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The Nature–Nurture Debates

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Abstract

Nature-nurture debates continue to be highly contentious in the psychology of gender despite the common recognition that both types of causal explanations are important. In this article, we provide a historical analysis of the vicissitudes of nature and nurture explanations of sex differences and similarities during the quarter century since the founding of the Association for Psychological Science. We consider how the increasing use of meta-analysis helped to clarify sex difference findings if not the causal explanations for these effects. To illustrate these developments, this article describes socialization and preferences for mates as two important areas of gender research. We also highlight developing research trends that address the interactive processes by which nature and nurture work together in producing sex differences and similarities. Such theorizing holds the promise of better science as well as a more coherent account of the psychology of women and men that should prove to be more influential with the broader public. © The Author(s) 2013.

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... These expectations are deeply ingrained in cultural, social, and historical contexts and often dictate specific roles and responsibilities for women. For example, societal expectations might pressure women to conform to traditional roles, such as being the primary caregivers in families or maintaining a particular physical appearance to be deemed acceptable or attractive by societal standards [1]. These expectations create a framework within which women are judged and evaluated by others, as well as by themselves, influencing their behavior and self-perception. ...
... This strain is particularly pronounced in cultures that place a high value on both career success and traditional family roles, leaving women feeling as though they are constantly falling short in one area or another [5]. Research shows that this type of role strain is a significant predictor of mental health issues, including anxiety, depression, and stress-related disorders [1]. ...
... In contrast, Western cultures, which often emphasize individualism and personal success, may place more pressure on women to achieve in professional and academic arenas, sometimes at the expense of their mental health. The pressure to "have it all" can be overwhelming, leading to stress, burnout, and a diminished sense of self-worth if women feel they are not living up to these societal ideals [1]. The cultural context also influences how women internalize societal expectations and the extent to which these expectations affect their self-esteem and psychological health [6]. ...
Article
In today’s globalized world, women are increasingly subject to conflicting societal expectations that shape their roles, behaviors, and self-perceptions. This paper explores the complex relationship between societal expectations and the psychological well-being of women. It delves into how societal norms and standards influence women’s self-esteem and contribute to mental health challenges. By examining definitions, empirical studies, and the role of cultural context, the paper highlights the pervasive impact of societal pressures on women’s lives. This study is significant because it sheds light on how deeply ingrained societal expectations contribute to the mental health challenges faced by women. The discussion focuses on specific effects, the mediating role of self-esteem, and potential strategies for societal change. The main theme of this research is to investigate how societal expectations, shaped by cultural norms, influence women’s self-esteem and psychology. This research underscores the need for a broader societal shift to support women’s psychological health and well-being. The findings of this research reveal a significant relationship between societal expectations and the psychological well-being of women, particularly in terms of self-esteem.
... In 2017, most respondents said that gender made no difference to them; although 23% said they would prefer a male boss, this represented 10% points less than in 2014 and 43 points less than in the initial reading in 1953 (Brenan, 2017). Thus, although the overall evolution of the figures points to a reduction in the gender gap in supervisory positions in companies, equality is still far from being achieved (Eagly and Wood, 2013;Al Fardan and Maroch, 2021). ...
... Moreover, previous literature has resorted to the social role theory (Eagly et al., 1995;Eagly and Wood, 2013) and the similarity attraction framework (Schieman and McMullen, 2008) to explain the role of supervisor gender -in the context of social stereotypes and prejudices concerning male and female conditions -in terms of, for example, interactions with subordinates (Stewart and Wiener, 2021). In this vein, some previous works have also explored the moderating role of supervisor-subordinate gender similarity in the study of supervisors' impact on subordinates' behaviors at work (Parent-Rocheleau et al., 2023). ...
... 2.2 Gender, supervisor supportive behaviors, and subordinate job satisfaction: direct and moderating effects Social role theory attributes stereotypical behaviors to individuals according to their gender (Eagly and Wood, 2013). These stereotypes, since they are based on biological attributes and rooted in society, operate as culturally shared beliefs that establish expectations about how women and men are and how they should behave, so such stereotypes "[…] can be both descriptive and prescriptive in nature" (Gipson et al., 2017, p. 35). ...
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This paper analyses the influence that different supervisor supportive behaviors have on subordinate job satisfaction, while considering the gender of individuals involved (supervisor and subordinate). The empirical evidence provided by a sample of 29,833 subordinates from 35 European countries collected by Eurofound through the European Working Condition Survey allows us to assert the following. First, subordinate job satisfaction depends on their perceptions about the supportive behaviors provided by their supervisors in terms of respect, giving recognition for a job well done, coordinating work, helping get the job done, and encouraging the professional development of the subordinate. Second, job satisfaction is affected by supervisor gender, although in the opposite direction as hypothesized, such that when the supervisor is a woman, subordinates report lower job satisfaction. Third, also contrary to our expectations, supervisor-subordinate gender similarity reduces, rather than increases, subordinate job satisfaction. Fourth, gender similarity, as expected, weakens the impact of several supervisor supportive behaviors on this job satisfaction (i.e., giving recognition, coordinating work, helping get the job done, and encouraging development). In terms of practical implications, this work suggests that it is advisable for supervisors to show supportive behaviors toward subordinates. In addition, because demonstrating respect at work is not moderated by gender similarity and seems to be the most impactful supportive behavior for enhancing job satisfaction, supervisors should pay particular attention to the respect of subordinates.
... This has caused limitations to the progress in this area. In particular, previous studies have suggested that parental interaction and socialization processes with infants and children over two years old can affect their behaviour and may also play a significant role in forming their predicted gender-related preferences (Eagly & Wood, 2013). This suggests that complete knowledge and understanding of gender development is still insufficient. ...
... This suggests that complete knowledge and understanding of gender development is still insufficient. Further research is still required to explain how social interaction in the surrounding environment can affect gender-linked preferences and behaviour (Boe & Woods, 2018;Eagly & Wood, 2013;Kans & Claesson, 2022). ...
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This paper reports a study that compares teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL) through face-to-face (FTF) and CALL (Computer Assisted Language Learning) methods, comparing them with the interdisciplinary perspectives of sociology, social psychology, and educational technology. Based on the sociocultural theory, the influence of gender grouping on the academic performance of 141 English as a foreign language (EFL) Egyptian undergraduates enrolled in a technical writing course in the Faculty of Engineering was examined in a CALL context. Students’ academic performance was measured by overall grades on group work assignments and submitted peer evaluation forms. Sixty-six students were assigned to a FTF control group, and 75 students were included in the experimental online group. Findings suggested that the performance of the online group was superior to that of the FTF control group. There were highly significant differences in the online group between males and females in their academic performance with females being more successful. In addition, all female-only groups attained higher grades than mixed and male-only groups. These findings emphasize the importance of teaching EFL learners’ teamwork skills to complete their tasks successfully (Holmes, 2000).
... The reasons behind the participation disparity in esports and related fields, such as chess, remain unclear. Scholars generally agree that both biological factors, such as a statistically higher interest in objects over people among males, and cultural factors, including the lack of role models and societal expectations about female behavior, contribute to this gap (Eagly & Wood, 2013). In esports, it is argued that any skill disparity between females and males results from an interplay of systemic and social challenges rather than being inherently sex-based. ...
... The interplay of nature and nurture is complex (Eagly & Wood, 2013), with sex roles of biological origin being reinforced by historical perceptions of masculinity and femininity, which continue influencing our social structures despite recent advances in recognizing the intraindividual coexistence of agency and communion within individuals, regardless of their sex (Ellemers, 2018). Engaging in behaviors typically associated with the opposite sex can significantly affect how a person is perceived. ...
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While equality and inclusivity are promoted in the realm of esports, most gamer communities remain male-dominated, which may give rise to prejudices against female players and their skill. In this study, we conducted two experiments where we measured how participants evaluate players' performance and agency attributions. Using two distinct experimental manipulations—one utilizing videos of players playing (n = 312) and the other using narrative vignettes (n = 338)—we found that males are rated mostly based on their gaming outcomes, while females are more often judged based on pre-existing (prejudiced) preconceptions. These results contribute to the literature on gaming-related stereotypes by enhancing the understanding of societal prejudices in the evaluation of players' skills.
... Furthermore, given that gender functions as a significant differentiator in information processing and the subsequent formation of mental representations (Eagly & Wood, 2013), the present study also examines the role of gender in the various psychological and behavioral tendencies of college student tourists. This adds to currently insufficient research on gender impact, particularly concerning tourist-environment transactions . ...
... In addition to the preceding dimensions, gender is another important aspect in the present study as gender is viewed as one of the fundamental differentiating factors in the information processing and formation of mental representations (Eagly & Wood, 2013). For instance, it is widely recognized that females tend to process information in a more comprehensive and interpretative way, relying on multiple sources of information, while males tend to solely rely on readily available information and their own judgment (Meyers-Levy and Sternthal, 1991). ...
... One methodological approach to tackling the puzzle of sexual orientation, involves broader investigation into the development of sexually differentiated traits ( Van-derLaan et al., 2022). Although the nature, degree, and even existence of sex differences in human behavior have long been debated in social sciences (Eagly & Wood, 2013;Lippa, 2005a), evidence indicates that differences between an average adult male and female go beyond physical features to differences in brain, cognitive abilities, temperament and personality, sexual interest and behavior (DeCasien et al., 2022;Geary, 2021;Hines, 2010;Lippa, 2005a, b;Schmitt, 2015). ...
