Article

Carbon stocks, tree diversity, and the role of organic certification in different cocoa production systems in Alto Beni, Bolivia

December 2013
Agroforestry Systems 88(6)

DOI:10.1007/s10457-013-9643-8

Authors:

Christian Andres

ETH Zurich

Monika Schneider

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This study compares aboveground and belowground carbon stocks and tree diversity in different cocoa cultivation systems in Bolivia: monoculture, simple agroforestry, and successional agroforestry, as well as fallow as a control. Since diversified, agroforestry-based cultivation systems are often considered important for sustainable development, we also evaluated the links between carbon stocks and tree diversity, as well as the role of organic certification in transitioning from monoculture to agroforestry. Biomass, tree diversity, and soil physiochemical parameters were sampled in 15 plots measuring 48 × 48 m. Semi-structured interviews with 52 cocoa farmers were used to evaluate the role of organic certification and farmers’ organizations (e.g., cocoa cooperatives) in promoting tree diversity. Total carbon stocks in simple agroforestry systems (128.4 ± 20 Mg ha−1) were similar to those on fallow plots (125.2 ± 10 Mg ha−1). Successional agroforestry systems had the highest carbon stocks (143.7 ± 5.3 Mg ha−1). Monocultures stored significantly less carbon than all other systems (86.3 ± 4.0 Mg ha−1, posterior probability P(Diff > 0) of 0.000–0.006). Among shade tree species, Schizolobium amazonicum, Centrolobium ochroxylum, and Anadenanthera sp. accumulated the most biomass. High-value timber species (S. amazonicum, C. ochroxylum, Amburana cearensis, and Swietenia macrophylla) accounted for 22.0 % of shade tree biomass. The Shannon index and tree species richness were highest in successional agroforestry systems. Cocoa plots on certified organic farms displayed significantly higher tree species richness than plots on non-certified farms. Thus, expanding the coverage of organic farmers’ organizations may be an effective strategy for fostering transitions from monoculture to agroforestry systems.

A short-term interdisciplinary study on the adoption and diffusion of dynamics agroforestry for cocoa small-scale farmers in Ghana Western North District

Thesis

Full-text available

Mar 2023

In three decades, West Africa has become the leader in "bulk" cocoa (Theobroma cacao L, Malvaceae), as the region saw its production grow from 1.37 million tons to 3.47 million tons per year, making up today over 70% of the world production (Fontaine and Huetz-Adams, 2020). Illustrating this development is the contribution of the cocoa industry to Ghana's economy, where approximately 800,000 households directly rely on cocoa as their primary source of income (Abdulai et al., 2018). To produce the annual 1’000’000 tons (MOFA, 2022), the country relies on a heterogeneous mosaic of small-scale farmers with contrasting differences in farming practices, influenced by climate, social and economic contexts (Rainforest Alliance, 2011). The key driver responsible for the cocoa production intensification is mainly forest conversion into cocoa farms (Kongor et al., 2018), with significant social and ecological costs (Niether et al., 2020a). To remain the second-largest cocoa producer globally, Ghana needs a profound structural change in its agricultural practices. One of the frameworks that could allow for such a shift is the dynamics agroforestry system (DAFS) - defined as the mix of vernacular and scientific-based knowledge used to promote natural mechanisms to mimic a high productive forestry system (Gotsch, E. et al, 1992). Such a practice would allow farmers to increase cocoa production while restoring their degraded land, hence offering a sustainable solution. In 2016, SANKOFA, a multiple stakeholder project led by COOP and Kuapa Koko (Ghana’s largest cocoa cooperative), was created to support the development of DAFS technology. It was established in the cocoa region of the Western North District. Under this project, a trial composed of 400 farmers with the target to secure 400 DAFS hectares by 2023 was conducted to foster the first organic beans production for Kuapa Koko. Based on this project’s trial, this master thesis tried to evaluate two elements: first, the short-term degree of adoption of DAFS among farmers participating in the project. Second, the potential future adoption of DAFS from farmers outside the project. The complex nature of DAFS technology drove us to divide it into six individual practices to facilitate its evaluation, mainly in the form of a survey answered by farmers. This led to quantitative (569 surveys) and qualitative (24 interviews and 13 farm visits) tools used on the sample population for the present analysis. The sample was not randomly distributed since it was pre-selected by SANKOFA. However, when confronted with other studies, it appears to be representative of local cocoa farmers. Overall, it was found that the self-perceived adoption of DAFS six practices by project farmers was high, ranging from 43% to 93%. That being said, it was observed that farmers had a slight tendency to overestimate their own results. Moreover, a clear relation between years of participation and adoption level was found. Geographical influence has also been observed with regard to the level of adoption of DAFS, although the studied factors could not explain it. Threats felt by the farmers, particularly drought, pest and disease exposure, further appear to be individuals of a major influence over adoption. However, these independent variables seem to lose influence as their severity increases. The evaluation of the potential future adoption of DAFS from farmers outside the project was not statically significant using the data collected, limiting the potential for interpretation. Still, knowledge about DAFS technology is transferred among cocoa farmers through their social networks. In addition, farmers exposed to threats as described above are more likely to know about DAFS practices. The study also showed that the probability for farmers to know DAFS is, on the one hand, reduced with age and, on the other hand, increased by the level of education. The study also revealed some shortcomings of DAFS technology, which could impair the extent of its adoption by farmers. The DAFS technology still needs to pass the proof-of-concept stage to be perceived as a viable alternative for cocoa farming. This applies to tackling challenges at multiple levels (farmers, projects, and institutions). First at the farmer level, appropriate integrated pest management strategy, labor structure and subsidies need to be designed. Second, at the project level, seed and seedling distribution systems, communication on weather forecasts and inclusion of traditional technics need to be accounted for. Last, at the institution level, the inclusion of Ghana COCOBOD and certification entities in DAFS growth strategy are necessary for it to thrive. If these challenges are addressed, farmers' uncertainty about its long-term viability could be reduced– hence, its adoption.

