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Objectification Theory: Toward Understanding Women's Lived Experiences and Mental Health Risks
Abstract
This article offers objectification theory as a framework for understanding the experiential consequences of being female in a culture that sexually objectifies the female body. Objectification theory posits that girls and women are typically acculturated to internalize an observer's perspective as a primary view of their physical selves. This perspective on self can lead to habitual body monitoring, which, in turn, can increase women's opportunities for shame and anxiety, reduce opportunities for peak motivational states, and diminish awareness of internal bodily states. Accumulations of such experiences may help account for an array of mental health risks that disproportionately affect women: unipolar depression, sexual dysfunction, and eating disorders. Objectification theory also illuminates why changes in these mental health risks appear to occur in step with life-course changes in the female body.
... Lyrics also perpetuated the objectification of women, viewing women as sexual objects of male desire, with focus being on women's sexuality, disregarding personality, and agency, (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997). Notably, in the title of "Baby It's Cold Outside," and repeated 10 times throughout the lyrics, the woman is referred to as "baby." ...
Given the lack of formal sexuality education in the United States, adolescents often rely on media, such as music, for information about sexual behavior, including sexual consent. However, popular music lyrics may perpetuate expectations for sexual behavior and consent communication that reflect unequal power between men and women, as well as sexual coercion. In this study, we used critical discourse analysis to examine the lyrics of two popular songs that have sparked public discussion of sexual consent and sexual coercion, “Baby It’s Cold Outside” and “Blurred Lines.” Grounded in sexual socialization and sexual script theory, we identified three recurring patterns within both songs, including: (1) Traditional Sexual Scripts, (2) Gendered Societal Expectations, and (3) Consent Miscommunication. Guided by our findings, we provide suggestions for educators to combat messages of traditional gendered norms, rape myths, and sexual coercion within music lyrics and incorporate media literacy into sexuality education.
... Behavior when Analyzed According to Gender As detailed in the study there are no statistically significant differences in appearance management behavior between male and female teacher education interns at Davao del Norte State College. The implications are influential Traditionally, women have been stereotypically associated with greater emphasis on grooming and attire compared to men (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997). However, this study asserts that within the specific context of teacher education in Davao del Norte State College, these genderbased factors, if present at all, do not reach statistical significance. ...
Appearance management involves the deliberate efforts individuals make to regulate and present their physical appearance, often shaped by cultural, institutional, and professional expectations. For pre-service teachers, cultivating a professional image is vital as they transition into classroom roles. This study explores the factors influencing appearance management behavior among teacher education interns at Davao del Norte State College (DNSC), focusing on the roles of institutional policies, workplace culture, and individual attitudes. Specifically, the research aims to determine the demographic profile of the interns, assess their level of appearance management behavior, and identify significant differences based on gender and program major. Additionally, the study intends to propose an action plan to promote professional appearance standards. Utilizing a quantitative research design, data were collected through a structured survey from 140 fourth-year teacher education students. The instrument collected demographic data and responses on appearance management behavior. Frequency, median, and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) were employed to analyze the data. Findings revealed that teacher-interns exhibited high levels of appearance management behavior, reflecting strong self-perception, cultural sensitivity, and authenticity. Statistical analysis showed no significant differences in behavior based on gender or program/major. In response to these findings, the study recommends implementing a comprehensive action plan comprising discussion forums, professional appearance workshops, and a standardized dress code handbook. These interventions aim to foster culturally sensitive, inclusive, and professional environments for future educators.
... Por tanto, el deseo femenino aparece como irrelevante y subordinado al placer masculino (Menéndez, 2020), el cual se obtiene ocupando una posición activa frente SOCIOLOGÍA Y TECNOCIENCIA, 15.2 (2025): 151-172 ISSN: 1989-8487 a la subordinación de las mujeres (Alario, 2018). Desde esta perspectiva, lo importante es cosificar a las mujeres (Fredrickson y Roberts, 1997) y convertirlas en servidoras sexuales con un amplio desempeño sexual (Cobo, 2020). De esta manera se "reivindica a las mujeres objeto sexual" (Favaro y De Miguel, 2016, p.5) pues "se objetiviza a las mujeres y sus cuerpos como si fueran cosas, se las desprovee de agencia, negando su diferenciación y rol de sujetos y actores políticos" (González y Torrado, 2019, p.2). Frente a esta propuesta androcéntrica, el feminismo radical, como corriente crítica, plantea una sexualidad igualitaria basada en el placer mutuo, al entender que el placer no es una prerrogativa exclusiva de los varones (Cobo, 2020). ...