... So far, we have provided evidence and discussed how sex, gender identity/presentation, and sexual orientation are associated with individuals' interests in different professions, but a remaining question is: what causes these associations? A common class of explanations emphasizes the role of social environment in shaping sex differences in human behavior and psychology through processes such as learning, imitating, and internalizing the stereotypes attributed to gender (Eagly & Wood, 2013;Lippa, 2005a). The Islamic Republic of Iran has promoted stereotypes and enforced policies regarding gender role expression which is reflected in the country's low rank (i.e., 143 among 146) with respect to gender equality in 2023 (World Economic Forum, 2023). ...
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Previous research suggests that both same-sex attraction and the personality trait “openness” are associated with sex-atypical preferences and behaviors. Here, we examined the links between adulthood occupational preferences, childhood play behavior, and openness among Iranian cisgender gynephilic males (n = 228), cisgender ambiphilic males (n = 48), cisgender androphilic males (n = 178), transgender androphilic males (n = 58), cisgender androphilic females (n = 226), cisgender ambiphilic females (n = 94), cisgender gynephilic females (n = 31), and transgender gynephilic females (n = 121) from Iran. Cisgender and transgender same-sex attracted males and females exhibited sex-atypical occupational preferences with the latter group showing even more sex-atypicality than the former. The personality trait openness did not differ between cisgender groups. Transgender androphilic males had a significantly higher mean score for openness compared to cisgender androphilic females and transgender gynephilic females, whereas transgender gynephilic females had a significantly lower mean score compared to cisgender androphilic males. In both males and females, childhood sex-atypicality, same-sex attraction, and openness were associated with sex-atypical occupational preferences. Our findings from Iran provides cross-cultural support for interconnectedness of childhood and adulthood sex-atypicality, openness, and same-sex attraction in males and females who are cisgender and transgender.
... Wood and Eagly's (2012) biosocial constructionist theory recognizes an interaction between biology and psychology such that ability to psychologically adapt is influenced by constraints defined by sex (e.g., reproductive capabilities or typically larger musculature and strength in men) that varies across culture. This is reinforced through societal stereotypes and expectations such that many adults internalize beliefs about what women or men "should" be like, resulting in behaviors more likely to conform to cultural expectations (Eagly and Wood, 2013). There is meta-analytic evidence that media depicting gender-normed bodies have negative effects for women and men, likely due to how men and women are depicted in the media and subsequent socialization (Scharrer, 2013). ...
... The Fitspiration media showed bodies that conform to extreme ideas of what women and men ideally look like in Western culture. The exclusion of men from many body-positive interventions thus may result in more men wishing to conform to societal expectations of strong and muscular men (Eagly and Wood, 2013). This indicates that, as Fatt et al. proposed, the effects of Fitspiration on men should not be ignored and more interventions specific to men should be developed. ...
Article
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Introduction Although Fitspiration is purportedly intended to motivate people to be fit and healthy, a body of research has demonstrated negative effects of these media in men and women. Understanding mechanisms can help create more targeted interventions aimed at mitigating the negative effects of Fitspiration. This research examined if selected implicitly or explicitly measured constructs moderated or mediated the effects of Fitspiration. The purposes were to examine the believability (finding the media truthful) of Fitspiration (study one; data from 139 women and 125 men aged 18–33 years were analyzed), the effects of Fitspiration on exercise intention (study two; data from 195 women and 173 men aged 18–30 years were analyzed), and whether these effects were moderated by exercise-related cognitive errors (negatively biased perception of exercise) or mediated by implicit (evaluative responses to stimuli) or explicit (reasoned evaluation of stimuli) attitudes. Methods In two separate studies, self-identified men and women first completed a measure of exercise-related cognitive errors, then viewed gender-specific Fitspiration media, followed by measures of implicit attitudes, explicit attitudes, believability, and demographics. In study two, participants were randomly assigned to Fitspiration or control media conditions and also completed measures of fitspiration-related cognitive errors and intention to exercise. In the first study, one model was tested for each gender sample. It was hypothesized that implicit and explicit attitudes would be positively related to believability, and that exercise-related cognitive errors would moderate these relationships. In study two, separate models were tested with exercise-related or Fitspiration-related cognitive errors as the moderators with each gender sample. It was hypothesized that implicit attitudes, explicit attitudes, and believability would be positively related to intention, that the control media would lead to greater intention to exercise than the Fitspiration media, and that exercise-related cognitive errors and Fitspiration-related cognitive errors would moderate these relationships. Results The majority of hypothesized relationships were not supported. A negative relationship between exercise-related cognitive errors and believability was found. Discussion Overall, these studies identify and exclude factors that predict Fitspiration believability and the role that factors such as cognitive errors and attitudes may play in that.
... In contrast, girls often score higher in emotional symptoms and peer relationship problems, indicating a tendency toward internalizing issues [11]. These differences may be attributed to biological factors, socialization processes, and gender norms influencing the expression and reporting of psychological symptoms [12]. Sex-associated differences in mental disorders were reported in multiple papers using different OMIC technologies [13][14][15][16]. ...
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Adolescence is a critical developmental period marked by significant physiological, psychological, and behavioural changes. Sex-specific biological factors can play a major role in their progression. Liquid chromatography – tandem mass spectrometry proteomic analysis was used to measure the plasma proteome abundances in 197 adolescents (11-16 years old) from the WALNUTs cohort. Orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) revealed clear sex-based proteomic distinctions, with 76 proteins significantly differing between males and females after correcting for age and BMI. Gene Ontology enrichment analysis of these proteins highlighted pathways related to cell adhesion and extracellular matrix organization reflecting sex-specific developmental trajectories during puberty. Bioinformatic analysis revealed 37 proteins significantly associated with the total score of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), with additional sex-specific associations emerging in subgroup analyses. Plasma protein abundancies in males exhibited stronger correlations with SDQ externalizing subscale scores, while in females the associations with the internalizing score were more prominent, consistent with known behavioural sex differences. Immune response and blood coagulation pathways were implicated in these associations, particularly in females, while no significant pathway enrichment was observed for males. These findings highlight both shared and sex-specific proteomic features associated with the SDQ scores in adolescents, emphasising the need to consider sex differences in proteomic studies. The results provide a critical step toward identifying biomarkers and pathways underlying sex-specific psychological and developmental processes in adolescence.
... Social norms may influence the reporting of anxiety symptoms, as women may be more encouraged to express their emotional vulnerability. In contrast, men may be discouraged from displaying such symptoms, which may lead to underreporting of anxiety among men (Eagly and Wood, 2013). Studies have also shown that women are more frequently exposed to stressful interpersonal experiences and traumatizing life events, which may contribute to an increased prevalence of anxiety symptoms (Kessler et al., 1994). ...
Article
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This study examines aggressive behavior among adolescents in school settings, focusing on its associations with mental health dimensions such as dysfunctional negative emotions and anxiety. A total of 403 adolescents (234 girls and 169 boys) aged 12 and 13 years participated in the study. Self-report questionnaires assessed aggressive tendencies and mental health symptoms, while demographic variables such as age and gender were also collected. Data analysis revealed a non-normal distribution, as determined by the Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro-Wilk tests. Consequently, non-parametric statistical methods were employed, including the Spearman correlation coefficient to explore relationships between variables and the Mann-Whitney U test to analyze gender differences. The results demonstrated significant positive correlations between aggressive behavior and dysfunctional negative emotions (r = 0.191, p < 0.01) and between aggression and anxiety (r = 0.275, p < 0.01). Additionally, gender differences emerged, with females reporting higher levels of mental health symptoms than males (p < 0.05). These findings highlight the complex relationship between mental health challenges and aggression, emphasizing the significant roles of gender and emotional regulation in shaping these dynamics. The study calls for the development of tailored psychological interventions that not only address aggressive behaviors but also consider the unique mental health needs and emotional profiles of adolescents, ensuring a more personalized and effective approach to support their well-being.
... Research in psychology has produced a sizable body of findings on gender differences (e.g., [22]). Even though there are many explanations (socio-cultural, evolutionary, brain, and hormonal theories) about gender differences, the selectivity hypothesis has received much attention from researchers. ...
Article
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This study aimed to examine the relationship between resilience and the hope levels of healthcare workers who have experienced the COVID-19 pandemic, the effects of resilience and gender on individual performance, the effects of hope levels on individual performance, and aimed to determine whether hope mediated the effect of resilience on individual performance. This was a descriptive cross-sectional study. The psychological resilience, hope, and individual performance of healthcare workers affiliated with the Istanbul Provincial Health Directorate were obtained from online questionnaires completed by participants between April 2021 and August 2021. This purpose was served by the Brief Resilience Scale, the continuous hope scale, and the Individual Performance Scales. A hierarchical regression analysis, mediation analysis, and moderation analysis were performed on 412 healthcare workers to test the hypotheses. There was a significant relationship between resilience and hope levels among healthcare professionals. Healthcare professionals’ levels of resilience and hope also had significant effects on their individual performance. The indirect effect of healthcare professionals’ psychological resilience levels on their individual performance through hope was not significant. Gender also had a significant effect on resilience, hope, and agency thinking. Men’s mean scores for resilience, hope, and agency thinking are higher than women’s. The findings show that employees with high hope and resilience are more likely to recover from stressful situations and display better individual performance. This study has significant implications for the advancement of the field of psychosocial assessment of healthcare workers in times of health crisis. It offers both a practical and a theoretical perspective on the effects of hope and resilience on employee performance as psychological capital that can help all healthcare managers and employees, especially in times of crisis such as the COVID-19 pandemic. It can be said that hope is more important than resilience in terms of its propensity to enhance individuals’ performance. Our findings suggest that employees with high levels of hope and resilience are more likely to recover from stressful situations and achieve better personal performance. Organizations should focus more on hope and resilience by promoting positive attitudes among employees and managers to improve their ability to cope with crises.
