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The Power of Feedback
Abstract
Feedback is one of the most powerful influences on learning and achievement, but this impact can be either positive or negative. Its power is frequently mentioned in articles about learning and teaching, but surprisingly few recent studies have systematically investigated its meaning. This article provides a conceptual analysis of feedback and reviews the evidence related to its impact on learning and achievement. This evidence shows that although feedback is among the major influences, the type of feedback and the way it is given can be differentially effective. A model of feedback is then proposed that identifies the particular properties and circumstances that make it effective, and some typically thorny issues are discussed, including the timing of feedback and the effects of positive and negative feedback. Finally, this analysis is used to suggest ways in which feedback can be used to enhance its effectiveness in classrooms.
... Voerman et al. (2012) referred feedback as the data provided by a tutor to a learner with reference to certain learning objectives with the purpose of his learning improvement. Quality feedback almost doubles the average student's growth during an academic year (Hattie and Timperley, 2007). William (2010) reported that teacher's feedback accelerates the students' learning by 50%. ...
... Process based and self-regulation-based feedback interventions are powerful, task-based feedback is useful, whereas feedback about self as a person is ineffective for learning (Hattie & Timperley, 2007). Both the models claimed that the objective of feedback is to arrive at the changes in learning so that students achieve the desired goals. ...
... Teacher's assessment data shows the point where students fall, from where teacher's feedback enables students move forward (McFadden, 2015). Hattie (2000Hattie ( , 2007 claimed that feedback about self as a person is the most frequently used practice, but is less effective. Teacher's praise of student's attainment has effect size 0.12. ...
Abstract
The study aimed to discover the feedback beliefs and practices teachers use to improve their students’ learning at
elementary level in Tehsil and District Muzaffarabad, AJ&K, Pakistan. Non-probability convenient sampling technique
was used, and out of the population of 1012 teachers, the sample size comprised of 170 teachers, when precision level
was ±7%, confidence level was 95% and P=0.5. Three dissimilar research tools were set for teachers for data collection.
The questionnaire was used to study teachers’ feedback beliefs and oral and written feedback check lists were used to
investigate teachers’ actual feedback practices. Statistical tests of Mean, Standard Deviation, t-Test Independent
Sampling and One-Way ANOVA were used for data analysis. With varying degrees of agreement, majority of teachers
held satisfactory beliefs regarding types, purposes and other related aspects of feedback. Contrarily, teachers’ actual oral
and written feedback practices were quite unsatisfactory. Multitier educational management was recommended to
establish systematic mechanisms of promoting and monitoring teachers’ pedagogical skills.
... (iii) Relating substantive module contents to shared cultural phenomena helps establish relevance and connect abstract concepts to real-life examples. That is enhancing learners' understanding and engagement with the learning material (Hattie & Timperley, 2007). (iv) Sequential mastery and understanding using scaffolding assessments making use of interlinked questions allow learners to demonstrate a progressive mastery of subject knowledge in the round. ...
... (v) Offering a range of different types of resources, such as podcasts, lectures, and blogs which cater for diverse learning preferences, promoting engagement, and deepening understanding amongst students. (vi) The incorporation of self-reflection, peer input, guided assistance, and positive reinforcements through small tasks fosters a supportive and participatory learning environment, enhancing students' motivation and self-confidence (Hattie & Timperley, 2007). (vii) Contextualising lectures, utilising popular knowledge, and adapting examples from real-life scenarios help students connect theoretical concepts into practical applications, making the learning materials more relatable and meaningful (Wozniak, 2020). ...
... (v) Regularly reviewing and updating DMDs based on students' feedback, emerging research, and changing societal needs is key. This also implies creating formative and summative evaluation mechanisms to gauge effectiveness of the learning materials and adjusting them to students' needs and their prospective career paths (Hattie & Timperley, 2007). ...
... Feedback is commonly understood as "a dialogue between people which reflects back how one person sees another person's behaviour or performance" (https://intelligentdialogue.com/management/what-is-feedback-2/). However, the concept of feedback has been explained by many educational scholars (see Nijolé 2012;IUCEA 2010;Hamid & Mahmood 2010;Vitiené & Miciuliené 2008;Hattie & Timperley 2007;Nadine 2006;Leu 2005). In the context of teacher education, especially regarding teaching practice, feedback is defined as an "information supplied to trainees concerning some aspect of their performance on a task, by a peer or a tutor, with a view to enhancing practice" (Brandt 2008, p. 39). ...
... In the context of teacher education, especially regarding teaching practice, feedback is defined as an "information supplied to trainees concerning some aspect of their performance on a task, by a peer or a tutor, with a view to enhancing practice" (Brandt 2008, p. 39). In this study, feedback is understood as a dialogue between teachers and students that should be done constructively in order to explain to students how they are meeting predetermined learning outcomes and then to advise them what they need to do to bridge identified gaps for subsequent improved performances (Nyiramana 2017;Hamid & Mahmood 2010;Hattie & Timperley 2007;Nadine 2006;Ende 1983). Hattie and Timperley (2007, p. 81) show that feedback is "one of the most powerful influences on learning and achievement, but its impact can be either positive or negative". ...
... Once a task or an assignment is given to students, feedback should be given on time to allow them understand how they can use given comments for the benefits of their subsequent learning. Even though in some cases, it is important to hold back on feedback so as to give students time to reflect on the task (Hattie & Timperley 2007). ...
This study focused on investigating the learning situation of student teachers especially their experiences on feedback they receive during their study time including teaching practice. It was conducted in Rwanda. The study was guided by the theories on educational quality which, on one side, places teacher education at the central position of ensuring effective teaching and learning process. In this line, effective training to make sure that teachers are taught in the same way they are expected to teach is essential. On the other side, feedback, which is an important element of the learning engine, is indicated necessary for ensuring that student teachers learn from a conducive environment. This study intended to answer the research question “How does teacher education look like regarding feedback in the Rwandan context?”. To answer this research question, the study was conceptualized as a qualitative research where semi-structured interviews were conducted with 32 student teachers who have been selected using a theoretical sampling strategy from 13 Rwandan Higher Learning Institutions. Data collection was done in combination with data analysis to maximize all the qualities in the field. Qualitative content analysis using intertwined deductive-inductive approach has been used for data analysis. With abduction process, a deep analysis of the empirical data led to the definition of criteria and then ideal types of feedback experienced by student teachers in Rwanda. With this analysis, three types of feedback namely administrative feedback, correctional feedback, and instructional feedback emerged. Further analysis showed that student teachers in Rwanda experience different forms of feedback. They have divergent understandings of feedback. Delayed feedback leads to increased uncertainty among students, communication of feedback creates different forms of relationships between student teachers and teacher educators. In addition, student teachers learn implicitly from teacher educators how to provide feedback, and there are no common standards regarding internships. The analysis of the results of this study with regard to the discourse on teacher education, feedback, and educational quality indicates that feedback in teacher education has a multidimensional effect. It is an instrument for quality learning, learning climate, and social relationships. Feedback serves as a tool for student teachers’ professionalization and shows a transformative function for shaping teachers into change agents at the school level and in the society. When feedback focuses more on marks, it creates a misconception for student teachers about what effective feedback looks like. The study argues that feedback should be well integrated during the initial training of teachers to ensure that they experience it and are well prepared for establishing a conducive learning environment. This necessitates explicit role modelling from teacher educators. The findings of this study suggest avenues for further research about the distribution of these types of feedback, examine the effects of teachers’ role modelling on teaching quality and development in society, the role of feedback in preparing student teachers for reflective teaching, the conceptualization of teaching profession by student teachers, and influence of feedback to transformative education more especially the role of feedback about the pedagogy of peace. Regarding practice, this research underlines the need for integrating feedback in teacher training programme both as a content and an approach, associated with effective role modelling by teacher educators.
... Aligned with these ideas, Van Manen (1991) introduced anticipatory, contemporaneous, and retrospective reflections. Hence, for holistic engagement of pre-service teachers in reflective practices, it becomes vital for teacher educators to offer feedback tailored to these varied reflective stages: feed-up, feedback, and feed-forward (Hattie & Timperley, 2007). ...
... Feedback can be categorized into three segments as proposed by Hattie and Timperley (2007): feed-up, feedback, and feed-forward. These guide pre-service teachers through self-inquiry: "Where am I going?", "How am I doing?", and "Where to next?". ...
... These guide pre-service teachers through self-inquiry: "Where am I going?", "How am I doing?", and "Where to next?". Clear criteria and objectives are fundamental to effective feedback, fostering student engagement, and driving improvement (Boud & Molloy, 2013;Hattie & Timperley, 2007). However, despite its recognized value, many educational institutions fall short in furnishing students with these necessary guidelines (Adu-Yeboah & Kwaah, 2018). ...
... Feedback is a key element of learning and instruction, with the potential to greatly enhance learning and achievement. This notion has been proposed and corroborated in an array of research (e.g., Hattie & Timperley, 2007), also in higher education teaching contexts (Evans, 2013). Particularly in higher education, feedback provides students with much-needed guidance and interaction (Rowe, 2011). ...
... Feedback falling under this definition can elicit various effects depending on its content. More specifically, feedback that is focused on personal characteristics of the learner might drive students to react differently than feedback focused on learning strategies or answer content (Hattie & Timperley, 2007). Thus, to elucidate how motivational factors are linked to feedback perception and use, it is important to consider the type of feedback students receive. ...