El presente artículo tiene la finalidad de conocer las experiencias de violencia sexual que han sufrido las mujeres de distintas generaciones así como conocer si identifican estas violencias sexuales como violencia y por último analizar el significado que atribuyen al concepto de relación sexual. Para alcanzar estos objetivos se ha realizado entrevistas semiestructuradas a 21 mujeres residentes en la isla de Tenerife pertenecientes a tres generaciones distintas (7 entrevistas por cada generación), las nacidas entre 1965 y 1981 (Generación X), las nacidas entre 1982 y 1995 (Generación Millennials) y las nacidas a partir de 1996 (Generación Z). El análisis de los testimonios indican que todas las mujeres, independientemente de la generación, consideran que las relaciones sexuales implican placer mutuo, pero a pesar de ello todas han sufrido algún tipo de violencia sexual tanto dentro como fuera de la pareja. Además, salvo la Generación Millennials, las dos generaciones restantes tienen dificultades para identificar estas prácticas como violencia sexual y por tanto percibirse como víctimas de violencia sexual. Entre las razones de esta normalización de la violencia sexual se encuentra la socialización sexista y una cultura de la violación impulsada por la pornificación de la sociedad y los medios de comunicación.
... Previous research had examined specific constructs of the theory, but a comprehensive model was lacking. The researchers conducted structural equation modeling analyses, which revealed that the integrated model provided a strong fit to the data, confirming most of the claims proposed by Fredrickson & Roberts, (1997) in their objectification theory. Specifically, the model demonstrated how psychological factors like selfobjectification and body shame, combined with societal factors like sexual objectification, contribute to the development of disordered eating behaviors. ...
The current study was intended to evaluate association in objectification of self, dissatisfied concerned body image, and eating behaviors in adults. Individuals who participated in the study were adults. In order to investigate the connection between self-objectification, dissatisfied body image, and eating behaviors in adults, a correlational study approach is utilized. The hypotheses that will be tested in this study are as follows: 1) There would be a notable relationship between self-objectification, dissatisfied body image and eating behaviors among adults; 2) There will be a significant gender difference in terms of self-objectification, body image, and disordered eating behaviors among adults. A total of two hundred persons were included in the sample that was collected for the research project. Out of the total population of 200, 98 individuals are male and 101 individuals are female, with a proportion of 49 and 50.5 respectively. For the purpose of the data collecting procedure, the Body Shape Questionnaire-16B (BSQ-16B), the Self-Objectification Scale, and the Eating Attitude Test 26 (EAT-26) were utilized. The data was then sorted using the SPSS sequence view. The t-test and the Pearson correlational analysis were the methods that were utilized in order to assess the hypotheses. The results of this research indicate that there is a substantial positive association in self-objectification, dissatisfaction with one's body image, and eating practices in adults. In addition, the findings suggest that there is no statistically significant difference in the responses of men and women with relation to levels of self-objectification, dissatisfaction with body image, and eating patterns.
Key Words: Keywords: Self objectification scale, dissatisfied body image, eating behaviors, body shape, adults, gender differences
... Previous research had examined specific constructs of the theory, but a comprehensive model was lacking. The researchers conducted structural equation modeling analyses, which revealed that the integrated model provided a strong fit to the data, confirming most of the claims proposed by Fredrickson & Roberts, (1997) in their objectification theory. Specifically, the model demonstrated how psychological factors like selfobjectification and body shame, combined with societal factors like sexual objectification, contribute to the development of disordered eating behaviors. ...