... Future research should collect new data or collaborate to validate the model in other populations (Rao et al., 2008). As relationship dynamics and societal norms evolve, predictors and models may lose relevance over time, so periodic updates are necessary (Eagly & Wood, 2013;Risman, 2018). ...
Article
This study explores the effectiveness of machine learning models in predicting the end of romantic relationships among Peruvian youth and adults, considering various socioeconomic and personal attributes. The study implements logistic regression , gradient boosting, support vector machines, and decision trees on SMOTE-balanced data using a sample of 429 individuals to improve model robustness and accuracy. Using stratified random sampling, the data is split into training (80%) and validation (20%) sets. The models are evaluated through 10-fold cross-validation, focusing on accuracy, F1-score, AUC, sensitivity , and specificity metrics. The Random Forest model is the preferred algorithm because of its superior performance in all evaluation metrics. Hyperparameter tuning was conducted to optimize the model, identifying key predictors of relationship dissolution, including negative interactions, desire for emotional infidelity, and low relationship satisfaction. SHAP analysis was utilized to interpret the directional impact of each variable on the prediction outcomes. This study underscores the potential of machine learning tools in providing deep insights into relationship dynamics, suggesting their application in personalized therapeutic interventions to enhance relationship quality and reduce the incidence of breakups. Future research should incorporate larger and more diverse datasets to further validate these findings.
... Given the intricate nature of this framework and its clinical implications, significant attention has been dedicated to understanding the origins of the sexual differentiation process (4,(8)(9)(10). The literature engages in a substantial debate on factors, whether related to nature or nurture, contributing to the sexual differentiation of the brain (11). Nevertheless, it is firmly established that biology plays a pivotal role (12). ...
Article
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Gender identity refers to one's psychological sense of their own gender. Establishing gender identity is a complex phenomenon, and the diversity of gender expression challenges simplistic or unified explanations. For this reason, the extent to which it is determined by nature (biological) or nurture (social) is still debatable. The biological basis of gender identity cannot be modeled in animals and is best studied in people who identify with a gender that is different from the sex of their genitals such as transgender people and people with disorders/differences of sex development. Numerous research studies have delved into unraveling the intricate interplay of hormonal, neuroanatomic/neurofunctional, and genetic factors in the complex development of core gender identity. In this review, we explore and consolidate existing research that provides insights into the biological foundations of gender identity, enhancing our understanding of this intriguing human psychological trait. Keywords Gender identity; transgender; sex steroids; genetics; sex development
... Gender stereotypes not only describe typical differences between men and women but also dictate what men and women should be like and how they should behave in different areas of life (Nicholson et al., 2013). Due to differences in the ways society educates the two genders, the emphasis on different social roles and power positions increases with age, further amplifying the impact of gender stereotypes (Eagly and Wood, 2013). ...
Article
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Background With the development of women’s sports, the mechanism of barriers to women’s leisure sports participation has attracted extensive attention from the academic community. Despite its significant impact, there are few empirical studies on intra-personal barriers. Consequently, a structural equation model was established to examine the relationships between traditional social gender awareness, gender bias, gender stereotypes, and barriers to participation in leisure sports. Methods In this study, a total of 508 questionnaires were collected and analyzed using AMOS 24.0 software for structural equation modeling. After model testing, the relationships between the variables were examined. Results The results of the statistical analyses indicated that traditional gender awareness could serve as an antecedent variable for barriers to participation in leisure sports, and that gender stereotypes mediated the relationship between traditional gender awareness and barriers to participation in leisure sports. The study also concluded that gender bias could not mediate the relationship between traditional gender awareness and participation barriers in leisure sports, but gender bias and gender stereotypes could act as chain mediators in the process of the influence of traditional gender awareness on barriers to contact leisure sports. Discussion This study emphasizes the need for women to break down the traditional social gender awareness, gender bias, gender stereotypes, and other intra-personal barriers when engaging in leisure sport participation. According to this study, the promotion of sustained and healthy development of women’s sport requires the breaking down of traditional social gender awareness education and the creation of more gender-inclusive sports policies and environments. The significance of the study is that by proposing and confirming the internal participation barriers to women’s participation in contact leisure sports, it will lead to the ideological liberation of women’s gender perspectives, so that they can break down the participation barriers to contact leisure sports, participate in sports activities, and enjoy the right to play sports on an equal footing.
... Another factor that might contribute to biases in online reviews is gender. Gender differences in attitude formation and expression have been reported across various domains (for example, reviews in (consumer) psychology and marketing [9][10][11][12] ). Gender differences also appear in online behaviour. ...
Article
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Although online reviews are used by many people to make decisions, these reviews may be biased. On the basis of 1.2 billion observations across five leading online review platforms and two lab studies (n = 1,172 and n = 1,165; US respondents fluent in English), we provide evidence for a consistent and systematic gender rating gap: women’s mean online review ratings are significantly more favourable than men’s. We suggest that although men and women, on average, generally do not differ in their ‘real’ attitudes, their ratings do differ when it comes to online reviews. Our lab studies revealed that such differences are due to gender differences in the propensity to share negative attitudes online, possibly due to women’s greater concern about social consequences. Our findings highlight the need for societal change to create conditions in which people, particularly women, feel comfortable publicly expressing genuine attitudes, especially in cases of dissatisfaction, without being concerned about the consequences.
... The nature perspective posits that gender and sex are synonymous, influenced by biological processes and structures. In contrast, the nurture perspective contends that gender and sex are distinct and shaped by sociocultural factors (Eagly & Wood, 2013). ...
Article
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Gender dysphoria refers to the experience of a significant incongruence between an individual's assigned biological sex and their identified gender. Various disciplines, including medical, psychological, and religious perspectives, provide differing explanations for this condition. This article aims to explore the issue of gender dysphoria, examining its causal factors and the Islamic perspective through a comprehensive review of existing literature. According to the literature, the causes of gender dysphoria require further in-depth investigation. Researchers suggest that dysphoric behaviour arises from a complex interplay of psychological and biological factors. Interventions for gender dysphoria may include hormonal treatments and psychological support. Additionally, individuals with gender dysphoria often face impacts and comorbidities related to body image, anxiety, and other mental health concerns. From an Islamic viewpoint, gender dysphoria is considered to contradict the natural order (fitrah) and should be addressed to restore the individual's innate disposition (fitrah).
... According to Eagly, many factors contribute to gender differences. Although certain biological factors influence gender differences, they are not the only factor; gender differences are caused by the process of socialisation [13]. Social concepts, social structure, social institutions, etc, may influence it. ...
Article
From birth to adulthood, individuals are socialised into a particular gender and this paper explores how gender socialisation influences educational choices and analyses the roles of the family, school and society. It is found that family, school and society play an important role in shaping an individual’s gender socialisation, and that families can break down gender bias by changing their own traditional behaviours, breaking down gender stereotypes, not interfering with their children’s interests, and encouraging and allowing their children to make free choices about their education. Teachers in schools can avoid the impact of gender socialisation on educational choices by providing equal and inclusive educational opportunities and learning resources, and teachers should guide their students in shaping a value system that is free from gender bias and offer more diverse curricula. Gender equality should be promoted on social media to break down traditional gender stereotypes and minimise the impact of gender socialisation on educational choices.
... Positively valued masculine traits have been associated with characteristics such as competence, while feminine attributes are related with warmth and expressiveness (Eagly, 1987). Currently, there is an increasing similarity in the roles of men and women, mainly due to a more remarkable change in women's aspirations (Diekman and Eagly, 2000;Eagly and Wood, 2013). This situation has generated more pressure on women since they "added" roles to those they already had without losing their previous ones. ...
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Several studies have reported that university students were affected during the months of confinement due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In Mexico, public and private universities were the last to resume face-to-face activities, so the students stayed in remote classes for almost 20 months. Because of gender inequities in higher education, it is essential to analyze the differential effects of remote learning on male and female students in terms of their physical and mental health, motivation, school achievement, and students’ adaptation to changes. Here we surveyed 573 students from Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, Campus Iztapalapa in Mexico City, using a self-administration survey online. Our results showed that female students had more work overload at home, and felt more affected in their physical and mental health compared to men. Despite these difficulties, women were more willing to get ahead in academic and work settings.
... The female gender role does not fit the negotiator role, typically aligned with the male gender role when viewing this phenomenon through social role theory (Eagly & Wood, 2013;Stuhlmacher & Linnabery, 2013). This discrepancy brings about the challenge that women who participate in the action of negotiating are behaving outside of their female gender role, thereby opposing their gender-based identity and running the risk of social backlash (Kugler et al., 2018;Schneider, 2018). ...
... These gender differences in emotional expression can become normative expectations for social roles (Koenig & Eagly, 2014). According to social role theory, normative expectations for social roles, such as women trying to achieve affiliation, come from observations of how people behave (Eagly & Wood, 2013;Koenig & Eagly, 2014). Indeed, interlocutors often expect women to be more emotionally expressive than men (Briton & Hall, 1995;Hung et al., 2019;Radeke & Stahelski, 2020;Vogel et al., 2006). ...