... For our study, they received digital, written tutor feedback on three of these assignments over the course of the semester and subsequently submitted revised versions of their assignments. In providing feedback, tutors followed a standardized scheme for their feedback, based on the scheme of feed-back, feed-up, and feed-forward by Hattie and Timperley (2007), to ensure that the differences between students' feedback perceptions and use were not mainly created by differences in feedback quality. There was no feedback on the other assignments in this course. ...
Background: Instructor feedback in higher education is widely acknowledged as being beneficial for learning and achievement. However, the influence of motivational factors on how students perceive feedback and incorporate it into their learning process is still little understood. Achievement goals, serving as representations of what students strive for in learning settings, and self-efficacy for revision, are two motivational concepts that can offer insights into how motivational aspects work within feedback processes. Aims: In this study, we aim to elucidate how achievement goals and self-efficacy influence feedback perception and use. Sample: To this end, we conducted a study with 218 higher education students encompassing three separate feedback occasions. Methods: Students reported on their achievement goals, self-efficacy, perceived helpfulness, and achievement emotions three times after receiving feedback, as well as their feedback use. Results: Results of two-level structural equation modeling revealed self-efficacy for revision to be linked to perceived usefulness of feedback and emotions while receiving feedback, as well as feedback use. Learning and work avoidance goals for the task predicted perceived usefulness of feedback, which was in turn the strongest predictor of feedback use. Conclusions: The findings support the theoretical role of motivational factors for feedback perception and use, and emphasize the importance of fostering students' self-efficacy in utilizing feedback and encouraging learning goals.
... Ta opredelitev je bila osnova za številne raziskave (npr. Kulhavy (1977), Ramaprasad (1983), Hattie in Timperley (2007)) o pomenu in vlogi povratne informacije, ki so bile ključne za nadgradnjo opredelitve pojma pa tudi pogleda na vlogo in pomen povratne informacije. ...
... Raziskave o pomenu in vlogi povratne informacije na področju izobraževanja so prispevale k spremembi pogleda na povratno informacijo, in sicer od njenega razumevanja kot informacije o pravilnem oz. napačnem odgovoru (Kulhavy 1977;Ramaprasad 1983), razumevanja enosmernega procesa njenega podajanja od učitelja do učenca (Hattie in Timperley 2007) do razumevanja podajanja povratne informacije kot komunikacijskega procesa, kot dialoga med učiteljem in učencem (Carless 2015;Henderson idr. 2019). ...
... Pri podajanju povratne informacije mora učitelj zagotoviti, da je informacija jasna, usmerjena k cilju, govori o napredku in/ali o tem, kako naprej, ter vodi do večjih možnosti za učenje. Učitelj mora še upoštevati (Hattie in Timperley 2007): čas podajanja povratne informacije, ali je pozitivna ali negativna ter njeno optimalno uporabo v razredu s pomočjo jasnih navodil za delo. ...
... Finally, we predicted that participants who received the hard GK test would believe that knowledge and intelligence are less strongly related because of the potential threat to their self-image. In sum, we predicted that a discrepancy between a positive dimension of self-worth and actual performance would lead participants to engage in corrective or protective measures to preserve their self-concept 6,10 . Of particular interest was the fact that the difficulty manipulation was directly relevant for only one of the three constructs under examination here (knowledge). ...
... Feedback and comparative judgments. Self-ratings of one's mental abilities and conceptualizations of intelligence are easily influenced, at least in the short term, by feedback about one's performance on a cognitive task 10,12,16,20 . Participants in both experiments were given accuracy feedback, thus allowing a direct and immediate assessment of performance, and participants in Experiment 1 were given (mis)information concerning their performance relative to the general population. ...
The present study examined how taking a general knowledge (GK) test affects perceptions of one’s intelligence, memory, and knowledge and the relationship between these three constructs. Participants rated their abilities on each construct and the strength of the relationships between them before and after completing an easy or hard GK test or control task. In Experiment 1, participants were (mis)informed that GK questions were correctly answered by 50% of the population; in Experiment 2, no such information was provided. Regardless of (mis)information about others’ performance, participants in the Hard condition believed they had a worse memory, were less knowledgeable, and were less intelligent post-task. However, the strength of the perceived relationship between GK and intelligence decreased only when participants were misled. Judgments of one’s intelligence, memory, and knowledge can be manipulated by taking a GK test, and individuals engage in self-protective behavior to reduce the potential threat to one’s self-concept.
... These data could also be evaluated post hoc, for example, to revise lecture slides and identify particularly difficult parts during a lecture. With sufficiently large samples, valuable feedback on the level of visual expertise could be given both to the students themselves and to the lecturers [20]. This method could be especially valuable in online learning environments, where feedback is more challenging due to technical limitations, as we experienced in the COVID-19 pandemic [9], [10]. ...
... Die Daten könnten auch im Anschluss an die Veranstaltungen ausgewertet werden, zum Beispiel um Vorlesungsfolien zu überarbeiten und besonders schwierige Phasen einer Vorlesung zu identifizieren. Mit ausreichend großen Stichproben könnten wertvolle Rückmeldungen zum Grad der visuellen Expertise sowohl an die Studierenden selbst als auch an die Dozenten gegeben werden [20]. Diese Methode entfaltet ihr volles Potential jedoch in Online-Lernumgebungen, wo Feedback aufgrund technischer Einschränkungen, wie wir es während der Covid-19-Pandemie erlebt haben, schwierig ist [9], [10]. ...
Objectives: Visual expertise is essential for image-based tasks that rely on visual cues, such as in radiology or histology. Studies suggest that eye movements are related to visual expertise and can be measured by near-infrared eye-tracking. With the popularity of device-embedded webcam eye-tracking technology, cost-effective use in educational contexts has recently become amenable. This study investigated the feasibility of such methodology in a curricular online-only histology course during the 2021 summer term. Methods: At two timepoints (t1 and t2), third-semester medical students were asked to diagnose a series of histological slides while their eye movements were recorded. Students' eye metrics, performance and behavioral measures were analyzed using variance analyses and multiple regression models. Results: First, webcam-eye tracking provided eye movement data with satisfactory quality (mean accuracy=115.7 px±31.1). Second, the eye movement metrics reflected the students' proficiency in finding relevant image sections (fixation count on relevant areas=6.96±1.56 vs. irrelevant areas=4.50±1.25). Third, students' eye movement metrics successfully predicted their performance (R2adj =0.39, p<0.001). Conclusion: This study supports the use of webcam-eye-tracking expanding the range of educational tools available in the (digital) classroom. As the students' interest in using the webcam eye-tracking was high, possible areas of implementation will be discussed.
... In sports, feedback is essential for athletes of all levels in order to learn new tasks and achieve better performance [1][2][3]. On the one hand, it can originate from "internal sources", i.e. the nervous system of an athlete [4] and be referred to as intrinsic feedback. One example for this are the movements of an athlete as perceived by themselves. ...
... Examples for such a systems are Polar Flow 2 and rowsandall. 3 These servers often offer athletes the ability to view and analyse their activities. Additionally, coaches are provided with remote access to the data. ...
Feedback is essential for athletes in order to improve their sport performance. Feedback systems try to provide athletes and coaches not only with visualisations of acquired data, but moreover, with insights into—possibly—invisible aspects of their performance. With the widespread adoption of smartphones and the increase in their capabilities, their use as a device for applications of feedback systems is becoming increasingly popular. However, developing mobile feedback systems requires a high level of expertise from researchers and practitioners. The Direct Mobile Coaching model is a design-paradigm for mobile feedback systems. In order to reduce programming efforts, PEGASOS, a framework for creating feedback systems implementing the so-called Direct Mobile Coaching model, is introduced. The paper compares this framework with state-of-the-art research with regard to their ability of providing different variants feedback and offering multimodality to users.
... Reporting information to the learner while working or after submitting solutions is traditionally termed as feedback, aiming to close the gap between where the student is and where the learner should be (Hattie and Timperley 2007). The reported insights intend to build awareness to learning performance in the targeted outcome content, and in some cases, these insights aim at providing general awareness to learning progress, patterns and strategies. ...
... Studies of feedback (Hattie and Timperley 2007;Shute 2008) being information given to the student concern the effects of immediate vs. delayed feedback on learning outcomes or more specifically as providing online personal feedback at the pre-submission phase and most often as post-submission. Among the positive effects of immediate feedback in both phases, studies indicate helping students in their decision or motivation to practice the tasks and providing an explicit association between outcomes and causes during problem-solving. ...
... Feedback is one of the most powerful influences on learning and achievement [17]. If effective, feedback can promote student investment and independence in writing and coding [3]. ...
... For any feedback to be effective, several factors play a role. Hattie and Timperley [17] outline that feedback can be provided at four levels: task, process, selfregulation, and self. For instance, feedback provided at a task level may not generalize to other tasks but process-level feedback can be more effective in enhancing deeper learning. ...
Despite overwhelming evidence to the contrary, educational practices continue to be predominantly centered around outcome-oriented approaches. These practices are now thoroughly disrupted by the recent accessibility of online resources and chatbots. Among the most affected subjects are writing and computer programming. As educators transform their teaching practices to account for this disruption, it is important to note that writing and computer programming play a critical role in the development of logical and computational thinking. For instance, what and how we write shapes our thinking and sets us on the path of self-directed learning. Likewise, computer programming plays a similar role in the development of computational thinking. While most educators understand that “process” and “outcome” are both crucial and inseparable, providing constructive feedback on a learner’s formative process is challenging in most educational settings. To address this long-standing issue in education, this work presents Process Visualizations, a new set of interactive data visualizations that summarize the inherent and taught capabilities of a learner’s writing or programming process. These visualizations provide insightful, empowering, and personalized process-oriented feedback to learners and help to improve cognitive and metacognitive skills. Likewise, they assist educators in enhancing their effectiveness in the process-aware teaching of writing or computer programming. The toolbox for generating the visualizations, named Process Feedback, is ready to be tested by educators and learners and is publicly available as a website.
