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Objectification Theory: Toward Understanding Women's Lived Experiences and Mental Health Risks

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This article offers objectification theory as a framework for understanding the experiential consequences of being female in a culture that sexually objectifies the female body. Objectification theory posits that girls and women are typically acculturated to internalize an observer's perspective as a primary view of their physical selves. This perspective on self can lead to habitual body monitoring, which, in turn, can increase women's opportunities for shame and anxiety, reduce opportunities for peak motivational states, and diminish awareness of internal bodily states. Accumulations of such experiences may help account for an array of mental health risks that disproportionately affect women: unipolar depression, sexual dysfunction, and eating disorders. Objectification theory also illuminates why changes in these mental health risks appear to occur in step with life-course changes in the female body.
... Objectivation occurs in three areas: in the actual social encounter (for example, women are stared at more often than men and feel observed more often), in the visual media, which represent social encounters, and via visual media, which emphasize the body or parts of the body and allow a shameless view (e.g. music videos) (Roberts & Fredrickson, 1997). ...
... Human bodies do not only exist in a purely biological context but are also embedded in and influenced by a social and cultural framework (Roberts & Fredrickson, 1997). Women and girls are therefore used to evaluating and seeing themselves according to the cultural perspective of women. ...
... Men, on the other hand, are presented in the media primarily with a detailed focus on the head or face, while women are presented as a whole, as a body. This trend is called faceism bias (Archer et al., 1983, cited from Roberts & Fredrickson, 1997). Faceism in men reflects exactly the opposite of bodyism (= objectification) in women (Roberts & Fredrickson, 1997). ...
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Die vorliegende Studie befasst sich mit der Veränderung der Selbstwahrnehmung durch soziale Vergleichsprozesse im medialen Umfeld. Untersucht wird die Wirkung sogenannter Fitspiration-Bilder auf die physische Selbstwahrnehmung sowie das Selbstbewusstsein. Theoretisch baut die Arbeit auf der Theorie des Sozialen Vergleichs nach Festinger sowie den Besonderheiten computervermittelter Kommunikation über soziale Netzwerke auf. Das Genre Fitspiration umfasst insbesondere Fotografien sportlicher Menschen, die entweder einer entsprechenden Aktivität nachgehen oder lediglich posieren. Betrachter sollen dazu angeregt werden, durch Bewegung und gesunde Ernährung ein positiveres Körperbild sowie einen vernünftigen Lebensstil zu erreichen. Ursprünglich soll das Material der Idealisierung einer schlanken physischen Erscheinung entgegenstehen. Eine Betrachtung einschlägiger Forschung legt jedoch nahe, dass die Bilder bisherigen innerhalb der Massenmedien postulierten Idealen sehr ähnlich sind. Sie könnten daher lediglich einen, um den Aspekt der Muskularität ergänzten, Aufwärtsvergleich verursachen. Die konkreten bisherigen Forschungsergebnisse gehen teilweise weit auseinander, was gegebenenfalls auf die Rahmenbedingungen, das Stimulusmaterial und die diversen Methodiken der einzelnen Studien zurückzuführen ist. Innerhalb der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde daher neues Stimulusmaterial erstellt, das weitestgehend frei von Störvariablen ist. Zwei Vorstudien dienten der Feststellung erster Trends sowie der Bewertung des generierten Bildmaterials. Die Hauptstudie besteht aus einer Kombination von Befragungen und Eyetracking Experiment. Die Ergebnisse der vorliegenden Arbeit stehen der bisherigen Forschung in großen Teilen entgegen. Es fällt auf, dass die Veränderungen der physischen Selbstwahrnehmung sowie des Selbstbewusstseins im Durchschnitt positiv ist – wenn auch mit kleinen Effektstärken. Im Sinne der Theorie des Sozialen Vergleichs kann bestätigt werden, dass in erster Linie die Probanden von Veränderungen betroffen sind, die die Models attraktiv fanden. Als weitere relevante Variablen bei der Frage, wer von den Fitspiration-Bildern beeinflusst wird, stechen der eigene BMI sowie das Alter der Probanden hervor. Es ergeben sich, trotz einiger Limitationen, interessante Ansatzpunkte für weiterführende Forschung.
... Objectification theory posits a framework for understanding the mechanisms underlying this relationship. Objectification theory (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997) describes sexual objectification as the individual's experience that their body or parts of their body are viewed as separate from themselves and are viewed as instruments for the viewer's consumption or use. In terms of this theory, individuals exposed to a sexualobjectification environment often experience a process of selfobjectification, in which the individual internalizes an external view of their own body, that is, they look at themselves as an observer, and look at themselves primarily from the surface attributes of the body (such as thinness and muscles). ...