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Previous research shows that females use more exclamation marks than males, often to establish rapport. The purpose of the present studies was to test whether people associate texters’ use of exclamation marks with friendliness and femaleness. If this association is due to normative expectations, we hypothesized that females would appear less friendly if they did not use an exclamation mark in texting. In Study 1, participants rated a texter using an exclamation mark to be highly female and highly friendly. The gender results disappeared when friendliness was controlled for. In Study 2, we tested whether friendliness ratings decreased if texters violated gender-associated punctuation. Participants rated a texter with a gendered name on friendliness. Regardless of gender, participants inferred greater friendliness to texters using an exclamation mark. That is, there was no evidence of a cost for violating this gender expectation. We conclude that people predict that a texter using an exclamation mark is likely to be female, but do not penalize females for not using an exclamation mark.
... Psychological studies suggest that people's gender identity is likely a result of both nature and nurture (Eagly & Wood, 2013. Yet, the "nature" versus "nurture" debate persists in both popular and academic media as if both were mutually exclusive. ...
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This research examines the differences in emotional tones and drives in gender-casted (e.g. boy-directed vs. girl-directed) children's media and how this has changed over time. This topic is important given that children spend copious amounts of time watching media. Two studies utilizing Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC) text analysis on a diverse body of over 1000 h of media transcripts from 78 franchises demonstrate that girl-directed children's media has a more positive emotional tone overall than boy-directed media, but that this difference is narrowing over time. Additionally, boy-directed media features a greater prevalence of words expressing the emotion of anger and the drives of power and risk. In contrast, girl-directed media features a greater prevalence of words expressing the emotion of sadness and the drive of affiliation. The results proffer insights into how emotional tones and drives represented in children's media may impact young consumers' understanding of gender.
... As suggested by the results of the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study, girls outperform boys already in the 4th grade in most of the participating countries (Mullis et al., 2023). The reasons for the gender gap are believed to stem from the slower development of boys in verbal, executive, and self-regulation skills, presumably originating both from biology and cultural gender expectations (Eagly & Wood, 2013;McGeown & Warhurst, 2020). Research has shown that boys often find it difficult to conform to traditional classroom teaching -for example, in terms of sitting still and focused for long periods of time -but instead enjoy more behaviorally active ways of learning with clearly set goals (Beaman et al., 2006;Brozo et al., 2014;Deed & Campbell, 2007;Merisuo-Storm, 2006; for a review, see James, 2015). ...
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There is a global concern regarding boys’ poor engagement in literacy activities. It is suggested that boys enjoy ways of learning that are active and have explicit goals. Readers’ theater (RT) provides an active and collaborative means of practicing oral reading fluency, with a clear goal of performing for an audience at the end of training. In the context of an intervention study for struggling readers in grades 3 and 4 (9–10 years old), we investigated whether boys benefit more than girls from the goal to perform in readers’ theater in terms of reading fluency development, engagement, and retrospective perception of their learning. We found that girls slightly outperformed boys in expressive reading and showed higher engagement in RT. Girls were also more interested in drama and more likely to participate in the study. However, boys showed a larger reduction in RT-related disaffection over time. In addition, boys in the goal-oriented program reported learning to act and immerse themselves in the text more often than boys in the practice-oriented RT. In contrast, girls reported learning these skills also in the practice-oriented RT. We conclude that the goal to perform in RT may be particularly helpful in engaging boys in RT.
... For example, evolutionary models propose that variation in reproductive investment generates sexual-selective pressures, differentially favouring the evolution of sex-specific social behaviours 32 . In contrast, gender socialization models posit that cultural beliefs about gender roles influence gender expectations, orienting women and men towards different social behavioural patterns 33,34 .Importantly, both the existence and impact of such gender differences, whether social or biological, are a point of much heated debate [35][36][37][38][39] . For the current studies, we do not commit to any ultimate cause for observed social gender differences. ...
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Despite broad interest, experimental evidence for gender differences in social abilities remains inconclusive. Two important factors may have limited previous results: (i) a lack of clear distinctions between empathy (sharing another's feelings), compassion (a feeling of concern toward others), and Theory of Mind (ToM; inferring others’ mental states), and (ii) the absence of robust, naturalistic social tasks. Overcoming these limitations, in Study 1 (N = 295) we integrate three independent, previously published datasets, each using a dynamic and situated, video-based paradigm which disentangles ToM, empathy, and compassion, to examine gender differences in social abilities. We observed greater empathy and compassion in women compared to men, but found no evidence that either gender performed better in ToM. In Study 2 (n = 226) we extend this paradigm to allow participants to engage in prosocial donations. Along with replicating the findings of Study 1, we also observed greater prosocial donations in women compared to men. Additionally, we discuss an exploratory, novel finding, namely that ToM performance is positively associated with prosocial donations in women, but not men. Overall, these results emphasize the importance of establishing experimental designs that incorporate dynamic, complex stimuli to better capture the social realities that men and women experience in their daily lives.
... Since the publication of Galton's renowned paper in 1865 36 , the exploration of the relative effects of nature (genetics) and nurture (environment) on individuals has remained a central focus in the fields of biology and sociology, leading to a vast body of literature on this subject [37][38][39][40][41][42][43] . However, there have been relatively few studies that approach this discourse from the perspective of complex systems. ...
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Although the origin of the fat-tail characteristic of the degree distribution in complex networks has been extensively researched, the underlying cause of the degree distribution characteristic across the complete range of degrees remains obscure. Here, we propose an evolution model that incorporates only two factors: the node’s weight, reflecting its innate attractiveness (nature), and the node’s degree, reflecting the external influences (nurture). The proposed model provides a good fit for degree distributions and degree ratio distributions of numerous real-world networks and reproduces their evolution processes. Our results indicate that the nurture factor plays a dominant role in the evolution of social networks. In contrast, the nature factor plays a dominant role in the evolution of non-social networks, suggesting that whether nodes are people determines the dominant factor influencing the evolution of real-world networks.
... According to data collected by the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs in 2020, only 47% of women of working age participated in the labor market, compared to 74% of men, and women held only 28% of managerial positions [4]. However, the reason for this divergence is not biological factors but rather social roles and power positions [5]. In conclusion, gender stereotypes exacerbate the disparities between men and women by perpetuating stereotypical social roles [6]. ...
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Textbooks serve a pivotal role in individuals' development, often presenting gender stereotypes that significantly influence childrens perceptions. This study explores gender stereotypes in Chinese textbooks, focusing on how these stereotypes differ based on target gender and the domain of traits. The research examines gender stereotypes across various trait domains within 274 illustrations from 12 Chinese language textbooks. A coding scheme was developed to identify gender stereotypes about boys and girls in different trait domains, such as hairstyle, occupations, and color schemes. The results reveal a significant presence of gender stereotypes, with no variation between different genders but a notable difference among trait domains in the textbook illustrations. These findings suggest that Chinese language textbooks consistently depict significant gender stereotypes for boys and girls but vary based on the specific characteristics implied by the illustrations.
... Menurut nurture theory of gender equality (Eagly & Wood, 2013), perbedaan perempuan dan laki-laki pada hakekatnya adalah hasil konstruksi sosial budaya, sehingga menghasilkan peran dan tugas yang berbeda. Perbedaan itu menyebabkan perempuan selalu tertinggal dan terabaikan peran dan kontribusinya dalam hidup berkeluarga, bermasyarakat, berbangsa dan bernegara. ...
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The Regional Revenue and Expenditure Budget (APBD) is a tool for regional financial management for the welfare of the community. The budget must be sensitive to gender issues because budget is used as a measure to determine equality and fairness. This study aims to prove the effect of planning and budgetary participation on budget performance with a gender perspective. The population is the compiler APBD with probability sampling techniques. Calculations using the Slovin formula yielded 47 respondents. The details are 9 members of DPRD Commission B, and 38 heads of agencies. The analysis technique used is multiple regression analysis. The test results prove that the budget planning process affects the budget with a gender perspective. This implies that women's involvement in the budget planning process will determine a more equitable budget. Conversely, budgetary participation does not affect the budget with a gender perspective. The lack of participation in budgeting is likely due to the lack of comparisons between women and men in this study. Therefore, further research is expected to increase or equalize the number of male and female respondents. Anggaran Pendapatan dan Belanja Daerah (APBD) merupakan sarana untuk pengelolaan keuangan daerah bagi kesejahteraan masyarakat. Anggaran harus peka terhadap isu gender karena anggran digunakan sebagai ukuran untuk menentukan kesetaraan dan keadilan. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk membuktikan pengaruh perenanaan dan partisipasi penyusunan anggaran terhadap kinerja anggaran berperspektif gender. Populasi adalah para penyusun APBD dengan teknik probability sampling. Perhitungan dengan rumus slovin menghasilkan 47 orang responden. Rinciannya adalah anggota Komisi B DPRD berjumlah 9 orang, dan 38 orang Kepala-kepala instansi. Teknik analisis yang digunakan adalah analisis regresi berganda. Hasil pengujian membuktikan bahwa proses perencanaan anggaran mempengaruhi anggaran yang berperspektif gender. Hal ini mengimplikasikan bahwa keterlibatan perempuan dalam proses perencanaan anggaran akan menentukan anggaran yang lebih adil. Sebaliknya, partisipasi penyusunan anggaran tidak mempengaruhi anggaran berperspektif gender. Tidak berpengaruhnya partisipasi penyusunan anggaran kemungkinan disebabkan oleh sedikitnya perbandingan perempuan dengan laki-lai dalam penelitian ini. Oleh karena itu, penelitian selanjutnya diharapkan untuk menambah atau menyetarakan jumlah responden laki-laki dan perempuan.