... The relationship between teachers' use o grades and other kinds o eedback is an important but complex phenomenon (Brookhart et al., 2016;Guskey, 2019). Feedback is considered a powerul infuence on student learning and perormance (Kluger & DeNisi, 1996) and can impact students' learning and behaviour both positively and negatively (Hattie & Timperley, 2007). The extensive use o grades has been criticised or leading students to ocus on comparison rather than learning and or aiming teachers' work at judging rather than improving learning (Black & Wiliam, 2018). ...
... This means including stakeholders (e.g., students, teachers, and parents) in deliberations when implementing reduced grading, which appears to be vital or success (Gillespie & Burner, 2019;McMorran & Ragupathi, 2020). Moreover, as eedback can impact learning both positively and negatively (Hattie & Timperley, 2007), practitioners should continue to explore how grading and reduced grading align with the ormative role o eedback. ...
Increasingly, educators are adopting reduced grading practices to enhance the desired or lessen the undesired aspects o assessment. This review traces the scholarly origins o reduced grading and maps research on the phenomenon. Using citation analysis and qualitative content analysis and drawing on a theory o action perspective, we explore how reduced grading is conceptualised in the literature. The citation analysis uncovered two clusters o publications: one investigating primary and secondary education and the other covering higher education. The content analysis revealed our categories: rationales, contextual conditions, implementation, and consequences o reduced grading. Supported by a variety o rationales, reduced grading has been conceptualised in various ways, and the research eld is divided into two sub-domains. We discuss the implications o these results or practitioners and researchers.
... Moreover, Cheng and Chiu (2020) emphasized the importance of documenting students' scientific knowledge in enhancing learning, identifying misunderstandings, and fostering lifelong learning. Through monitoring students' progress over time, teachers can design targeted interventions to address areas where students face challenges, correct misconceptions, and encourage lifelong learning beyond formal education (Hattie & Timperley, 2007). ...
... The assessment for learning approach places a strong emphasis on providing timely feedback, which is essential for learners to reflect on their understanding, identify areas for improvement, and adjust their learning strategies. Therefore, by actively engaging students in the assessment process, this approach encourages them to take ownership of their learning and set goals for further development (Hattie and Timperley, 2007). ...
The purpose of this article was to investigate and present effective strategies and innovative approaches that science teachers could employ to comprehensively and accurately document students' scientific knowledge. The study focused on addressing the challenges that arose during the documentation process and aimed to help teachers overcome these obstacles to ensure precise and thorough documentation of their students' scientific understanding. Two science teachers specializing in Physical Sciences and Life Sciences were interviewed through a phenomenological approach to gain insights into their perspectives and experiences. The findings demonstrated that incorporating multiple tasks, such as practical investigations, concept maps, mind maps, research projects, and group discussions, enhanced students' comprehension, and engagement with scientific concepts. These strategies accommodated diverse learning styles and abilities, fostering inclusivity, and facilitating a comprehensive learning experience. The study also highlighted the challenges posed by limited resources and restricted access to laboratory equipment, proposing the adoption of innovative assessment methods, including virtual simulations, to overcome these limitations. The implications of the study underscored the importance of comprehensive teacher training, resource allocation, collaborative approaches, integration of technology, and curriculum design aligned with the documentation of scientific knowledge. The ultimate objective of this article was to contribute to the enhancement of science education and promote scientific literacy by offering practical insights for science teachers in effectively documenting students' scientific knowledge.
... Številni strokovnjaki (npr. Bangert-Drowns idr., 1991;Butler in Winne, 1995;Hattie in Timperley, 2007;Kluger in DeNisi, 1996;Sadler, 2010) so preučevali, kaj je tisto, kar naredi razliko med povratnimi informacijami, ki bodo najverjetneje pozitivno vplivale na učenje, ter tistimi, ki učenja najverjetneje ne bodo učinkovito podprle. Povratne informacije predstavljajo posredniški proces, ki naj bi podprl pomenljivo učenje za učence s spodbujanjem njihove uporabe informacij za vzpostavljanje povezav med zamislimi na podlagi povratnih informacij in njihovimi dejanji. ...
... Based on [9], feedback can be considered a formative method supported by acquiring knowledge and skills. Valuable feedback can provide the learner with corrective information, provide alternative solutions, bring information to clarify ideas, provide encouragement, or confirm that their answer is correct [73]. Quality feedback enables an overall increase in the quality of educational content. ...
Increasing the effectiveness of programming education has emerged as an important goal in teaching programming languages in the last decade. Automatic evaluation of the correctness of the student’s source code saves teachers time and effort and allows a more comprehensive focus on the preparation of assignments with integrated feedback. The study aims to present an approach that will enable effective testing of students’ source codes within object-oriented programming courses while minimising the demands on teachers when preparing the assignment. This approach also supports variability in testing and preventing student cheating. Based on the principles of different types of testing (black-box, white-box, grey-box), an integrated solution for source code verification was designed and verified. The basic idea is to use a reference class, which is assumed to be part of every assignment, as the correct solution. This reference class is compared to the student solution using the grey-box method. Due to their identical interface (created by assignment), comparing instance states and method outputs is a matter of basic programming language mechanisms. A significant advantage is that a random generation of test cases can be used in such a case, while the rules for their generation can be determined using simple formulas. The proposed procedure was implemented and gradually improved during 4 years on groups of bachelor students of applied informatics with a high level of acceptance.
... Specific and explanatory feedback proves especially beneficial through the three cognitive mechanisms mentioned previously (see also Shute, 2008). In addition, it is recommended that feedback be delivered promptly, particularly if the emphasis of the feedback is on the students' processes as opposed to task specifically (Hattie & Timperley, 2007). It is especially important not to restrict feedback to the end of the semester, school year, or unit of study, as this limits the opportunity to provide feedback in a timely manner to inform teacher instruction and student learning strategies. ...
Lay Description
What is already known about this topic
Students' early academic performance predicts end‐of‐year success.
Students' self‐regulated learning behaviours are another predictor of academic success.
Clickstream data have been used as an indicator of the application of self‐regulated learning strategies, particularly behaviours associated with seeking feedback.
Indicators of feedback‐seeking behaviours reflected via clickstream data have been shown to predict student learning.
Yet, how soon associations between early performance and such indicators of self‐regulated learning as feedback‐seeking are robust across different groups of learners, different learning circumstances, and different types of learning outcomes has yet to be more fully understood.
What this paper adds
We investigated whether performance and feedback‐seeking behaviours predict end‐of‐year learning outcomes at different points during the academic year across multiple cohorts of learners (2017–2018, 2018–2019, and 2019–2020) and using two different learning outcomes (class grades, AP exam scores).
One cohort was affected by COVID‐19 during the 2019–2020 academic year, allowing us to examine whether differences emerge amidst unprecedented circumstances.
We used assignment scores and online feedback‐seeking to predict end‐of‐year learning outcomes.
Assignment scores were positively associated with end‐of‐year grades.
First assignment performance predicted AP exam scores.
Use of feedback (an indication of self‐regulated learning behaviours) tended to predict learning outcomes, though not consistently across cohorts.
Implications for practice and/or policy
The findings from this study could improve understanding of how digital learning platform measurements predict end‐of‐year learning outcomes though also highlight the importance of context differences.
Such findings hold implications for early identification of at‐risk students and appreciation for differences between learners and contexts.
These findings also contribute to a growing understanding of the impact of the COVID‐19 pandemic on student engagement and learning.
... Im Sinne einer inklusiven Diagnostik gilt es, eine enge Verknüpfung von Diagnostik und Förderung zu gewährleisten: Im inklusiven Unterricht können alle Schüler*innen von individueller diagnostikbasierter Förderung sowohl durch differenzierte Rückmeldung (Hattie & Timperley, 2007;Mitchell, 2008;Prengel, 2016;Schäfer & Rittmeyer, 2015;Schreiner & Breit, 2019;Schütze et al., 2018) als auch durch das Anknüpfen an (fächerübergreifendes) Vorwissen profitieren (Hattie, 2012;Holzberger & Kunter, 2016;Stern et al., 2016). Prengel (2016, S. 49) verwendet diesbezüglich den Begriff "didaktische Diagnostik". ...
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... Outside of an official setting, supervisors may also provide ongoing informal feedback to employees. However, the success of performance appraisal in achieving (Hattie & Timperley, 2007). ...
... The use of video-recording, according to the empirical research, is an effective technique for evaluating and improving students' oral presentation skills (Hamilton, 2012;Guo, 2013;Nikolic, Stirling, & Ros, 2018). It can also help students obtain cognitive insights and identify their areas of improvement; student feedback additionally helps teachers assess and enhance students' communicative competence (Hattie & Timperley, 2007;Hamilton, 2012). ...