The current study was intended to evaluate association in objectification of self, dissatisfied concerned body image, and eating behaviors in adults. Individuals who participated in the study were adults. In order to investigate the connection between self-objectification, dissatisfied body image, and eating behaviors in adults, a correlational study approach is utilized. The hypotheses that will be tested in this study are as follows: 1) There would be a notable relationship between self-objectification, dissatisfied body image and eating behaviors among adults; 2) There will be a significant gender difference in terms of self-objectification, body image, and disordered eating behaviors among adults. A total of two hundred persons were included in the sample that was collected for the research project. Out of the total population of 200, 98 individuals are male and 101 individuals are female, with a proportion of 49 and 50.5 respectively. For the purpose of the data collecting procedure, the Body Shape Questionnaire-16B (BSQ-16B), the Self-Objectification Scale, and the Eating Attitude Test 26 (EAT-26) were utilized. The data was then sorted using the SPSS sequence view. The t-test and the Pearson correlational analysis were the methods that were utilized in order to assess the hypotheses. The results of this research indicate that there is a substantial positive association in self-objectification, dissatisfaction with one's body image, and eating practices in adults. In addition, the findings suggest that there is no statistically significant difference in the responses of men and women with relation to levels of self-objectification, dissatisfaction with body image, and eating patterns.
Objectives
The authors explored why some individuals tend to undergo multiple aesthetic procedures.
Methods
The study group consisted of 100 patients who had undergone more than 3 facial plastic procedures, including rhinoplasty and 2 others, such as eyebrow lift, mentoplasty, lip lifting, lip thickening, and wrinkle reduction. A control group of 100 cases was accepted, consisting of patients admitted due to rhinosinusitis. Three questionnaires were administered to the study group (facial plastic group) and the control group. The Beauty Perception Scale (1), the Social Appearance Anxiety Scale (2), and the Social Communication Skills Rating Scales (3) were utilized.
Results
There was no difference between the study and control groups on the Beauty Perception Scale ( P >0.05). However, the Social Appearance Anxiety Scale values of the study group were higher than those of the control group ( P <0.05). In addition, Social Communication Skills Rating Scale scores were lower in the study group compared with those of the control group ( P <0.05).
Conclusion
Patients undergoing more than 3 facial plastic procedures exhibited similar beauty perceptions to the control group. Their social appearance anxiety was higher, which may be one of the significant psychological reasons for their numerous facial aesthetic procedures. Lower social communication skills may be confounding factors that increased their appearance anxiety. As a result, these patients desire more and more facial aesthetic procedures, including eyebrow lifts, mentoplasty, lip lifting, lip thickening, wrinkle reduction, and others, in addition to rhinoplasty.
Z Bu çalışmanın amacı, iş yerinde makyaj zorunluluğu konusunu ele alarak, bu gerekliliğin kaynaklarını belirlemek ve kadınlar üzerinde yarattığı sorunları analiz etmektir. Bu doğrultuda, makyaj yapmanın tarihsel kökenleri araştırılmış, konuya ilişkin güncel verilerden yararlanılmış, çevrim içi kaynaklardaki haberler ve literatür incelenmiş ve çeşitli kuramlar doğrultusunda konu değerlendirilmiştir. Araştırmadan elde edilen çıkarımlara göre, kadınlara fazladan zaman ve maliyet yükü getiren makyaj zorunluluğu her ne kadar profesyonellik göstergesi olarak sunulsa da bunun altında yatan nedenlerden birinin toplumsal cinsiyet normları olduğu söylenebilir. Bu durumun yol açtığı sonuçlardan biri ise kadınların toplumsal cinsiyet rollerine uygun görülen belirli mesleklerde çalışmaya devam etmesi, bunun da toplumsal cinsiyet eşitsizliğini güçlendirmesi olabilir. Bu bağlamda çalışma, iş yerlerinde makyaj yapma zorunluluğuna karşı hem kurumsal hem de hukuki düzeyde düzenlemelere ihtiyaç olduğuna dikkat çekmiş; ayrıca konunun gelecekte yapılacak araştırmalarda ülke, sektör ve meslek özelinde ele alınmasının önemini vurgulamıştır.