... Not only do these factors interact to influence behavior but there is also a reciprocal relationship amongst biological processes, traits and motivation, and sociocultural experience, as well as broader environmental factors such as time and place (Figure 1). Biological characteristics influence the way people interact with their environment and the way those in their environment interact with them (Eagly & Wood, 2013). With advances in epigenetics, we now know that social experiences, at both the individual-level (e.g., stress and trauma) and grouplevel (e.g., poverty and discrimination) can also directly influence biological processes (see Champagne, 2017). ...
... Women in this painting stand straight and face the viewers, unlike earlier paintings where the bodies creased themselves in a vulnerable gesture. In almost all of the works, the arms are folded across the chest in a daring gesture (Eagly & Wood, 2013). In addition to depicting a real subject, Azmat's figurative artwork can also convey the cultural ideals of the time it was created. ...
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Art is a visible manifestation of human creativity and imagination. A song, a sculpture, or a painting, for example, are all the products of human expressions, as are all other forms of art. They are typically admired for their beauty or emotional impact, much like in art. The human eye will appreciate the skill and beauty of an artist when they are able to depict reality in paintings in such a realistic manner. Therefore, it indicates that an artist is experimenting with realism when we talk about portraying subject matter so truly and without any artificiality. In the visual arts, realism refers to the precise representation of live forms, perspective, and the nuances of light and color. Viewing the work of a realistic artist using a conventional media and style is extremely uncommon in Pakistani contemporary art. Viewing works that explore only methods, drawing, composition, and accurately duplicating reality is even more uncommon. This chance came about as a result of Ali Azmat's recent solo exhibition at the Canvas Gallery in Karachi. Despite his past vivid and stunning work, a series of large-scale, realistic black and white portraits of women stood out.
... Observed differences often lead to hypotheses of differential effects of key variables on the outcome under study, while this may not necessarily be the case. From biosocial perspectives, such as sexual selection theories (e.g., Archer, 2009) and role theory (Eagly & Wood, 2013), the interactions are stressed between biological (e.g., allelic variation, the stress system HPA axis), individual (e.g., personality traits, empathic concern), and environmental (e.g., social upbringing) characteristics to clarify sexdifferentiated affect, cognition, and the use of social cooperative behavioral strategies, frequency-dependent deceptive and violent behavioral tendencies. In statistical analyses, biological sex is typically introduced as a control variable, and not considered a "causal" variable to crime (Wikström, 2011). ...
Article
The present study is concerned with the interplay between anticipated moral emotions and self-serving justifications in the explanation of intentions to steal. Theoretically, it has been suggested that both moral dimensions may interact in such a way that their effects amplify each other. This amplification hypothesis has rarely been tested. The following research question is addressed: To what extent do anticipated moral emotions amplify the impact of self-serving justifications on intentions to steal? To assess the stability of the findings, the hypothesis is tested across males and females. Online survey data are obtained from a large convenience sample of young people (N = 3584). A visual vignette was used to elicit participants’ offense-specific responses to the key concepts. Evidence suggests that self-serving justifications in the specific context of stealing and anticipated shame-guilt have strong main effects on intentions to steal. A statistically significant interaction effect is found in the full sample and the female subsample, suggesting that participants reporting weak anticipated shame and guilt are most likely to form intentions to steal in the presence of self-serving justifications. However, the effect is small and not found in the male subsample. We discuss the limitations and implications for further research.
... Among the workplace distributive injustices that female academics face are wage gaps, sexual harassment, inequality in research funding or promotion opportunities (Patterson et al., 2009;Mousa and Abdelgaffar, 2022). However, most of the literature on the career challenges female academics face in higher education institutions is situated in the Western context (Eagly and Wood, 2013;Rhoads and Gu, 2012). ...
Article
Purpose This paper aims to explore how female academics use cronyism to cope with the lack of emancipative support resulting from their intense teaching and research duties, poor representation at senior administrative levels and their exhausting familial commitments. Design/methodology/approach Qualitative semi-structured interviews were conducted with 32 female academics working full-time at four public universities in Egypt. Findings The findings showed that the low action resources (considering their unreasonable teaching loads, research requirements and supervision engagements), emancipative values (the unfair representation of female academics at senior administrative levels) and civic entitlement (universities not serious about promoting gender equality) are perceived by female academics as a lack of empowerment that necessitates their adoption of cronyism as their main coping strategy. Moreover, in male-dominated societies, female academics who do not have the power to shape their work-related status tend to use undesirable behaviours such as cronyism to mitigate the negative consequences of the shocks they encounter. Originality/value This paper contributes by filling a gap in human resources management in which empirical studies on the relationship between cronyism, emancipation and career shocks have been limited so far.
... Stepping outside of the gender stereotypes traditionally assigned has prompted social backlash where these women in leadership have faced criticism not directly in connection to their ability in fulfilling their duties but in connection to their gender (Bernal et al., 2017;Cheryan & Markus, 2020;Chiefs, 2019;Eagly & Wood, 2013;Ibarra et al., 2013;Kennedy & Kray, 2015;Meltzer, 2018;Maranto et al., 2019;Reyes et al., 2021). Associating a job with a specific gender connects specific qualities and characteristics to fit and thus perpetuates the stereotype (Kolb & McGinn, 2009). ...
Article
In this qualitative study, the researcher examined 11 female superintendents’ experiences of negotiations. Six themes emerged from the semi-structured interviews: I am a Woman in a Man’s World (Still), Negotiating for Myself is Uncomfortable, The School Board Holds the Cards, Experience and Salary Data are Key, Fairness is Important, and Female Leaders Need Support. Recommendations are provided to bolster support and preparation for women’s participation in negotiation. Recommendations are also provided for future research to continue the exploration of female superintendents’ experiences of negotiations.
... First, by embracing the term gender, and its connotation with social and cultural influences, we make immediately clear that such influences do not sit outside of the scope of an evolutionary perspective. Likewise, we steer folks away from the stubborn assumption, associated with the connotations of 'sex', that an evolutionary perspective dictates that differences between men and women can, or should, be essentialized to chromosomes, hormones or other 'biological' essences (for discussions of the false nature-nature, biologicalcultural/social dichotomy see Eagly & Wood, 2013;Nettle, 2009Nettle, , 2018. Second, adopting a distinct terminology for humans and nonhuman behaviour, we reinforce acknowledgement of fundamental differences between these taxonomic groupings, particularly our propensity for complex cumulative culture (Mesoudi & Thornton, 2018). ...
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Sexual conflict is a thriving area of animal behaviour research. Yet, parallel research in the evolutionary human sciences remains underdeveloped and has become mired by controversy. In this special collection, we aim to invigorate the study of fitness-relevant conflicts between women and men, advocating for three synergistic research priorities. First, we argue that a commitment to diversity is required to innovate the field, achieve ethical research practice, and foster fruitful dialogue with neighbouring social sciences. Accordingly, we have prioritized issues of diversity as editors, aiming to stimulate new connections and perspectives. Second, we call for greater recognition that human sex/gender roles and accompanying conflict behaviours are both subject to natural selection and culturally determined. This motivates our shift in terminology from sexual to gendered conflict when addressing human behaviour; countering stubborn tendencies to essentialize differences between women and men, and directing attention to the role of cultural practices, normative sanctions and social learning in structuring conflict battlegrounds. Finally, we draw attention to contemporary policy concerns, including the wellbeing consequences of marriage practices and the gendered implications of market integration. Focus on these themes, combined with attendance to the dangers of ethnocentrism, promises to inform culturally-sensitive interventions promoting gender equality worldwide.
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The pertinent literature lacks a comprehensive theoretical framework to explain gender differences and similarities in reading motivation. Research on the role of gender in reading motivation has yielded inconclusive results with no consensus. Additionally, theoretical research to interpret the mixed results in reading motivation are scarce, especially from the perspective of social cognitive theory (SCT). This study aimed to clarify these mixed results by providing a theoretical explanation covering the broad range of gender differences and similarities in reading motivation from the SCT perspective. This analysis of the manifestation of gender roles through observational model learning and the triadic reciprocal interaction between personal, behavioural, and environmental processes provided new insights into the nuanced complexities of gender roles in reading motivation.
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The purpose of this study was to explore the Role of Spirituality in Mindfulness and Quality of Life among University Students in Peshawar. The aim was to find out that spirituality will positively predict mindfulness and quality of life among university students. While significant gender disparities will be observed in spirituality and mindfulness. The study was based on a correlation or cross-sectional survey design through convenient sampling technique. A correlation study of 150 students with age range 19-26 years, (M=22.10), (SD=1.59) was conducted, out of which (n=75) were male and (n=75) were females. The variables of the study spirituality, mindfulness and quality of were measured through spirituality scale (SS-23), mindful attention awareness scale (MASS-15) and World Health Organizational quality of life scale (QOL- BREF-26). The statistical analysis correlation, independent sample T-test and linear regression revealed that spirituality has significant and positive effect on mindfulness and quality of life, with 19% variance in quality of life and 16.1% variance in mindfulness while and independent sample T-test indicated that females scored higher on both spirituality and mindfulness compared to their male counterpart. Understanding these dynamics has implication for tailored interventions and support systems to enhance wellbeing in this population. Research supports all the hypotheses.