This paper has two primary goals: 1) to help students understand the effectiveness of using videos; and 2) to promote students’ motivation, interactivity, creativity and communication by designing their own video. The study was conducted at South East European University (SEEU) with 14 students. They were ethnic Albanian students, between 18 and 20 years old, who come from linguistically and culturally diverse backgrounds, but who were all enrolled in the ESP course for Social Sciences 1. Students were given the task of selecting a topic that is professionally linked to their field of study. They were then instructed to deliver an oral presentation in class according to established criteria from rubrics, and to produce the same presentation at home by using a video with self-evaluation rubrics. I conducted a survey comparing the motivation, experiences and challenges students faced while delievering an oral presentation in class vs. video-recorded presentations made at home.The preliminary research findings showed that most of the students were motivated to create their own videos because they were not limited by time or place: the asynchronous learning allows students to access materials, and to practice their skills, at any time that works for them. The majority of the students found this pilot project very interesting and engaging because it helped them develop their communication skills as well as to become more autonomous in learning English.
... Retroalimentación y guía: Esta tarea implica identificar tanto las fortalezas como las áreas de mejora de los estudiantes, ofreciendo comentarios específicos y claros que les permitan comprender en qué aspectos pueden mejorar. Además, el evaluador debe brindar recomendaciones y estrategias concretas para el desarrollo de habilidades y conocimientos, con el fin de facilitar el crecimiento académico de los estudiantes (Hattie & Timperley, 2007). Mediante una retroalimentación constructiva, el evaluador puede comunicar de manera clara y precisa tanto las fortalezas como las áreas de mejora del estudiante, fomentando así su desarrollo académico. ...
"Docencia e Investigación en Educación Superior" es una obra colectiva que ofrece una perspectiva enriquecedora y diversa sobre los desafíos y las oportunidades que enfrenta la educación superior en la actualidad. Compuesta por cinco capítulos independientes pero interconectados, esta obra proporciona una visión integral de temas críticos en el ámbito académico. El primer capítulo, destaca la importancia de la acreditación en la mejora de la calidad educativa. A través de una revisión sistemática, se analiza su impacto en las instituciones académicas. El segundo capítulo, investiga las decisiones de los estudiantes al seleccionar carreras en educación. Ofrece perspectivas esenciales para atraer y retener futuros educadores. El tercer capítulo, se enfoca en el proceso de evaluación universitaria y las competencias necesarias para llevarla a cabo de manera efectiva, promoviendo la calidad educativa. El cuarto capítulo, aborda cómo los estudiantes perciben la enseñanza en línea, un tema crucial en la era digital. El quinto y último capítulo, resalta la importancia de utilizar herramientas culturales y concretas, como el ábaco peruano, para enseñar matemáticas de manera efectiva. En conjunto, este libro colectivo ofrece una rica comprensión de la educación superior, desde la calidad y acreditación hasta la elección de carreras, evaluación, enseñanza en línea y métodos pedagógicos innovadores. Es una lectura esencial para educadores, investigadores y académicos que buscan mejorar la calidad y la relevancia de la educación superior en un mundo en constante cambio.
... One of the premises of the theory is that active participation in the learning process appears to optimize it. For example, Hattie and Temperley [11] argue that self-assessment can be used by learners as a self-regulatory skill that can stimulate learning. In the field of education, self-appraisal is considered one of the of self-assessment components, and is defined as the learner's ability to evaluate their abilities, knowledge, and cognitive strategies through a variety of self-monitoring processes [12]. ...
Background
The purpose of this study was to investigate how feedback and self-assessment strategies affect performance and retention of manual skills in a group of chiropractic students.
Methods
Seventy-five students participated in two spinal manipulation (SM) learning sessions using a force-sensing table. They were recruited between May and November 2022 during HVLA technical courses. Students were randomly assigned into three different groups: participants in group 1 received visual feedback, those in group 2 received visual feedback after self-assessment, and participants in group 3 (C) received no feedback. During the first session, participants started with one block of 3 familiarization trials, followed by two blocks of 6 SM HVLA (high velocity low amplitude) posterior-to-anterior thoracic SM trials, with 3 trials performed with a target force of 450 N and 3 others at 800 N. They received feedback according to their group during the first block, but no feedback was provided during the second block. All participants were invited to participate in a second session for the retention test and to perform a new set SM without any form of feedback.
Results
Results showed that visual feedback and visual feedback in addition to self-assessment did not improve short-term SM performance, nor did it improve performance at the one-week retention test. The group that received visual feedback and submitted to self-assessment increased the difference between the target force and the peak force applied, which can be considered a decrease in performance.
Conclusion
No learning effects between the three groups of students exposed to different feedback and self-assessment learning strategies were highlighted in the present study. However, future research on innovative motor learning strategies could explore the role of external focus of attention, self-motivation and autonomy in SM performance training.
... V digitalna orodja je mogoče implementirati tudi povratne informacije učencem o pravilnosti reševanja. Obstajajo empirični dokazi, da imajo lahko povratne informacije pozitiven učinek na učenje, vendar pa je pojasnjevalna povratna informacija koristnejša kot zgolj povratna informacija o pravilnosti reševanja (Hattie in Timperley 2007). Pojasnjevalna povratna informacija zagotavlja informacije o tem, zakaj so učenčevi odgovori pravilni ali nepravilni, zato lahko pomaga odpraviti obstoječe napačne predstave (Moreno in Mayer 2007). ...
... Smiselno je torej, da je način njenega podajanja vključen v učni načrt, da učitelj ob njegovi pripravi razmišlja o načinih ocenjevanja in preverjanja znanja ter tudi o načinih podajanja povratne informacije (Carless in Winstone 2020). Pri podajanju povratne informacije je pomembna odgovornost učiteljev (način podajanja povratne informacije) in študentov (ki morajo povratno informacijo sprejeti, jo prepoznati ter na njeni osnovi izboljšati svoje znanje) (Hast in Healy 2018;Hattie in Timperley 2007;Lipnevich, Berg in Smith 2016;Winstone idr. 2017), pomembna je torej »pismenost na področju povratne informacije« (Carless in Winstone 2020). ...
... Commerce teachers foster a culture of continuous improvement by actively seeking feedback from students and colleagues. Student feedback on the relevance and impact of value-oriented content aids teachers in refining their strategies and adapting their approaches to better suit student needs (Hattie & Timperley, 2007). ...
... In contrast, adaptivity at the micro-level modifies a learning task based on an individual's current needs based on real-time measurements of the learning process (Plass & Pawar, 2020). Such adaptivity at the micro-level can encompass feedback approaches (Hattie & Timperley, 2007) or adaptive scaffolding (Radkowitsch et al., 2021). In any case, micro-level adaptivity requires reliable behavioral measures of the learning process, including behavioral engagement and disengagement measures, to provide students with optimal support at the optimal time in a specific situation in personalized learning. ...
En este capítulo, presentamos un proyecto de innovación docente, cuyo objetivo es implementar, en las asignaturas de contenido impartidas en inglés, una serie de medidas prácticas que busquen la mejora de la cali- dad de la docencia en los grados de ingeniería de la Universidad de Cantabria y de la adquisición de competencias del idioma por parte de los estudiantes.
This study reports on part of a larger research project that investigates the role of students’ first language in learning English as a foreign language (EFL) in the context of Japanese higher education. Despite the prevalent use of peer review in EFL writing classes, students’ use of different languages and the effects of English proficiencies on collaborative interaction as mediated in written peer feedback remain underresearched. To add to the rather sparse literature, this study comparatively analysed peer feedback provided by high- and low-proficiency Japanese EFL students and conducted stimulated recall interviews to determine the factors affecting their language choices. The text analysis presented a stark contrast in students’ language choices stemming mainly from a difference in the type of feedback provided by each group: ‘corrective feedback’ versus ‘complimentary overall comment’. The stimulated recall interview accounts suggested that this polarization is attributable mostly to the proficiency gap between peer dyads and the affective need to contribute to the peer-review process. Inconsistent with the reports of previous studies that peer review benefits all students involved, the advanced-level participants voiced serious doubts about its effectiveness.
This study explores the impact of screencast feedback on maths tests for junior and high school students. While prior research emphasises the influence of feedback on learning, its effectiveness varies with type and delivery. Although studies in higher education observe improved precision and emotional connections through screencast feedback, its applicability in secondary education remains understudied. The authors surveyed 99 students, collecting responses via an 11-item questionnaire after the students had received feedback. Through thematic analysis, they found 72% favoured video feedback due to its clarity, depth and personal touch. Conversely, 17% preferred written feedback for efficiency. These findings underscore the benefits of screencasting feedback, highlighting its comprehensibility and individualised nature. Given the rise of digital learning, educators are encouraged to adopt screencasting as a valuable tool for enhancing feedback in academic settings.
This paper explores the integration of the scaffolding teaching approach to promote cooperation and collaborative learning within the context of English language education. Scaffolding, a pedagogical technique rooted in constructivist theories, is gaining recognition for its potential to enhance student engagement and comprehension. This article investigates the theoretical foundations of scaffolding, its practical application in English language classrooms, and the resulting benefits in fostering cooperation among students. By emphasizing scaffolding in language instruction, educators can cultivate an environment conducive to cooperative learning and language acquisition.
Providing feedback to students is one of the most powerful practices that have enhanced education in the world today. Despite there being useful feedback provided by students’ self-regulation and teachers’ feedback provision, there is still a need for feedback that provides meaningful insights or actionable information about the reasons behind it, which is not provided by the said feedback. This paper explores how we can use explainable machine learning to compute data-driven feedback concerning students’ academic performance and generate actionable recommendations which are beneficial for students and teachers. This method has been developed based on LMS (Learning Management System) data from a university course. The effectiveness of the proposed approach has been evaluated with the results demonstrating 90% accuracy.