... Although the concept of sexual objectification has its roots in the discussion of female bodies and is cited as a source of psychological distress among women, such as body dissatisfaction (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997), research has found that it is also applicable to male body image. For example, in a sample of college students, body surveillance was associated with higher levels of the drives for thinness and muscularity among males (Smolak & Murnen, 2008). ...
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Introduction This cross-sectional study examined the influence of sexually explicit material consumption (SEMC) on body appreciation and drive for muscularity via objectified body consciousness (i.e., body surveillance and body shame) among Chinese gay and bisexual men. Methods The participants completed measures of SEMC, body appreciation, drive for muscularity, body surveillance, and body shame. Data were obtained online from 616 gay and bisexual Chinese men in November 2019. The model was tested using structural equation modeling analysis. Results Objectified body consciousness fully meditated the relationship between SEMC and body appreciation. SEMC was positively associated with drive for muscularity, and the indirect effect was not significant. Conclusions The findings highlight the effect of SEMC on body image among Chinese gay and bisexual men. Objectification theory explains this effect on body appreciation, but not on drive for muscularity, in male sexual minorities. Policy Implications Sexual education regarding the negative outcomes of SEMC should be popularized to prevent these negative effects.
... Although we did not find significant gender differences regarding the understanding of body shaming, future studies might target potential gender differences in the effects of body shaming. For example, according to the objectification theory (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997), body shaming might especially trigger objectification processes which in turn heighten the risks of mental health issues in women (e.g., unipolar depression, eating disorders). With regard to this important and influential theory, future studies should also try to analyze the influence of body shaming on potentially gender-specific self-objectification processes and their influence on self-concept and self-esteem. ...
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Body shaming (BS) is a popular term for a type of negative social interaction, which frequently occurs in social media. However, there is a lack of a clear scientific definition of BS and data on its relation to other concepts in social aggression research. The present study therefore aimed at providing a definition and classification of BS. In an exploratory online-study, 25 participants (60%) provided personal definitions of BS and rated the fit of a suggested definition. In addition, they reported similarities with and differences to related concepts (appearance teasing, cyberbullying, trolling). We conducted qualitative analyses of the verbal definitions guided by the Grounded Theory approach and quantified the fit to existing concepts in the field of social aggression. The results show that BS is perceived as an unrepeated act in which a person expresses unsolicited, mostly negative opinions/comments about a target’s body, without necessarily intending to harm him/her. Still, the target perceives the comments as negative. BS can range from well-meant advice to malevolent insults and it can occur online and offline. Participants saw similarities between BS and appearance teasing. BS can be a tool for trolling and can evolve to cyberbullying with repetition over time. Altogether, BS is a form of social aggression that has a negative impact on individuals. The definition and classification help to investigate BS and its effects on body image and mental health in future research.
... Appearance CSW concerns self-evaluations of one's physical appearance. People, in particular females, are often evaluated on the basis of physical appearance [32] and thus learn to evaluate themselves in terms of physical appearance. It has been shown that people's global self-esteem is significantly related to the evaluation of their own physical appearance, particularly among adolescents [33]. ...
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This study analyzed the positive and negative body talk of male and female adolescents cross-culturally with an emphasis on the role of appearance-contingent and others’ approval-contingent self-worth. A cross-national survey in Austria, Belgium, Spain, and South Korea among 12- to 16-year-olds (982 female and 993 male) found that (1) positive body talk was positively related and negative body talk was negatively related to body esteem; (2) appearance contingency was positively related to negative body talk; (3) appearance contingency increased positive body talk among girls (except Korean girls); and (4) contingency on other’s approval increased positive body talk among boys in all four countries. Overall, gender differences were more prominent than cultural differences and positive body talk was instrumental in promoting adolescents’ body esteem.
... Multiple studies show that women experience SO events more often than men (Swim et al., 2001; for reviews, see Roberts, 1997, andWinn &Cornelius, 2020). The internalization of standards or beliefs that serve to limit a person's potential has been termed internalized oppression (David, 2014). ...