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Gender disparities affect employment, education, social interactions, and managerial roles. Therefore, this study aimed to conduct a complex analysis of differences based on representation in managerial positions, wage levels, educational opportunities, and soft skills. The analysis combines both qualitative and quantitative data. Quantitative data were collected from 2009 to 2022 from the Bureau of National Statistics of the Republic of Kazakhstan, the National Bank, and the World Bank. Qualitative data were obtained through surveys of 652 respondents filtered based on their correct understanding of the soft skills concept. Further, the Index for Stereotypes in Women’s Employment (ISWE) was developed by identifying key indicators and gathering relevant data, followed by assigning weight coefficients based on their significance and ultimately combining these weighted impacts to compute the total index. The most significant impact on gender disparities was shown by the assessment of soft skills, contributing 13.1115, highlighting the need for their recognition in the labor market. Educational opportunities had a significant impact, contributing 2.1945, emphasizing equal opportunities for women and men. Differences in wages contributed to 1.394, indicating the pay gap. The low representation of women in managerial positions in state financial institutions (including second-tier banks) contributed 0.685, while barriers for women in managerial positions in state holdings across various sectors contributed 1.485. The findings offer actionable insights for policymakers and stakeholders committed to promoting gender equity. AcknowledgmentsThis study has been funded by the Science Committee of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Republic of Kazakhstan Grant No. BR18574240.
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This study aimed to determine whether there is a difference between the levels of imagery and mental toughness in the context of sports performance in male and female athletes. A total of 344 track and field athletes, 205 male (59.6%, 23.3 ± 4.0 years) and 139 female (40.4%, 22.9 ± 4.0 years), voluntarily participated in the study. Imagery Inventory and Mental Toughness Inventory in Sport were used as data collection tools in the study. In the evaluation of athletic performance, athletes were asked about their ranks in the years 2020, 2021, and 2022 and were categorized according to the scoring tables specified by the International Association of Athletics Federation. A MANOVA analysis was used to determine whether there was a difference between low (−2% to +5%), medium (+6 to +11%), and high (+12 to +17%) performers among male and female athletes, and a post hoc analysis was used to determine the source of the difference. According to the present findings, there was no significant difference between the imagery and mental toughness levels of athletes with high, medium, and low performance among male athletes. On the contrary, a significant difference was detected between the imagery and mental toughness levels of female athletes with medium and high performances, showing that athletes in the high-performance range had higher levels of imagery (Eta2 = 8) and mental toughness (Eta2 = 10) than athletes in the medium-and low-performance ranges. The findings of this study show that imagery and emotional intelligence are important factors for sports performance. In this context, coaches and sports psychologists can include these parameters in their training programs to achieve the optimal performance range.
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We present a conceptual framework of situational moderators of gender/sex effects in negotiation, risk-taking, and leadership—three masculine-stereotypic domains associated with gender/sex gaps in pay and authority. We propose that greater situational ambiguity and higher relevance and salience of gender/sex increase the likelihood of gender/sex-linked behaviors in these domains. We argue that greater ambiguity increases the extent to which actors and audiences must search inwardly (e.g., mental schema, past experience) or outwardly (e.g., social norms) for cues on how to behave or evaluate a situation and thereby widens the door for gender/sex-linked influences. Correspondingly, we propose that gender/sex effects on behavior and evaluations in these domains will be more likely when gender/sex is more relevant and salient to the setting or task. We propose further that these two situational moderators may work jointly or interactively to influence the likelihood of gender/sex effects in negotiation, risk-taking, and leadership. We conclude by discussing applications of our conceptual framework to psychological science and its translation to practice, including directions for future research.
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This research addresses the long-standing debate about the determinants of sex/gender differences. Evolutionary theorists trace many sex/gender differences back to natural selection and sex-specific adaptations. Sociocultural and biosocial theorists, in contrast, emphasize how societal roles and social power contribute to sex/gender differences beyond any biological distinctions. By connecting two empirical advances over the past two decades—6-fold increases in sex/gender difference meta-analyses and in experiments conducted on the psychological effects of power—the current research offers a novel empirical examination of whether power differences play an explanatory role in sex/gender differences. Our analyses assessed whether experimental manipulations of power and sex/gender differences produce similar psychological and behavioral effects. We first identified 59 findings from published experiments on power. We then conducted a P-curve of the experimental power literature and established that it contained evidential value. We next subsumed these effects of power into 11 broad categories and compared them to 102 similar meta-analytic sex/gender differences. We found that high-power individuals and men generally display higher agency, lower communion, more positive self-evaluations, and similar cognitive processes. Overall, 71% (72/102) of the sex/gender differences were consistent with the effects of experimental power differences, whereas only 8% (8/102) were opposite, representing a 9:1 ratio of consistent-to-inconsistent effects. We also tested for discriminant validity by analyzing whether power corresponds more strongly to sex/gender differences than extraversion: although extraversion correlates with power, it has different relationships with sex/gender differences. These results offer novel evidence that many sex/gender differences may be explained, in part, by power differences.
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Customer tolerance refers to the forbearing and understanding manner in which customers deal with service failures. In the service industry, where mistakes are inevitable, it is beneficial for businesses to have tolerant customers. For this reason, it is necessary to learn how tolerance occurs in customers. To that end, the article examines the effect of customer-company fit (CC Fit) on customer tolerance based on the idea that customers will be tolerant to businesses that are compatible with their values. We also examine the moderating role of gender in the effect of customer-company fit on tolerance. The relationship between the variables in the research is based on the congruity theory that suggests that customers are oriented towards fit-seeking and, when perceiving congruence, they will exhibit positive attitudes and behaviours. In the study, which has a quantitative design, the data were obtained from 231 customers of restaurants in a province of Turkey, reached by convenience sampling method. The hypotheses were tested using the PROCESS macro for SPSS. The analysis results reveal that СС fit positively affects customer tolerance. Therefore, it can be inferred that when service failures are encountered, customers who perceive fit with the business can tolerate the failure. Another finding of the study is that gender has a moderating role in the effect of customer-company fit on customer tolerance. Accordingly, male customers in particular turned more to tolerance behaviour with the perception of fit.
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There is a growing scholarly interest in understanding the multifaceted dynamics shaping women's roles in the society and scholars have investigated diverse literary works on feminine identity and gender studies. But little literature is recorded of these themes from Leïla Slimani's perspective. This study presents an assessment of feminine identity and gender stereotypes in Leïla Slimani's novel The Perfect Nanny. The aim of the research is to enrich critical revelations on the interplay between literature and societal norms, and the reinforcement of gender stereotypes in literary narratives. By drawing on relevant theoretical frameworks such as feminist literary criticism and gender studies, the study examines how the characters' identities are shaped by societal norms and cultural expectations. The paper employs a qualitative approach, utilizing textual analysis and close reading of the novel to identify instances of feminine identity construction and gender stereotypes. The study findings embodies diverse experiences, struggles, and agency and highlights the subtle and explicit manifestations of gender stereotypes that reinforce traditional gender roles and expectations. Moreover, the research uncovers the impact of societal pressures on the characters' choices and actions, shedding light on the complexities of their identities. The paper fortifies feminist literary criticism and gender studies by providing a focused analysis of the study sample text, which remains an essential work in contemporary literature.
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Society is largely shaped by creativity, making it critical to understand why, despite minimal mean gender differences in creative ability, substantial differences exist in the creative achievement of men and women. Although the greater male variability hypothesis (GMVH) in creativity has been proposed to explain women’s underrepresentation as eminent creators, studies examining the GMVH are sparse and limited. This systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted to examine whether the GMVH in creativity can adequately explain the gender gap in creative achievement. We examined the GMVH in creativity, along with mean gender differences, in a range of indicators of creativity and across different sample characteristics and measurement approaches. Effect sizes (k = 1,003) were calculated using information retrieved from 194 studies (N = 68,525). Data were analyzed using three-level meta-analysis and metaregression and publication bias was evaluated using Egger’s regression test and contour-enhanced funnel plots. Results revealed minimal gender differences overall, with a slight mean advantage for females (g = −0.10, 95% CI [−0.13, −0.06]) and a trivial variability advantage for males (lnVR = 0.02, 95% CI [0.004, 0.04]) in creative ability scores. However, the magnitude of the effect sizes was moderated by creative domain, task type, scoring type, and study region for mean differences and by country-level gender egalitarianism values for variability. Taken together, gender differences in the mean and variability of creative ability scores are minimal and inconsistent across different contexts, suggesting that the GMVH may not provide much explanatory power for the gender gap in creative achievement.
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Males are around three times more likely to possess an autism diagnosis than females. For years this was explained by accounts that considered the male gender more compatible with the autistic phenotype. However, new research suggests that a lack of understanding and recognition of the female autistic phenotype, and a predisposition to associate males with autistic traits, could lead to structural inequalities that hinder the identification of autistic females. To explore how autism and gender are more widely perceived, the present study tested implicit and explicit associations between autism and binary gender using the Implicit Association Test (IAT) and the Autism Quotient (AQ) presented alongside a male or female vignette. A significant association was found on the IAT, identifying an implicit bias towards males and autistic traits. The vignette AQ pairing also revealed some specific items perceived as explicitly male traits, while only reverse-scored items were perceived as female. These findings suggest that current perceptions and even metrics of autism are skewed towards males, which may hinder the identification and understanding of the female autistic phenotype.