The study investigates the effects of using immediate feedback as a teaching strategy. Additionally, the impacts of immediate feedback and gender on students' classroom learning outcomes were examined. The study was designed as a quasi-experimental, pretest-posttest, experimental, and control group. The sample consisted of 225 junior secondary school level 2 (JSS 2) students. Students were chosen from two intact coeducational classes and split into experimental and control groups. All relevant data was collected using a study tool called the Science, Technology, English Language & Mathematics Achievement Test-Questionnaire (STEMAT-Q), which was developed, validated, and used. Data collected were analysed using the mean, standard deviation, Student's t-test, and analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). The study's findings demonstrate that an immediate feedback technique significantly affects the learning outcomes of students. However, for treated male and female students, the interaction effects of the immediate feedback technique and gender on classroom learning outcomes were not significant. Immediate feedback is particularly successful at addressing student confusion, correcting errors, identifying learning gaps, bridging gender differences in student learning outcomes, and inspiring students to learn well. Based on the above findings, the researcher recommends the provision of immediate feedback for students during the learning process or class discussion or activities to enhance their learning skills and help them retain key concepts, ideas, and principles.
Kahoot! is one of game-based students' response systems (GSRS) that can be used as formative assessment. Formative assessment helps teacher to identify students who struggle to understand the material, to develop skills that they are difficult to acquire, to meet standards competence. Therefore adjustment should be made to the lesson. However, the use of Kahoot! as formative assessment is rarely implemented in Indonesian universities. To fill this void, this study aims to explore the lecture who uses Kahoot! as a formative assessment in their class. The researcher used the construct by Wiliam & Thompson (2007) to characterize formative assessment. The purpose of this study is to reveal more information of the use of Kahoot! as formative assessment in higher education. A qualitative method was presented in this study. The tutor who used Kahoot! as a formative assessment in their class was chosen as the participant. The data were acquired through observation of the tutor. The research findings found out that through Kahoot! as formative assessment, the tutor could develop activities such as clarifying information, doing classroom discussion and also providing feedback. An attractive finding also found that Kahoot! as formative assessment also provides students self-assessment and self-improvement. The result shows that besides being used as a tool for assess students, Kahoot! also provide learners to clarify the question, classroom discussion and also provide feedback, it depends on how the teacher used and forced it. Keywords: Formative Assessment: Kahoot!, Higher Education
Pentingnya menciptakan pengalaman pembelajaran yang bermakna dan relevan dalam pelajaran Pendidikan Agama Kristen memunculkan desain materi pembelajaran berbasis proyek. Pembelajaran aktif melalui proyek dapat memotivasi siswa, meningkatkan keterlibatan, dan meningkatkan pemahaman tentang ajaran agama Kristen. Rumusan masalah meliputi pentingnya melibatkan siswa secara aktif, manfaat pembelajaran berbasis proyek, prinsip desain materi, langkah-langkah desain, dan evaluasi pembelajaran berbasis proyek. Tujuan penulisan adalah menjelaskan pentingnya melibatkan siswa, memaparkan manfaat pembelajaran berbasis proyek, menjelaskan prinsip dan langkah-langkah desain, serta mengevaluasi pembelajaran berbasis proyek. Metode penelitian yang digunakan adalah deskriptif dan analisis data. Pembahasan mencakup pentingnya melibatkan siswa secara aktif dalam pembelajaran agama Kristen dan pengenalan tentang pembelajaran berbasis proyek. Pembahasan juga menyoroti manfaat pembelajaran berbasis proyek, prinsip desain materi, langkah-langkah desain, serta evaluasi pembelajaran berbasis proyek. Simpulan menyatakan bahwa pembelajaran aktif dan pembelajaran berbasis proyek saling melengkapi dalam membentuk iman siswa, mengembangkan keterampilan berpikir kritis dan kreatif, meningkatkan kolaborasi dan kemampuan komunikasi, serta menghubungkan pembelajaran dengan kehidupan nyata siswa The importance of creating meaningful and relevant learning experiences in Christian Religious Education has led to the emergence of project-based learning material design. Active learning through projects can motivate students, enhance engagement, and improve understanding of Christian teachings. The problem formulation includes the importance of actively involving students, the benefits of project-based learning, principles of material design, design steps, and project-based learning evaluation. The purpose of this writing is to explain the significance of student involvement, present the benefits of project-based learning, explain design principles and steps, as well as evaluate project-based learning. The research method used is descriptive and data analysis. The discussion covers the importance of actively involving students in Christian religious education and the introduction to project-based learning. The discussion also highlights the benefits of project-based learning, principles of material design, design steps, and project-based learning evaluation. The conclusion states that active learning and project-based learning complement each other in shaping students' faith, developing critical and creative thinking skills, enhancing collaboration and communication abilities, and connecting learning to students' real-life experiences.
Although digital dynamic multi-representation tools have been shown to provide
potential for developing understanding, little is known about the exact conditions
under which they should be explored. This paper reports from a design research study
on fifth graders’ exploration of a dynamic multi-representation tool on dot arrays for
multiplication, seeking to deepen the understanding and justify the commutative
property. The qualitative analysis of learning processes reveals that although various
connections are discovered by different students, they articulate only some of them
explicitly, so they are rarely combined to a justification. We conclude that for
exploiting the potential of multi-representation tools in depth, more scaffolding for
articulations is required, which can be realized by embedding the tool into a more
comprehensive learning environment.
A presente proposta de pesquisa teve como objetivo compreender teoricamente os conceitos de Design Instrucional e Aprendizagem Autogerida e como a união entre tais métodos, ou seja, das estratégias de organização da aprendizagem e a autonomia da construção do conhecimento podem contribuir para um aprendizado efetivo e significativo em todos os níveis de desempenho educacional. Tendo como método de pesquisa uma revisão bibliográfica, percebeu-se que a combinação entre o método de aprendizagem autodirigida associado ao design de ensino mediado pela tecnologia garante a efetivação da autonomia na construção do conhecimento e da formação crítica de sujeitos atuantes no contexto social, político e econômico onde estão inseridos. Conclui-se que a aprendizagem autogerida associada ao design instrucional do ensino, possibilita uma grande melhoria na qualidade da formação de estudantes e professores, bem como nas práticas em sala de aula, ampliando significativamente o repertório de possibilidades na perspectiva de garantir a efetivação da construção autônoma do conhecimento, assim como exercendo um papel de geração de sentido no processo de ensino e aprendizagem exercido por sujeitos ativos e capazes de desenvolver meios para a consolidação do seu próprio aprendizado.
Strategi pembelajaran mengacu pada rencana dan pendekatan yang direncanakan secara sadar untuk membantu peserta didik memahami, mengasimilasi, dan mengaplikasikan informasi serta keterampilan baru. Tujuan utamanya adalah untuk meningkatkan proses pembelajaran dan mencapai hasil yang diinginkan. Penting untuk merencanakan dan memilih strategi pembelajaran yang sesuai dengan tujuan pembelajaran yang ingin dicapai, serta mempertimbangkan kebutuhan dan karakteristik siswa yang sedang belajar. Buku yang disusun dalam 16 bab merupakan karya yang sangat menarik untuk dibaca dan dipahami. Adapun pembahasan dalam buku ini tentang Pengertian, Tujuan, dan Ruang Lingkup Strategi Pembelajaran, Perbedaan Model, Pendekatan, Strategi, Metode, Teknik dan Taktik Pembelajaran, Karakteristik Bahan Ajar, Keterampilan Dasar Mengajar, Dasar Pertimbangan Pemilihan Strategi Pembelajaran, Strategi Pembelajaran Ekspositori, Strategi Pembelajaran Inkuiri, Strategi Pembelajaran Tematik, Strategi Pembelajaran Aktif, Strategi Pembelajaran Kooperatif, Strategi Pembelajaran Kontekstual, Strategi Pembelajaran Berbasis Masalah, Strategi Pembelajaran Berbasis Multiple Intelligences, Strategi Pembelajaran Afektif, Strategi Pembelajaran Blended Learning, Strategi Pembelajaran pada Anak Berkebutuhan Khusus.
The release and rapid diffusion of ChatGPT have caught the attention of educators worldwide. Some educators are enthusiastic about its potential to support learning. Others are concerned about how it might circumvent learning opportunities or contribute to misinformation. To better understand reactions about ChatGPT concerning education, we analyzed Twitter data (16,830,997 tweets from 5,541,457 users). Based on topic modeling and sentiment analysis, we provide an overview of global perceptions and reactions to ChatGPT regarding education. ChatGPT triggered a massive response on Twitter, with education being the most tweeted content topic. Topics ranged from specific (e.g., cheating) to broad (e.g., opportunities), which were discussed with mixed sentiment. We traced that authority decisions may influence public opinions. We discussed that the average reaction on Twitter (e.g., using ChatGPT to cheat in exams) differs from discussions in which education and teaching–learning researchers are likely to be more interested (e.g., ChatGPT as an intelligent learning partner). This study provides insights into people's reactions when new groundbreaking technology is released and implications for scientific and policy communication in rapidly changing circumstances.
Experiential learning is a powerful tool for cultivating autonomous learners and promoting meaningful knowledge and skill transfer to the workplace. This approach to learning became effective when incorporated into organizational training programs, as it boosted learners' willingness to learn and helped to reduce worker turnover. In the wake of the 2021 Great Resignation, in which millions of Americans left their jobs, organizations must embrace evolving forms of instruction and guidance to retain their workers and remain competitive. Organizations spend upwards of $1252 per worker on training. When such organizations miscarry or are unsuccessful in training workers, these workers leave to find different work. This chapter provides an agenda for organizations seeking to implement experiential learning, including peer-group learning, and mentoring. By leveraging these tools, organizations can reap the benefits of experiential learning and ensure that their workers have the skills and knowledge they need to thrive in the ever-changing business landscape.