This study examined the association between body image, physical fitness, and academic performance and investigated the roles of mental health and self-perception bias. Data were obtained from the China Education Panel Survey, with a sample of 7,087 adolescents (3,517 boys, 3,570 girls). Results indicated that body image and physical fitness predicted academic performance. Mental health mediated the relationship between body image and academic performance but not the link between physical fitness and academic performance. Body image directly affected boys’ academic performance and indirectly affected girls’ academic performance through mental health. The mediating effects of mental health were stronger for adolescents with self-perception bias. The study highlights the need for more interventions that improve physical fitness and foster healthy body image perceptions among adolescents to enhance their academic performance.
Self-reported affect and autonomic and somatic physiology were studied during three 15-min conversations (events of the day, problem area, pleasant topic) in a sample of 151 couples in long-term marriages. Couples differed in age (40–50 or 60–70) and marital satisfaction (satisfied or dissatisfied). Marital interaction in older couples was associated with more affective positivity and lower physiological arousal (even when controlling for affective differences) than in middle-age couples. As has previously been found with younger couples, marital dissatisfaction was associated with less positive affect, greater negative affect, and greater negative affect reciprocity. In terms of the relation between physiological arousal and affective experience, husbands reported feeling more negative the more they were physiologically aroused; for wives, affect and arousal were not correlated. These findings are related to theories of socioemotional change with age and of gender differences in marital behavior and health.
This meta-analysis surveyed 177 usable sources that reported data on gender differences on 21 different measures of sexual attitudes and behaviors. The largest gender difference was in incidence of masturbation: Men had the greater incidence (d = .96). There was also a large gender difference in attitudes toward casual sex: Males had considerably more permissive attitudes (d = .81). There were no gender differences in attitudes toward homosexuality or in sexual satisfaction. Most other gender differences were in the small-to-moderate range. Gender differences narrowed from the 1960s to the 1980s for many variables. Chodorow's neoanalytic theory, sociobiology, social learning theory, social role theory, and script theory are discussed in relation to these findings.
We examined the relationship between ruminative and distracting styles of responding to depressed mood and the duration of mood. Seventy-nine subjects kept accounts of their moods and responses to their moods for 30 consecutive days. The majority of subjects (83%) showed consistent styles of responding to depressed mood. Regression analyses suggested that the more ruminative responses subjects engaged in, the longer their periods of depressed mood, even after taking into account the initial severity of the mood. In addition, women were more likely than men to have a ruminative response style and on some measures to have more severe and long-lasting periods of depression.
I propose that the ways people respond to their own symptoms of depression influence the duration of these symptoms. People who engage in ruminative responses to depression, focusing on their symptoms and the possible causes and consequences of their symptoms, will show longer depressions than people who take action to distract themselves from their symptoms. Ruminative responses prolong depression because they allow the depressed mood to negatively bias thinking and interfere with instrumental behavior and problem-solving. Laboratory and field studies directly testing this theory have supported its predictions. I discuss how response styles can explain the greater likelihood of depression in women than men. Then I intergrate this response styles theory with studies of coping with discrete events. The response styles theory is compared to other theories of the duration of depression. Finally, I suggest what may help a depressed person to stop engaging in ruminative responses and how response styles for depression may develop.
The effects of different types of responses to a depressed mood on the duration and severity of the mood were examined. On the basis of Nolen-Hoeksema's (1987) response styles theory of depression, it was hypothesized that distracting, active responses would be more effective in alleviating a depressed mood than would ruminative, passive responses. A depressed mood was induced in 35 male and 34 female Ss, and subjects were randomly assigned to engage in 1 of 4 types of responses: an active task that distracted them from their mood; a passive, distracting task; an active task designed to lead to ruminations about their mood; or a passive, ruminative task. As predicted, the greatest remediation of depressed mood was found in Ss in the distracting–active response condition, followed in order by the distracting–passive, ruminative–active, and ruminative–passive response conditions. Degree of rumination had a greater impact on remediation of depressive affect than level of activity, with greater rumination leading to lesser remediation of depressive affect. In addition, the effects of the response tasks were limited to depressed mood. The implications of these results for interventions with depressed persons are discussed.