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Cinsiyet disforisi, bir bireyin cinsiyet kimliği ile doğumda kendisine atanan cinsiyet arasındaki tutarsızlıktan kaynaklanan önemli bir rahatsızlığı ifade eder. Çocukluk ve ergenlik çağı cinsiyet disforisi, bu durumu yaşayan gençlerin ihtiyaçlarına nasıl yanıt vermemiz gerektiğine dair önemli etik soruları gündeme getiren karmaşık ve zorlu bir konudur. Şu anda tıp uzmanları arasında cinsiyet disforik çocukları ve ergenleri tedavi etmek için en uygun yaklaşım konusunda bir fikir birliği yoktur. Cinsiyet disforisine yönelik daha önceki yaklaşımlar, cinsiyet ifadesindeki farklılıkları psikososyal nedenlere atfetme eğilimindeyken, son araştırmalar, cinsiyet disforisinin gelişimsel seyrinin, biyolojik faktörlerle etkileşime giren çok sayıda psikososyal faktörden etkilendiğini savunmaktadır. Bu şekilde, bazı profesyoneller ve Hollanda modeli, cinsiyetin onaylanmasını teşvik etmek ve psikolojik sıkıntı riskini azaltmak için erken müdahaleyi savunurken, diğerleri tıbbi müdahale yerine cinsiyet kimliğinin keşfedilmesine öncelik veren daha temkinli bir yaklaşım önermektedir. Güncel tedavi önerileri ve Hollanda modeli cinsiyet disforisi ile ilgili etik sorunlara çözümler üretemediği gibi çocuğun üstün yararı, yararlı olma ve zarar vermeme ilkeleri ile çelişen yeni problemler ortaya çıkarmaktadır. Bu makalede, cinsiyet disforik çocuk ve ergenlerin tedavisini çevreleyen klinik ve etik hususları eleştirel bir şekilde inceleyeceğiz ve farklı yaklaşımların potansiyel risklerini ve faydalarını tartışacağız.
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We used online customer reviews of smartphones from eight countries to explore the gender effects on the evaluation of electronic word of mouths (eWOMs). We found that male eWOMs valence had a more significant impact on the market shares of smartphones than female and anonymous eWOM valence, but the impact of female eWOM valence increased with the level of gender equality. To minimize gender stereotypes in eWOM evaluation, we recommend online review platforms remove the option of anonymity and replace it with gender-neutral user IDs.
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Emerging research on stigma suggests that society's mistreatment of nonbinary individuals can, in part, be attributed to public uncertainty and a lack of knowledge about nonbinary identities. In response to this, this study drew upon the theoretical framework of uncertainty management to explore research questions related to nonbinary identity and information behaviors by investigating uncertainty management as evidenced by longitudinal Google Trends data related to nonbinary gender identities. If individuals were found to be engaging in information seeking, the result of this behavior may be that they become less likely to hold stigmatizing attitudes toward nonbinary people, and ultimately be less likely to engage in discrimination toward them. Results indicated that indeed there has been an increase in search volume interest related to nonbinary identities in the past decade. The study concludes by presenting the need for further research to clarify the nature of the relationship between stigma and information seeking, as well as presenting a quandary for researchers regarding the desire for more detailed demographic data, as balanced with concerns for privacy.
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Evolutionary and sociocultural theories of mate selection preferences contend that men place greater value on physical attractiveness than do women. Thus, meta-analyses were conducted of findings from 5 research paradigms that have examined the hypothesis: (a) questionnaire studies, (b) analyses of lonely hearts advertisments, (c) studies that correlate attractiveness with opposite-sex popularity, (d) studies that correlate attractiveness with liking by a dyadic interaction partner, and (e) experiments that manipulate the attractiveness and similarity of an opposite-sex stranger. The anticipated sex difference emerged in all five meta-analyses, although it was larger in research that examined self-reports than in research that examined social behavior.
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To examine the impact of sex composition of groups on productivity, a meta-analytic review was conducted on the findings of past laboratory research. Two classes of factors were distinguished to account for any performance differences obtained: (a) task contents or settings that favor the interests and abilities of one sex over the other and (b) group-level factors, such as men's and women's interaction, in particular, the tendency for men in groups to offer opinions and suggestions and the tendency for women to act friendly and agree with others. Overall, all-male groups were found to perform better than all-female ones. This appeared due to tasks or settings that favored men's interests and abilities over women's. The effects of group-level factors, such as interaction style, became apparent when tasks were classified in terms of the type of interaction required for completion. Female group members' interaction apparently facilitated performance at tasks requiring positive social activities, including friendliness and agreement with others. Men's interaction style slightly, although not reliably, facilitated performance on tasks requiring task-oriented behavior, such as giving opinions and suggestions. The few findings located concerning mixed-sex groups demonstrated a slight, though not significant, tendency for mixed-sex groups to outperform same-sex ones.
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Social psychological findings and methods can provide valuable tools for evolutionary theorists. Social psychologists have developed useful methods for understanding ongoing motivational and cognitive processes, as well as useful ways of thinking about and studying organism environment interactions. Social and cognitive psychologists have focused predominantly on the flaws and limitations of human information processing. Evolutionary psychologists presume that many errors and biases ultimately manifest underlying decision rules that, on average, were adaptive throughout much of human evolutionary history. This chapter discusses six key domains of social life, including coalition formation, status, self-protection, mate choice, mate retention, and parental care. A truly comprehensive model of behavior must include insights from evolutionary psychology along with the insights of dynamical systems theory. An integration of evolutionary and dynamic models may be key to understanding the emergence of cultural norms.
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This article evaluates theories of the origins of sex differences in human behavior. It reviews the cross-cultural evidence on the behavior of women and men in nonindustrial societies, especially the activities that contribute to the sex-typed division of labor and patriarchy. To explain the cross-cultural findings, the authors consider social constructionism, evolutionary psychology, and their own biosocial theory. Supporting the biosocial analysis, sex differences derive from the interaction between the physical specialization of the sexes, especially female reproductive capacity, and the economic and social structural aspects of societies. This biosocial approach treats the psychological attributes of women and men as emergent given the evolved characteristics of the sexes, their developmental experiences, and their situated activity in society.
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Four meta-analyses were conducted to examine gender differences in personality in the literature (1958-1992) and in normative data for well-known personality inventories (1940-1992). Males were found to be more assertive and had slightly higher self-esteem than females. Females were higher than males in extraversion, anxiety, trust, and, especially, tender-mindedness (e.g., nurturance). There were no noteworthy sex differences in social anxiety, impulsiveness, activity, ideas (e.g., reflectiveness), locus of control, and orderliness. Gender differences in personality traits were generally constant across ages, years of data collection, educational levels, and nations.
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Mate preferences have a long research history in the social sciences, yet given their evolving nature they must be revisited periodically. We use evolutionary psychology and social role paradigms to frame our study and contribute to this body of work in two important ways. First, we examine preference trends over the past 25 years and find that both men and women increasingly place a higher value on a mate's financial prospects and desire for home and children. Second, we compare results generated from qualitative mate preference data with two popular methods in mate preference literature in terms of substantive findings and methodological utility.
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The authors conducted a meta-analysis of 150 studies in which the risk-taking tendencies of male and female participants were compared. Studies were coded with respect to type of task (e.g., self-reported behaviors vs. observed behaviors), task content (e.g., smoking vs. sex), and 5 age levels. Results showed that the average effects for 14 out of 16 types of risk taking were significantly larger than 0 (indicating greater risk taking in male participants) and that nearly half of the effects were greater than .20. However, certain topics (e.g., intellectual risk taking and physical skills) produced larger gender differences than others (e.g., smoking). In addition, the authors found that (a) there were significant shifts in the size of the gender gap between successive age levels, and (b) the gender gap seems to be growing smaller over time. The discussion focuses on the meaning of the results for theories of risk taking and the need for additional studies to clarify age trends.
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The rise of research in behavior genetics, endocrinology, neurotransmitter systems, brain imaging, and evolutionary psychology bears witness to psychology’s increasingly biological stance. This approach has been fiercely opposed by some academic feminists. This paper examines and responds to three of their key objections: determinism (the brain as an evolved organ is unresponsive to its environment), politics (the demonstration of sex differences obstructs the goal of gender equality), and epistemology (notions of cause and effect should be replaced by the study of the social construction of gender). The second part of the paper suggests some areas of convergence between the interests of feminists and biologically minded researchers. These include the role of neuropeptides in modulating sex differences; male-female conflict at a genetic and behavioral level; the functions and social impact of peer group sex segregation; the evolution and contemporary effects of cultural transmission and the role of higher-order cognitive systems in modulating the expression of evolved emotional adaptations.
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This study (N = 520 high-school students) investigates the influence of parental work involvement on adolescents’ own plans regarding their future work involvement. As expected, adolescents’ perceptions of parental work behavior affected their plans for own work involvement. Same-sex parents served as main role models for the adolescents’ own plans, whereas opposite-sex parents served as models for the preferred degree of work participation for the adolescents’ future life partners. Interestingly, ideals of how much one’s own parents should have worked were substantially more important than the actual parental work involvement during their childhood. Adolescents, then, are influenced by their parents as role models but they reflect and modify these models according to their beliefs regarding an ideal balance of work and family.
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Meta-analyses of 43 published studies comparingadult women's and men's interruptions duringconversations were conducted. Combined significancelevels and combined effect sizes were analyzed. Acrossstudies, men were significantly more likely than womento use interruptions. This difference, however, wasassociated with a negligible effect size (d = .15). Amore substantial effect size (d = .33) was found when studies looking specifically at intrusive typesof interruption were analyzed separately. Othermoderator variables were found to be related to gendereffects on the use of intrusive interruptions. Most notably, reports of gender differences inintrusive interruptions were more likely and larger inmagnitude when either women (versus men) were firstauthors, participants were observed in naturalistic(versus laboratory) settings, or participants wereobserved interacting in groups of three or more persons(versus in dyads). These results lend support to acontextual-interactive model of gender that emphasizes the importance of situational moderators ongender-related variations in social behavior.