Purpose:
The purpose of this study was to enrich understanding about the perceived benefits and drawbacks of constructed response short-answer questions (CR-SAQs) in preclerkship assessment using Norcini's criteria for good assessment as a framework.
Methods:
This multi-institutional study surveyed students and faculty at three institutions. A survey using Likert scale and open-ended questions was developed to evaluate faculty and student perceptions of CR-SAQs using the criteria of good assessment to determine the benefits and drawbacks . Descriptive statistics and Chi-square analyses are presented, and open responses were analyzed using directed content analysis to describe benefits and drawbacks of CR-SAQs.
Results:
A total of 260 students (19%) and 57 faculty (48%) completed the survey. Students and faculty report that the benefits of CR-SAQs are authenticity, deeper learning (educational effect), and receiving feedback (catalytic effect). Drawbacks included feasibility, construct validity, and scoring reproducibility. Students and faculty found CR-SAQs to be both acceptable (can show your reasoning, partial credit) and unacceptable (stressful, not USMLE format).
Conclusions:
CR-SAQs are a method of aligning innovative curricula with assessment and could enrich the assessment toolkit for medical educators.
This chapter summarizes evidence-informed practices for the career-long training of CBT supervisors. Training matters as it enhances the skillset of CBT supervisors, leading to more competent CBT clinicians (supervisees). We assume that effective training is characterized by a collaborative partnership between supervisors and trainers, enabling a co-construction of expertise, as exemplified by “learning expertise.” We first review relevant theory, research, and expert-consensus statements on training CBT supervisors. Our focus is on career-long training, based on developmentally-informed training processes. Second, specific practical recommendations are offered toward an effective training strategy, starting with the adoption of the training cycle (Fig. 1) as a guiding rationale. Informed by the reviewed evidence, we outline key recommendations related to this training cycle and provide practical examples of developmentally appropriate training in supervision (e.g., introductory workshops for groups of novice supervisors; individual consultancy for advanced supervisors).KeywordsDevelopmental approachEvidence-basedSupervisor trainingTraining cycleExpertiseClinical supervisionCBTCompetenceBehavioral rehearsalEvaluationFeedbackTeachingLearningModelingLearning expertise
Corrective Feedback is a hot topic in the field of second language acquisition in recent years. Its research is helpful for second language learners to acquire target language successfully. Based on the research results at home and abroad in the past two decades, this paper firstly analyzes the definition of Corrective Feedback, including the definition and classification of Corrective Feedback. Secondly, it introduces the research content of Corrective Feedback at home and abroad, mainly including the overall effect of Corrective Feedback on second language acquisition, the effectiveness of different classification of feedback and the four main factors affecting the effect of Corrective Feedback. Finally, the current development trend of Corrective Feedback research is summarized and concluded.
This proposal aims to investigate the use of Emotional Motivation in English Language Instruction at Hunan University of Science and Engineering (HUSE) in China. The study aims to create a framework for integrating emotional motivation into English instruction, tailored to the students' unique needs. The study will categorize participants according to their age, gender, educational background, and years of experience in teaching English. It will assess emotional motivation in terms of caring, expectation, tolerance, and gratitude. Additionally, it will explore differences in assessment based on respondent profiles. This will provide insights into Chinese students' perspectives on emotional motivation in language instruction. The study will also examine concerns related to using emotional motivation in English instruction.
Purpose
The aim of the study is to explore perceptions of the impact of assessment feedback by international undergraduate nursing students. Research to date indicates that summative assessment feedback may impact significantly on student achievement but if it is undertaken sub optimally or does not provide students with the opportunity to engage with the process and reflexively respond, it can also be exceptionally damaging to the learning experience.
Design/methodology/approach
A scoping exercise of overall student feedback experience was initially collated via the adoption of an Interpretive Phenomenological Approach (IPA). Participants were recruited via purposive sampling and the LEGO® Serious Play® method was used to collect data. Analysis with Quirkos software was used to examine the salience as well as commonality of findings as an integral part of a recognised five-step thematic analytical approach.
Findings
Feedback was perceived, by students, as significantly impacting factor in relation to their overall progression, attainment and retention rates. Themes generated from the findings evidenced student perceptions that summative feedback is a positive driver and source of motivation for academic success and progression. It was perceived that levels of attainment were related to the clarity, quality and individualised nature of feedback that students received and that this was perceived to be evident in their final grades. These were accompanied by perceptions that feedback clarity also determined the potential of breaking down perceived student barriers to learning, their perceived capacity for effective assignment planning and preparation and the likelihood of them having any positive collective or individual interpersonal relationships with their tutors. Summarised, students perceived that feedback ought to lead to student empowerment in managing their studies and as such it ought to be clear, straightforward and non-ambiguous.
Research limitations/implications
The methodological design of the study means that generalisability from its findings was never intended or possible. However, there may be the potential transferability of findings to similar institutions and contexts of nurse education with students who have similar demographic profiling. The study was also a means of providing an insight into the lived experience of students which could be used in the prospective adaptation of feedback mechanisms for staff at a local level within Higher Education.
Practical implications
The study reveals the perceived impact of gamification as a mechanism of summative assessment as conveyed by a designated group of students. Whilst specific recommendations for change can only be made within the context specificity of the research, there may be aspects of the findings which are potentially transferable to other similar contexts of Higher Education delivery whose pedagogical approaches mirror those in operation at the institution where the research was undertaken. It became apparent that the standardisation of feedback approaches offered many opportunities to improve existing systems. The issue of monitoring workloads is also of significance in terms of the level and degree of summative assessment and feedback that academic staff can undertake.
Originality/value
The study revealed the perceived magnitude of assessment feedback on progression, attainment and retention rates, alongside the perceived need for a universal feedback template and the opportunity to provide audio-video feedback. This study adds to existing knowledge in the field of pedagogic practice about both the execution of LEGO® Serious Play® as a research methodology and why the perceptions of feedback as articulated and illuminated by a group of contemporary nursing students ought to matter in the context of Higher Education.
The effects of written feedback on accuracy in reading with 5 students enrolled in a self-contained classroom for behaviorally disordered children and youth were evaluated. Written feedback, placed on students' reading assignments, was evaluated in a multiple baseline design across students. The outcomes indicated improved accuracy in reading when written feedback was provided by the teacher. This finding was replicated across all 5 students. The students also rated the written feedback procedure favorably. Differences between previous research and the present outcomes were examined. The benefits of using written feedback as an intervention procedure with behaviorally disordered children, youth, and other student populations are discussed.
Previous studies have demonstrated the interactive effects of goal setting and feedback. The present study examined process and outcome feedback as moderators of the relation of goal setting to performance, task-strategy quality, appropriateness of information search, effort, and self-confidence. Using a stock-investment computer simulation, 85 students worked under experimental conditions in which goals and process and outcome feedback were varied in a completely crossed factorial design. Results support the hypothesis that both process and outcome feedback interact with goal setting to enhance performance. In addition, the interaction of goal setting and process feedback was more strongly related to the quality of information search and task strategy than the interaction of goal setting and outcome feedback; the latter was more strongly related to self-confidence and effort than was the interaction between goal setting and process feedback. We discuss the results in terms of expanding the role of studying feedback in research on goal setting. Feedback and goal setting have become integral management tools because they are thought to serve both informational and motivational functions that enhance an individual's work performance (Kopelman, 1986; Locke, Cartledge, & Koeppel, 1968). Feedback can provide information about the correctness, accuracy, and adequacy of work behaviors. Motivationally, feedback may be necessary for instilling a sense of competence, accomplishment, and control in workers (Bandura, 1977; Hackman & Oldham, 1976). Likewise, the beneficial effect of specific and challenging goals on an individual's task performance is a well-documented phenomenon (Locke, Shaw,
Self-regulated learning (SRL) is a pivot upon which students’ achievement turns. We explain how feedback is inherent in and a prime determiner of processes that constitute SRL, and review areas of research that elaborate contemporary models of how feedback functions in learning. Specifically, we begin by synthesizing a model of self-regulation based on contemporary educational and psychological literatures. Then we use that model as a structure for analyzing the cognitive processes involved in self-regulation, and for interpreting and integrating findings from disparate research traditions. We propose an elaborated model of SRL that can embrace these research findings and that spotlights the cognitive operation of monitoring as the hub of self-regulated cognitive engagement. The model is then used to reexamine (a) recent research on how feedback affects cognitive engagement with tasks and (b) the relation among forms of engagement and achievement. We conclude with a proposal that research on feedback and research on self-regulated learning should be tightly coupled, and that the facets of our model should be explicitly addressed in future research in both areas.
In most educational programs, a substantial proportion of teacher and student time is devoted to activities which involve (or lead directly to) evaluation by the teacher of student products or behavior. This review summarizes results from 14 specific fields of research that cast light on the relationships between classroom evaluation practices and student outcomes. Particular attention is given to outcomes involving learning strategies, motivation, and achievement. Where possible, mechanisms are suggested that could account for the reported effects. The conclusions derived from the individual fields are then merged to produce an integrated summary with clear implications for effective educational practice. The primary conclusion is that classroom evaluation has powerful direct and indirect impacts, which may be positive or negative, and thus deserves very thoughtful planning and implementation.