Article
Background: Although research is emerging on the subtle slights that women experience, research is needed regarding the frequency with which gender-based microaggressions occur, their impact on mental health, and how views on gender roles may influence their impact. Objective: The current study examined how mothers and daughters experienced gender-based microaggressions, internalized sexism, and mental health symptoms. Methods: The sample included 102 predominantly White mother–daughter pairs. Adolescents were 14 to 18 years old, and mothers were 34 to 68 years old. Mothers and daughters answered surveys including a demographic questionnaire, the Gender-Microaggressions Scale, Ambivalent Sexism Inventory, the Patient Health Questionnaire—9 for depression, and the General Anxiety Disorder—7 for anxiety. Results: Greater gender-related microaggressions experienced in the past month were related to higher levels of mental health distress associated with depression and anxiety among mothers and daughters (p < .05). Mothers and daughters scores were significantly correlated (p < .05) for microaggressions experienced in the past month, total score of the Ambivalent Sexism Inventory, depression, and anxiety. For mother’s depression, a mother’s level of ambivalent sexism approached significance in terms of moderating the relationship between microaggressions and mental health (p = .055). Conclusion: Our findings suggest that microaggressions are related to mental health distress in adolescent girls and middle-aged women. Implications: Uncovering the chronic nature of gender-based microaggressions and how these may affect individuals and family systems may be useful in individual and family therapy as well as in efforts to change broader social processes.
... Another notable difference in the present study was that heterosexual women were more likely to wear lingerie. Objectification theory (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997) highlights the idea that women are more sexualized and engage in more monitoring of their gendered and sexualized appearance for the sake of male partners. For example, women engage in more "surveillance" or monitoring of their appearance than men (Frederick et al., 2007a), which is linked to poorer body image (Frederick et al., 2016a), and heterosexual women engage in surveillance more so than lesbian women (Engeln-Maddox et al., 2011;Kozee & Tylka, 2006). ...
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The current study examined the prevalence and correlates of over 50 sexual practices in a national survey of heterosexual and lesbian women in relationships. Coarsened exact matching was used to create comparable samples of heterosexual (n = 2510) and lesbian (n = 283) women on six demographic factors, including relationship length. Heterosexual and lesbian women were equally likely to be sexually satisfied (66% heterosexual women vs. 68% lesbian women). Compared to heterosexuals, lesbians were more likely to report having sex 0–1 times per month (11% vs. 23%) and were less likely to report having sex greater than once per month (89% vs. 77%). Among women who had been in relationships for longer than 5 years, heterosexual women were less likely than lesbian women to report having sex 0–1 times per month (15%; 42%). This steeper drop in sexual frequency among lesbian women than heterosexual women has pejoratively been labeled lesbian bed death. Rather than accept the label “lesbian bed death” as characterizing these sexual relationships, we turn our attention to what we call lesbian bed intimacies: the myriad ways that lesbian women incorporate behaviors promoting emotional connection, romance, and mood setting, as well as relying on a wide variety of specific sexual acts (e.g., use of sex toys) and sexual communication. Compared to heterosexual women, lesbian women were more likely to usually to always receive oral sex during sex in the past month (28%; 47%) and to use sex toys in the past year (40%; 62%). In their last sexual encounter, lesbian women were more likely to say “I love you” (67%; 80%), have sex longer than 30 min (48%; 72%), and engage in gentle kissing (80%; 92%). These intimacies likely help explain why sexual satisfaction was similar in these groups despite notable differences in sexual frequency.
... Many of these evolutionary scholars are already employing socioevolutionary approaches in their research on visual appearance enhancement. For example, Kellie et al. drew on insights from objectification theory (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997) in their study of women's cosmetic usage across mating (e.g., romantic date) and non-mating contexts (e.g., job interview), and the sex-specific attributions made of women's mental capacities and moral status by level of makeup usage. ...
Article
Adolescents are immersed in an appearance culture sustained by their peers, which includes being exposed to norms and expectations of physical attractiveness. A new avenue for transmitting these appearance messages may be digital technologies, including text messaging. Little is known about how appearance messages may naturalistically occur in adolescents' text communication. This study employed observational methods to quantitatively and qualitatively examine the transmission of appearance evaluative text messages in an ethnically diverse sample of U.S. 10th graders (Mage = 15.98, 47% girls). Quantitative descriptive analyses indicated that appearance evaluative texting was relatively infrequent but was still observed in text messages sent by over half of participants. These text messages were typically positive, but valence varied depending on toward whom the evaluation was targeted. Receiving these appearance evaluative messages was correlated with lower global self‐worth. A qualitative content analysis suggested that appearance evaluative messages serve to (a) provide a negative or positive assessment of the self, (b) transmit and elicit feedback, and (c) cultivate a culture within romantic partnerships in which appearance is valued. Findings are discussed in the context of existing digital theories (i.e., co‐construction theory, the transformation approach) and appearance‐oriented theories (i.e., objectification theory).