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Past research has examined women’s subjective satisfaction in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM), but the actual events that correlate with disengagement have not been identified. In this study, workplace conversations of 45 female and male STEM faculty were sampled using the Electronically Activated Recorder, a naturalistic observation method, coded for research or socializing content, and correlated with self-reported job disengagement. Both men and women were less likely to discuss research in conversations with female as compared to male colleagues, and when discussing research with men, women were rated as less competent than men. Consistent with the idea that women in STEM experience social identity threat, discussing research with male colleagues was associated with greater disengagement for women, whereas socializing with male colleagues was associated with less disengagement. These patterns did not hold for men. These findings point to the unique challenges women face in STEM disciplines.
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Anthropologists have long recognized that cultural evolution critically depends on the transmission and generation of information. However, between the selection pressures of evolution and the actual behaviour of individuals, scientists have suspected that other processes are at work. With the advent of what has come to be known as the cognitive revolution, psychologists are now exploring the evolved problem-solving and information-processing mechanisms that allow humans to absorb and generate culture. The purpose of this book is to introduce the newly crystallizing field of evolutionary psychology, which supplied the necessary connection between the underlying evolutionary biology and the complex and irreducible social phenomena studied by anthropologists, sociologists, economists, and historians.
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Four meta-analyses were conducted to examine gender differences in personality in the literature (1958-1992) and in normative data for well-known personality inventories (1940-1992). Males were found to be more assertive and had slightly higher self-esteem than females. Females were higher than males in extraversion, anxiety, trust, and, especially, tender-mindedness (e.g., nurturance). There were no noteworthy sex differences in social anxiety, impulsiveness, activity, ideas (e.g., reflectiveness), locus of control, and orderliness. Gender differences in personality traits were generally constant across ages, years of data collection, educational levels, and nations.
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Social identity theory Social identity theory is a “grand” theory. Its core premise is that in many social situations people think of themselves and others as group members , rather than as unique individuals. The theory argues that social identity underpins intergroup behavior and sees this as qualitatively distinct from interpersonal behavior. It delineates the circumstances under which social identities are likely to become important, so that they become the primary determinant of social perceptions and social behaviors. The theory also specifies different strategies people employ to cope with a devalued social identity. Social identity theory is a truly social psychological theory, in that it focuses on social context as the key determinant of self-definition and behavior. People's responses are thus understood in terms of subjective beliefs about different groups and the relations between them, rather than material interdependencies and instrumental concerns, objective individual and group characteristics, or individual Since ...
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This chapter focuses on the study of parametric and nonparametric methods for estimating the effect size (standardized mean difference) from a single experiment. It is important to recognize that estimating and interpreting a common effect size is based on the belief that the population effect size is actually the same across studies. Otherwise, estimating a mean effect may obscure important differences between the studies. The chapter discusses several alternative point estimators of the effect size δ from a single two-group experiment. These estimators are based on the sample standardized mean difference but differ by multiplicative constants that depend on the sample sizes involved. Although the estimates have identical large sample properties, they generally differ in terms of small sample properties. The statistical properties of estimators of effect size depend on the model for the observations in the experiment. A convenient and often realistic model is to assume that the observations are independently normally distributed within groups of the experiment.
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Much research has examined the effects teacher expectations have on student performance. While evidence indicating that expectations bias student performance is scant, a substantial literature suggests expectations can sustain performance at undesirable levels. Classroom observation reveals consistent patterns of differential teacher behavior toward high-and low-expectation students. No model has yet emerged, however, which integrates particular treatment findings into an influence sequence. Such a model is presented, outlining the cognitive processes through which teacher expectations can sustain a given level of achievement. The model suggests that teachers frequently give affectively valanced feedback to low-expectation students as a mechanism for interaction control. High-expectation students more frequently receive feedback based on their effort expenditure. These different evaluation contingencies may lead lows to believe less strongly than highs that effort will influence academic outcomes. Differe...
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Do parents have any important long-term effects on the development of their child's personality? This article examines the evidence and concludes that the answer is no. A new theory of development is proposed: that socialization is context-specific and that outside-the-home socialization takes place in the peer groups of childhood and adolescence. Intra- and intergroup processes, not dyadic relationships, are responsible for the transmission of culture and for environmental modification of children's personality characteristics. The universality of children's groups explains why development is not derailed by the wide variations in parental behavior found within and between societies.
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Implicit judgmental biases compromise scientists' theories and research on the psychology of gender. One form of bias - social cognition - engages correspondent inference and the linked principle of psychological essentialism. Scientists thus typically favor explaining behavior by invoking personal traits that correspond to observed behaviors and by viewing the traits of men and women in essentialist terms. Scientists also exhibit ingroup bias based on their gender, which influences science through the linked principle of the congeniality bias in information processing, thus involving two basic phenomena of social psychology. Scientists therefore tend to favor theories and interpretations that flatter their own gender and shore up their gender identities. The equal representation of the sexes among researchers would help restrain the pro-male bias apparent in many of the traditional gender theories. These judgmental biases warrant further examination, in relation to not only gender research but also research pertaining to other social groups.
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The behavior of women and men varies greatly depending on situations, cultures, and historical periods. This flexibility emerges as men and women tailor their division of labor to local ecological and socioeconomic demands. The resulting division is supported by childhood socialization practices that, in interaction with sex differences in child temperament, help boys and girls to develop psychologies suited to their likely adult activities. Although responsive to local conditions, the division of labor is constrained by women's childbearing and nursing of infants and men's size and strength. Because these biological characteristics influence the efficient performance of many activities in society, they underlie central tendencies in the division of labor as well as its variability across situations, cultures, and history. Gender roles-that is, shared beliefs about the traits of women and men-track the division of labor because people infer these traits from their observations of the sexes' behaviors. Social perceivers often essentialize these traits by regarding them as inherent in the biology or social experience of women and men. Gender role expectations, which tend to be consensual within cultures, influence behavior through proximal social psychological and biological processes, whereby (a) other people encourage gender-typical behavior and individuals conform to their own gender identities and (b) hormonal, reward, and cardiovascular mechanisms enable masculine and feminine behaviors.
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1Biosocial Causes of Men's and Women's Behavior2Distal and Proximal Causes of Sex Differences and Similarities3Gender Roles4Roles Guide Behavior5Influence of Gender Identities6Influence of Social Expectations7Empirical Evidence for Sex Differences and Similarities8Male and Female Social Roles are Rooted in a Biosocial Reality9Temporal and Cultural Change in Sex Differences10Summary
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IntroductionIndividual studiesThe summary effectHeterogeneity of effect sizesSummary points
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It’s time to stop fooling ourselves, says a woman who left a position of power: the women who have managed to be both mothers and top professionals are superhuman, rich, or self-employed. If we truly believe in equal opportunity for all women, here’s what has to change.
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Presents human and animal experimental and clinical findings from genetics, endocrinology, neurosurgery, psychology, and anthropology on sexual differentiation. In addition to physical abnormalities due to genetic and hormonal influences, environmental influences on the differentiation of gender identity and on erotic behavior are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Israeli 1st-grade children in two different schools in the same neighborhood who were using either a gender-stereotyped or a gender-fair basal reader were asked to judge for a series of female-stereotyped, male-stereotyped, and gender-neutral activities whether they were characteristic of females, of males, or of both. Children using the gender-fair basal reader indicated that more activities were appropriate for both males and females than did children using the gender-stereotyped reader. As well, those using the gender-fair basal reader judged stereotypically female activities as more appropriate for both males and females than did children using the gender-stereotyped reader. Type of basal reader did not impact judgments of the gender-appropriateness of either male-stereotyped or gender-neutral activities. There were no main effects or interactions with children's own sex or of mothers' work status. The importance of gender-fair portrayals in basal readers was discussed.
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The fear of underperforming owing to stereotype threat affects women's performance in tasks such as mathematics, chess, and spatial reasoning. The present research considered mental rotation and explored effects on performance and on regulatory focus of instructions pointing to different explanations for gender differences. Two hundred and one participants were asked to perform the Mental Rotation Test (MRT) and were told that men perform better than women. Then they were divided into four sub-groups and provided with no additional information (control condition) or one of three explanations: (a) genetic factors, (b) widely-held stereotype, or (c) time limit. A decrease in performance was predicted for the genetic instruction and an increase for the two alternative explanations based on externalizing. Results showed that both women and men are harmed by the genetic explanation and relieved by both the stereotype and the time limit explanations. Explanations stressing genetics and time limit as factors affecting performance favor prevention focus.
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In the current resurgence of interest in the biological basis of animal behavior and social organization, the ideas and questions pursued by Charles Darwin remain fresh and insightful. This is especially true of The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex, Darwin's second most important work. This edition is a facsimile reprint of the first printing of the first edition (1871), not previously available in paperback. The work is divided into two parts. Part One marshals behavioral and morphological evidence to argue that humans evolved from other animals. Darwin shoes that human mental and emotional capacities, far from making human beings unique, are evidence of an animal origin and evolutionary development. Part Two is an extended discussion of the differences between the sexes of many species and how they arose as a result of selection. Here Darwin lays the foundation for much contemporary research by arguing that many characteristics of animals have evolved not in response to the selective pressures exerted by their physical and biological environment, but rather to confer an advantage in sexual competition. These two themes are drawn together in two final chapters on the role of sexual selection in humans. In their Introduction, Professors Bonner and May discuss the place of The Descent in its own time and relation to current work in biology and other disciplines.