Although persons who have labored to change self-concepts in naturally occurring situations have often experienced difficulty, researchers have reported considerable success in this endeavor. The present study sought to reconcile these contradictory findings by examining how 46 female undergraduates responded behaviorally and psychologically when they received feedback that disconfirmed their self-conceptions. Results show that self-discrepant feedback produced changes in self-ratings only when Ss had no opportunity to reject and refute it. If Ss had opportunity to behaviorally discredit discrepant feedback, they did so and subsequently displayed minimal self-rating change. The authors propose some important differences between transitory fluctuations and enduring changes in self-ratings and suggest some conditions that must be met before lasting self-concept changes will occur. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Attempts to organize, summarize, or explain one's own behavior in a particular domain result in the formation of cognitive structures about the self or self-schemata. Self-schemata are cognitive generalizations about the self, derived from past experience, that organize and guide the processing of the self-related information contained in an individual's social experience. The role of schemata in processing information about the self was examined in 2 experiments by linking self-schemata to a number of specific empirical referents. In Exp I, 48 female undergraduates either with schemata in a particular domain or without schemata were selected using the Adjective Check List, and their performance on a variety of cognitive tasks was compared. In Exp II, the selective influence of self-schemata on interpreting information about one's own behavior was investigated in 47 Ss. Results of both experiments indicate that self-schemata facilitate the processing of information about the self, contain easily retrievable behavioral evidence, provide a basis for the confident self-prediction of behavior on schema-related dimensions, and make individuals resistant to counterschematic information. The relationship of self-schemata to cross-situational consistency in behavior and the implications of self-schemata for attribution theory are discussed. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
begins with a brief overview of the historical connections between developmental and educational psychology, with special reference to some key theorists / volumes of the "Journal of Educational Psychology" published since 1910 are sampled for clues about historical trends in developmental research in education / contemporary issues in learning, curriculum, instruction, and assessment are examined from a developmental perspective to serve as guideposts for interpreting the studies reviewed in the rest of the chapter / children's academic development is examined chronologically according to 3 levels of schooling—preschool, primary grades, and upper elementary grades—with particular attention paid to transitions in each one / several key issues are examined at each age period [preschool–8th grade] as representative of developmental issues and research in educational psychology
discusses 2 developmental themes in schooling that help to integrate developmental research in educational psychology / those themes are (a) children's emerging theories about education and (b) the integration of cognitive and motivational strategies for self-regulated learning during childhood (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The question of how affect arises and what affect indicates is examined from a feedback-based viewpoint on self-regulation. Using the analogy of action control as the attempt to diminish distance to a goal, a second feedback system is postulated that senses and regulates the rate at which the action-guiding system is functioning. This second system is seen as responsible for affect. Implications of these assertions and issues that arise from them are addressed in the remainder of the article. Several issues relate to the emotion model itself; others concern the relation between negative emotion and disengagement from goals. Relations to 3 other emotion theories are also addressed. The authors conclude that this view on affect is a useful supplement to other theories and that the concept of emotion is easily assimilated to feedback models of self-regulation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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A recently completed review and statistical integration of the quantitative research on the feedback college teachers get from student ratings yielded an overall effect size of 342. This indicates a persistent positive effect for feedback, but this small difference has modest practical significance. Why has this intuitively appealing approach to instructional improvement been so unimpressive in empirical tests? Using Cook and Campbell's (1979) threats-to-validity framework, we examine methodological and conceptual issues in the areas of internal validity, statistical conclusion validity, external validity, and construct validity
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This study assessed the effects on second language learning of variations in homework written feedback that either suppressed student errors or made them salient. Eighty students from two college Spanish courses were randomly assigned to treatment groups for a six-week period. Performance data were collected before and after treatment, as well as from homework during treatment. Analysis of variance blocking on pretest revealed significant achievement increases for treated students independent of course membership. Planned comparisons pooled across courses showed achievement was consistently superior under salient error conditions and in particular with constructively critical feedback. Results support the notion that the written performance of students learning a second language can benefit most by focusing on homework errors in a motivationally favorable manner. Relevance of the findings for instructional theory and second language teaching are discussed.
The incentive model of the effects of reward and punishment on human learning has often been researched. To estimate the relative effects of three types and three combinations of feedback on children’s discrimination learning, a meta-analysis was performed on the findings of 89 studies. In general, reward campared to punishment or to reward plus punishment is the least efficient feedback for teaching children discrimination materials. Reward plus punishment appears to result in the best performance. However, in four comparisons of punishment versus reward plus punishment, punishment is either as effective or more effective than the combination. The data also suggest that these findings are also mediated by the type of feedback used. Punishment also seems to be comparatively more effective when the task is simple rather than complex. Punishment results in the best performance, compared to reward plus punishment, when the child is bright, upper class, and in the fourth or higher grades
This review focuses on the intrinsic character of academic work in elementary and secondry schools and the way that work is experienced by teachers and students in classrooms. The first section contains a review of recent research in cognitive psychology on the intellectual demands of the tasks contained in the school curriculum, with particular attention to the inherent complexity of most of the tasks students encounter. The findings of this research are brought to bear on the issue of direct versus indirect instruction. The second section is directed to studies of how academic work is accomplished in classroom environments. Classrooms appear to shape the content of the curriculum in fundamental ways for all students and especially those who find academic work difficult. In addition, the processes that are likely to have the greatest long-term consequences are the most difficult to teach in classrooms. The paper concludes with an analysis of issues related to improving instruction and extending current directions in research on teaching.
Two experiments were conducted to investigate the effects of delay of feedback on immediate and delayed transfer tasks involving different pattern recognition strategies. The four conditions of delay of feedback in both experiments were 0, 10, 20, and 30 s, respectively. Among the major findings was that delay of feedback resulted in greater retention of the concepts underlying construction of the different patterns, in all transfer tasks. The results extend the range of the delayed retention effect and are interpreted as support for the Kulhavy-Anderson interference-perseveration hypothesis.
Much research has shown that negative feedback has different motivational consequences for low- and high-self-esteem persons (low and high SEs, respectively). Primarily on the basis of laboratory experiments of task performance, it has been suggested that low SEs are much more likely than high SEs to become demotivated in the face of negative feedback. The present studies sought to explore the generalizability of such findings to (1) a more naturalistic setting (Study 1) and (2) a behavioral domain different from task performance (Study 2). Study 1 explored the impact of students' self-esteem and feedback from an initial course examination on their subsequent exam performance. As expected, low SEs performed much worse than high SEs subsequent to the receipt of negative feedback; following positive feedback the two groups performed equally on the subsequent exam. In Experiment 2, participants played the role of managers who had just received feedback that their willingness to communicate certain information either elicited negative outcomes (negative feedback condition) or did not (control condition). As predicted, low SEs expressed much less motivation than high SEs to communicate related information in the former than the latter condition, especially if the negative feedback was more threatening to their well-being in the organization. There were no differences between the two groups in the control condition. Theoretical and practical implications and limitations of the findings are discussed.
This paper proposes a model of individual feedback seeking behaviors (FSB). Individuals are posited to seek feedback while negotiating their organizational environments in the pursuit of valued goals. The model portrays several motivations for FSB based on the value of feedback to individuals and outlines two predominant strategies of FSB, monitoring and inquiry. The costs and benefits of each strategy are discussed. Hypotheses concerning both an individual's level of FSB and subsequent strategy choice are subsequently derived. FSB is proposed as an important component of the feedback process. The concluding discussion focuses on the contribution of this perspective to the current organization behavior feedback literature.
To estimate the instructional effects of cues, participation, and corrective feedback on learning, 94 effect sizes were calculated from statistical data in 54 studies containing a combined sample of 14,689 students in approximately 700 classes. The mean of the study-weighted effect sizes is .97, which suggests average percentiles on learning outcomes of 83 and 50, respectively, for experimental and control groups. The strong effects appeared constant from elementary level through college, and across socioeconomic levels, races, private and public schools, and community types. In addition, the effects were not significantly different across the categories of methodological rigor such as experiments and quasi-experiments.
Classroom-process data indicate that teachers’ verbal praise cannot be equated with reinforcement. Typically, such praise is used infrequently, without contingency, specificity, or credibility. Often it is not even intended as reinforcement, and even when it is, it frequently has some other function. The meanings and functions of behaviors typically included under the category of teacher praise are determined by the degree of congruence between verbal and nonverbal components and by the context in which the interaction occurs. Much teacher praise is determined more by teachers’ perceptions of student needs than by the quality of student conduct or performance. Considerations of classroom feasibility and probable student response to teachers’ attempts at social reinforcement suggest that teacher praise should remain infrequent, but that it could be made much more effective. Attribution theory is an important supplement to social learning/reinforcement theory for suggesting guidelines for praising effectively.
Making self-serving social comparisons of performance depends on the freedom with which we can construct post hoc estimates of our own performance and that of comparison others. Three studies test the counterintuitive hypothesis that we make the most self-serving comparisons when (a) it is easy to construct our own standing on a dimension (in a positive direction) and (b) the standing of comparison others is relatively fixed (thus not easily constructed). In the first two studies, participants received performance feedback for themselves and others that each varied in susceptibility to construction. In Study 3, the availability of performance feedback for self and others was varied. Analyses on ratings of comparative performance showed that all studies supported the hypothesis. The effect seemed to derive from self-enhancement rather than denigration of others. Moreover, individuals in the high-self-construction/low-other-construction conditions rated performance as relatively more personally important and showed marginally less negative affect.