Article
This article explores the specific consequences of the male gaze on women in cinema leadership with particular attention on African American female directors. It explores ethics and ethical stance and has uncovered some preliminary conclusions about the standards of social behavior among cinema leadership that negatively interposes on the advancement and success of female directors in cinema, regardless of genre or artistic merit. The #Metoo and #Timesup movements have brought to light many unethical issues related to sexism, gender inequality, and objectification, and the ethical issues explored here pertain primarily to the expectation of autonomy, justice, beneficence, and nonmaleficence. The content analyses exposed themes drawn from interviews and the literature that suggest a tradition of unethical behavior that the Hollywood industry has heretofore ignored at the expense of female industry participants in front of and behind the camera. This behavior has manifested in cultural disparities, objectification, and unethical social behavior, resulting in limited prospects for motion picture directorial leadership for women in cinema, particularly female directors of color.
Article
Objective Self-worth contingent on shape/weight is a diagnostic criterion and key maintaining factor for eating disorders. However, the role of other contingencies of self-worth (i.e., domains in which self-worth is invested) is largely unknown. Moreover, research has relied on self-ratings of contingency strength, which are subject to distortion through socially desirable responding and limited self-awareness, and may have limitations in terms of ecological validity. To overcome these limitations, the present study investigated a broad range of contingencies of self-worth in relation to eating disorder pathology and employed a choice-based conjoint (CBC) approach for assessing these contingencies. Method Young women and men from the community (N = 428) completed a CBC task to assess the domains in which self-worth is invested, the Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire (EDE-Q) to assess eating disorder symptomatology, and the Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding to assess socially desirable responding. Results Beta regression analyses showed that CBC thinness and athletic competence predicted higher scores on all EDE-Q scales. CBC muscularity and facial attractiveness predicted higher scores, while coping ability and quality of relationships predicted lower scores, on various aspects of eating disorder symptoms. CBC social acceptance predicted lower eating disorder symptoms in males only. Discussion The findings suggest that a broader range of contingencies of self-worth beyond shape/weight are relevant to eating disorder pathology and should be considered as potential underlying mechanisms and treatment targets. In addition, this first use of the CBC method in eating disorder research provides initial support for its validity and utility.
Article
Attributing negative outcomes to prejudice and discrimination may protect the mood and self-esteem of some stigmatized groups. Thus, the overweight may be low in self-esteem because they blame their weight, but not the attitudes of others, for negative outcomes based on their weight. In an experiment, 27 overweight and 31 normal weight college women received either positive or negative social feedback from a male evaluator. Relative to other groups, overweight women who received negative feedback attributed the feedback to their weight but did not blame the evaluator for his reaction. This attributional pattern resulted in more negative mood for these overweight women in comparison with other groups. Dimensions of stigma that may account for differences in the tendency to attribute negative outcomes to prejudice, and implications of these findings for weight loss programs and psychotherapy for the overweight, are discussed.
Article
Evidence is presented showing that body fat distribution as measured by waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) is correlated with youthfulness, reproductive endocrinologic status, and long-term health risk in women. Three studies show that men judge women with low WHR as attractive. Study 1 documents that minor changes in WHRs of Miss America winners and Playboy playmates have occurred over the past 30-60 years. Study 2 shows that college-age men find female figures with low WHR more attractive, healthier, and of greater reproductive value than figures with a higher WHR. In Study 3, 25- to 85-year-old men were found to prefer female figures with lower WHR and assign them higher ratings of attractiveness and reproductive potential. It is suggested that WHR represents an important bodily feature associated with physical attractiveness as well as with health and reproductive potential. A hypothesis is proposed to explain how WHR influences female attractiveness and its role in mate selection.
Book
The publication of this volume at this time appears particularly auspi­ cious. Biological, psychological, and social change is greater during the pubertal years than at any other period since infancy. While the past two decades have witnessed a virtual explosion of productive research on the first years of life, until recently research on adolescence, and particularly on puberty and early adolescence, has lagged substantially behind. This book provides encouraging evidence that things are changing for the better. Considered separately, the individual chapters in this book include important contributions to our growing knowledge of the biological mechanisms involved in pubertal onset and subsequent changes, as well as of the psychological and social aspects of these changes, both as con­ sequences and determinants. In this regard, the book clearly benefits from the breadth of disciplines represented by the contributors, includ­ ing developmental endocrinology, adolescent medicine, pediatrics, psy­ chology, and sociology, among others.
Book
I: Background.- 1. An Introduction.- 2. Conceptualizations of Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination.- II: Self-Determination Theory.- 3. Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Perceived Causality and Perceived Competence.- 4. Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Interpersonal Communication and Intrapersonal Regulation.- 5. Toward an Organismic Integration Theory: Motivation and Development.- 6. Causality Orientations Theory: Personality Influences on Motivation.- III: Alternative Approaches.- 7. Operant and Attributional Theories.- 8. Information-Processing Theories.- IV: Applications and Implications.- 9. Education.- 10. Psychotherapy.- 11. Work.- 12. Sports.- References.- Author Index.