and the mannerisms, habits,
and beliefs that a person holds can be quite intimate. A crass
remark when asking for an honest opinion can cut to the core
of who a person is. We believe that for teachers to grow as
professionals, it is both useful and necessary to open them-
selves up to potential critiques for who they are. If teachers
want their children to believe and be excited about learning,
they must themselves be just as excited about the feedback
they might receive.
Observations are also quite useful for the developing
teacher. Veteran teachers have the habit and ability to be
sensitive to the nuances of their students’ conversations,
either verbally or through the manner by which they
express themselves through participation in the learning
space. Simply walking around the classroom and taking
notes will enable the student teachers to better gauge how
involved, interested, or challenged their students are in the
materials at hand. If the challenge presented by the choice
of materials is lacking, they will be able to refine the mate-
rials so that students are not wasting their time with
busywork.
The use of a survey instrument can help a teacher gain
insights that are exponential in nature. If students are hesi-
tant to speak this verbally because of concerns about what
their peers or teachers will think, then the anonymous route
works the best. If, however, teachers can foster an open cli-
mate where there are no consequences for honest and con-
structive feedback, it will enable them to have a conversation
with their students—one that the anonymous survey cannot
always accomplish.
As can be seen, these different forms and sources of data
are utilized in a number of different ways in other contexts of
education. Through the training of student teachers by higher
education faculty or a teacher mentor, the data can be
encoded and analyzed for emergent themes. This will give
better insight into longer or broader patterns that may occur
across a number of different classes or periods. It would cer-
tainly be an interesting way to present an individual’s quest
into the effectiveness of their curriculum planning or ascer-
taining how focused and engaging their questioning tech-
niques enable them to be, or even the effectiveness of their
classroom management style.
The nature of the action research project could also be an
extension of observations made by either the teacher or the
university representative. Since the university representative
is not there at all times, nor is the teacher observing them in
the same methodical way (especially when they have taken
over the entirety of classroom operations), going into greater
depth in an area of concern may allow the student teachers to
reverse instructional habits that may actually be working
against them.
The student teachers would be able to tailor their inquiry
to fit their own professional needs and have a wide variety
of options available to them for sources of data. The final
result of slowing down and taking time to look at concepts
or practices that may at first seem unrelated may also yield
the kind of understanding that may affirm or refute the
choice someone has made for a career.
Conclusion
College graduates are expected to put considerable time
and energy into becoming effective practitioners. The
form of action research we propose would not be over-
whelming and would serve as a natural catalyst for critical
reflective practice. This is an important dimension of what
student teaching is intended to present in the first place:
the opportunity to develop and improve one’s pedagogy.
The difference is that the incorporation of action research
would give the student teachers an opportunity to gain a
deeper understanding of the subject area, their own teach-
ing style, areas that are strong, and also those that need
improvement. This is the precursor for what teachers are
expected to be able to continually do when they enter the
profession. Regardless of whether a university does or
does not utilize portfolios and whether something like an
action research project would be included in them, this is
a positive approach to developing the professional in ways
that are mindful and oriented toward discovering the best
methods in education.
There are multiple kinds of resources available to stu-
dents conducting action research projects. The intent
behind this is not to increase the workload of a student
teacher but to modify it in a way that makes it more reward-
ing in the end. Would there be some extra work? Yes, there
would, but it would not be so voluminous that it is undo-
able, and the benefits would instill a habit that would
improve a career trajectory. At best, it would have the
effect of training a teacher to consider classroom-based
research a natural component of their practice. Rather than
feeling stuck and unable to move forward, teachers would
have the tools to take a much deeper look at who they are
professionally and move forward. When we consider the
sheer volume of teacher attrition over the first 5 years of a
teaching career, we consider implementing critical reflec-
tion though action research to be an approach that reflects
professional responsibility. There are many reasons for
teacher attrition, but we contend that one of them is the
fact that student teachers do not slow down and take a
deep, hard, and perhaps slightly pained look at who they
are professionally and then work to improve. They should
stop and ask honest questions in a variety of ways and
actively listen to the answers and data they receive.

6 SAGE Open
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect
to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research and/or
authorship of this article.
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Author Biographies
James O. Barbre III is the director of graduate programs in
education at Indiana University East. He has taught qualitative
research methods and supervised student and preservice teachers
in schools.
Brenda J. Buckner is the director of elementary education at
Indiana University East. Her courses focus on the developing pre-
service teacher and their effectiveness in the classroom.