A meta-analysis of findings on feedback timing and human verbal learning showed that a variety of results have been obtained in 53 separate studies of the topic. Applied studies using actual classroom quizzes and real learning materials have usually found immediate feedback to be more effective than delayed. Experimental studies of acquisition of test content have usually produced the opposite result. Laboratory studies of list learning have produced a variety of results, but the variation in results seems to be related systematically to features of the studies.
Athough a number of previous narrative reviews have found reinforcement to be effective in the management of classroom behavior problems, lack of a statistical methodology for analyzing singe-case design has prevented precise comparisons of many of the parameters of reinforcement. This investigation uses a regression approach to generate effect sizes for a quantitative synthesis of single-case studies. Five parameters of reinforcement approaches in classroom behavior management were investigated: type of treatment, topography of behavior treated, administrative arrangements, agent administering the treatment, and setting. Although few main effect differences were found within any one parameter, significant, robust interaction effects were found between the presence of reinforcement and topography, reinforcement and setting, and setting and administrative arrangements. Implications for both practice and research methodology are discussed.
Two studies are reported which compare the responses of 14‐16 year old Filipino and Nepalese school students to learning process questionnaires based on the 3P Model of Learning (Biggs & Telfer, 1987) to those previously reported for similar aged Australian and Hong Kong students. Evidence was found for a similar structure of learning processes in each culture. Moreover, in each culture students who reported deeper and more achievement‐oriented approaches to learning tended to be more successful academically and to have higher academic self‐esteem. However, little evidence was found to support the contention that Asian learners were more prone to rote learning than were the Australians. The Nepalese students in particular tended to report higher levels of both deep and achieving approaches to learning than the other students. A possible explanation for this is that the conceptions of learning on which the 3P Model is based may not be appropriate in Nepalese culture.
A review of research and theory on cognitive processes and their relationship to instructional technique since the early 1970s looks at the contributions of schema theory and artificial intelligence and their instructional implications, including cognitive load theory, worked examples for learning problem solving, and physical vs. mental integration. (MSE)
This study investigated the effects of goals and goal-progress feedback on children's reading comprehension self-efficacy and skill. Subjects, 30 lower-middle-class students from 2 fifth-grade classes in an elementary school who did not experience excessive decoding problems and who regularly received remedial reading instruction, were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 treatment groups: product goal, process goal, or a combination of process goal and progress feedback. Subjects received daily 35-minute training for 15 school days, working on instructional material covering comprehension of main ideas. Results indicated that (1) the combined treatment group demonstrated significantly higher performance on the self-efficacy and skill tests than the process-goal and product-goal conditions; and (2) combined and process-goal conditions judged perceived progress in strategy learning higher than product-goal subjects. Findings suggest that remedial readers benefited from explicit feedback on their mastery of a comprehension strategy. (One table of data is included; 23 references are attached.) (RS)
This study investigated students' perceptions of their teachers and classmates in relation to reported academic help seeking. 177 students at grades 3, 5, and 7 were interviewed individually using a structured questionnaire to assess who, why, and in what situations they asked for help when they had problems in math class. Results indicated that students generally preferred the teacher to classmates as helpers and saw the teacher, in comparison to classmates, as more likely to facilitate learning and less likely to think they were ''dumb'' for asking questions. Several grade-related differences emerged. Fifth and seventh graders' help-seeking intentions reflected more concern about social comparison than did third graders'. At seventh grade only, a concern that the teacher might think students were ''dumb'' for asking questions was negatively related to the self-reported likelihood of seeking help. Perceptions of teacher support varied with grade level. Although perception of a strong personal relationship with the teacher was associated with students' intentions to seek help at all grades, perception of teacher encouragement of questioning was related only at fifth and seventh grades.
Rewards have been shown to impair performance of a reinforced behavior. The work surrounding these detrimental effects of rewards has not been met with unanimous support. Does this phenomenon described in Deci's Cognitive Evaluation Theory concerning the detrimental effects of reward exist? Is Deci's Cognitive Evaluation Theory adequate to explain this phenomenon? A meta-analysis was employed to determine the existence of the detrimental effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. Results from this analysis showed that within strictly defined parameters the phenomenon defined by Deci exists. Implications from this analysis exemplify researchers' need for closer supervision of the operationalization of variables based on the theoretical framework.
This article is a review of the literature on classroom formative assessment. Several studies show firm evidence that innovations designed to strengthen the frequent feedback that students receive about their learning yield substantial learning gains. The perceptions of students and their role in self‐assessment are considered alongside analysis of the strategies used by teachers and the formative strategies incorporated in such systemic approaches as mastery learning. There follows a more detailed and theoretical analysis of the nature of feedback, which provides a basis for a discussion of the development of theoretical models for formative assessment and of the prospects for the improvement of practice.
Marsh and Parker (1984) described the big-fish–little-pond effect ({bflpe}), whereby equally able students have lower academic self-concepts in high-ability schools than in low-ability schools. The present investigation, a reanalysis of the Youth in Transition data, supported the generality of the earlier findings and demonstrated new theoretical implications of the {bflpe}. First, differences in the academic self-concepts of Black and White students, sometimes assumed to represent response biases, were explicable in terms of the {bflpe}. Second, equally able students earned higher grades in lower ability schools. This frame-of-reference effect for grades was distinct from, but contributed to, the {bflpe} for academic self-concept. Third, a longitudinal analysis demonstrated that academic self-concept had a direct effect on subsequent school performance beyond the effects of academic ability and prior school performance. About one quarter of this effect could be explained in terms of the {bflpe}. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Reexamined the delay retention effect (Y. Brackbill et al, 1962) using R. W. Kulhavy and W. A. Stock's (see record
1991-02705-001) model of feedback as a theoretical basis. The assumptions of the model were tested using constructed response items. The effects of different types of feedback on posttest performance were investigated. 154 undergraduates read text, completed an initial test, judged confidence, received feedback, and completed a posttest. Ss who received feedback after a delay outperformed Ss who received feedback immediately. Ss who generated their own feedback were more precise in estimating confidence than those who were provided feedback. The predicted relationship between confidence and posttest performance emerged for initial corrects, but was weakened for errors. Results are linked to current models in memory research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Girls show greater evidence than boys of learned helplessness in achievement situations with adult (but not peer) evaluators: They attribute their failures to lack of ability rather than motivation and thus show impaired performance under failure. Two studies are reported linking sex differences in attributions to adults' use of evaluative feedback. Study 1, with 52 4th graders and 27 5th graders, revealed that both the contingencies of feedback in classrooms and the attributions made by teachers were ones that would render negative evaluation more indicative of ability for girls than boys. For example, negative evaluation of girls' performance referred almost exclusively to intellectual inadequacies, whereas 45% of boys' work-related criticism referred to nonintellectual aspects. Moreover, teachers attributed the boys' failures to lack of motivation significantly more than they did the girls' failures. In Study 2, with 60 5th graders, teacher–boy and teacher–girl contingencies of work-related criticism observed in classrooms were programmed in an experimental situation. Both boys and girls receiving the teacher–girl contingency were more likely to view subsequent failure feedback from that evaluator as indicative of their ability. Implications for developmental theories and for development are addressed. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Used the Praise Attitude Questionnaire to assess reactions to teacher praise among 279 female and 341 male 7th–12th graders. Students generally perceived praise as appropriate and expected for different academic and social behaviors. Praise was regarded more highly for academic work and preferred to be given quietly in most cases. A curve emerged to the intensity of praise expected in different grade levels. The answers "all the time" and "praise loudly" were chosen in appreciably higher numbers in Grades 7 and 8, dropped for Grades 9 and 10, and rose again for Grades 11 and 12. Boys as compared with girls chose "all the time" or "praise loudly" in slightly higher numbers (29.6% vs 25.4%). Results support the argument that secondary students view teacher praise favorably. However, reward and approval are received differently dependent on student need for public or private praise, which may shift according to grade level. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Estimated the effect of enhanced instruction on motor skill acquisition in a meta-analysis of 15 studies that used 4–5 yr old children and 4th–21th graders in Israel. Ss exposed to enhanced instruction gained more qualified motor skills than over 75% of the Ss exposed to regular instruction in a variety of motor skills. Enhanced instruction used cues and explanations by the instructor to clarify the motor skill, encouraged Ss to actively participate in the task over 70% of the time, reinforced Ss' responses, and supplied ongoing feedback and correctives to ensure motor skill acquisition. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In a field study that replicated previous research by the authors (1981), 18 Venezuelan elementary school teachers were trained to provide constructive written feedback on the mathematics homework of their 6th-grade students (
N = 504) 3 times weekly for 10 wks. In addition to learning and attitude outcomes, aptitude × treatment interactions (ATIs) were examined among treatments and student ability, attitude, and sex. Results show significant main effects favoring students whose teachers provided feedback on mathematics achievement and attitude toward mathematics. No ATIs were found, indicating that the training had positive effects on student learning regardless of ability levels. The treatment was associated with reduced sex differences favoring males over the course of the study. Implications for implementing similar classroom intervention programs are discussed. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Conducted a content analysis of the conceptions of learning of 333 Nepalese university students. Few Ss held the view of learning as memorization and/or reproduction commonly held by Western students. Responses cast doubt on the assumption of the existence of hierarchies of conceptions of learning supported in Western studies. In particular, it is suggested that Nepalese cultural and religious beliefs may result in the conception of learning for character development to emerge at a much lower cognitive level than in the West. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)