Master thesis 0906 - A short-term interdisciplinary study on the adoption and diffusion of dynamics agroforestry for cocoa small-scale farmers in Ghana Western North District

Thesis

May 2022

Sacha Malka

Composición florística y aspectos de la estructura de la vegetación en sistemas agroforestales con cacao (Theobroma cacao L. - Malvaceae) en el departamento del Huila, Colombia

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Con base en la composición florística y en aspectos de la estructura (área basal y número de individuos), se caracterizó la vegetación en sistemas agroforestales (SAF) ubicados en 47 plantaciones con cacao (Theobroma cacao) en el departamento del Huila, Colombia. La vegetación en dichos sistemas estaba dominada por las especies Pseudosamanea guachapele, Musa paradisiaca, Erythrina poeppigiana, Gmelina arborea, Psidium guajava, Manguifera indica y Cordia alliodora. Las especies aracterísticas-dominantes a nivel regional fueron Gliricidia sepium, Cordia alliodora, Amyris pinnata y Persea americana. Los sistemas agroforestales con mayor riqueza fueron el de Pseudosamanea guachapele, con 36 especies y el de Musa paradisiaca, con 25. La altura de los individuos oscilaba entre 3 y 21 m, y el mayor valor se presentó en el sistema de P. guachapele; el área basal fue 64,30 m2, los mayores valores se registraron en los sistemas agroforestales de P. guachapele, con 16.41 m2 y en el de E. poeppigiana, con 18,03 m2. La participación de T. cacao a nivel regional en el área basal es de 56,63 m2 y el número total de individuos es de 4.808. En los sitios con exposición libre (cultivo limpio en 11.000 m2) la altura promedio de los individuos de cacao era de 3,5 m, el área basal, de 15,31 m2, con 1.101 individuos. Esta cantidad es casi igual a la que se encontraría en un área de igual extensión en el sistema agroforestal bajo sombra de P. guachapele (1.386 individuos) y cinco veces mayor que aquel con presencia de todas las especies asociadas pero sin T. cacao (217 individuos). Aparte de la cosecha de cacao, estos sistemas ofrecen madera, frutos y leña, y proveen servicios ecosistémicos relacionados con la protección del suelo y la conservación de la biodiversidad.

Carbon stocks and the use of shade trees in different coffee growing systems in the Peruvian Amazon – CORRIGENDUM

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Nov 2020

Carbon stocks and the use of shade trees in different coffee growing systems in the Peruvian Amazon

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Agroforestry systems can play an important role in mitigating the effects of climate change given their capacity to increase tree diversity and to store more carbon than conventional farming. This study aims at assessing carbon stocks and the use of shade trees in different coffee growing systems in the Northeast Peruvian Amazon. Carbon stocks in trees were estimated by field-based measurements and allometric equations. Carbon stocks in dead wood, litter and soil (upper 60 cm) were determined using field sampling and laboratory analysis. The diversity analysis drew on the Shannon–Weiner diversity index, and focus groups were used to obtain information about the local use of shade trees. The total carbon stock in the polyculture-shaded coffee system was 189 t C/ha, while the Inga -shaded and unshaded systems totalled 146 and 113 t C/ha, respectively. The soil compartment contributed the largest carbon stock in the coffee growing systems and contained 67, 82 and 96% of the total carbon stock in the polyculture-shaded, Inga -shaded and unshaded coffee systems, respectively. The Shannon–Weiner index and tree species richness values were highest for the polyculture-shaded coffee system, with a total of 18 tree species identified as important sources of fodder, food, wood, firewood and medicine. Therefore, coffee agroforestry systems play a significant role in carbon storage, while promoting conservation of useful trees in agricultural landscapes in the Peruvian Amazon.

A Basin-Scale Estimation of Carbon Stocks of a Forest Ecosystem Characterized by Spatial Distribution and Contributive Features in the Liuxihe River Basin of Pearl River Delta

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Dec 2016

Forest ecosystems make a greater contribution to carbon (C) stocks than any other terrestrial ecosystem. To understand the role of regional forest ecosystems in global climate change and carbon exchange, forest C stock and its spatial distribution within the small (2,300 km2) Liuxihe River basin were analyzed to determine the different contributors to the C stock. Forest C stocks were quantified by measuring the biomass of trees, understory vegetation, litter and roots, as well as soil organic C, using data from field samples and laboratory experiments. The results showed that forests stored 38.04 Tg C in the entire basin, with secondary and planted forests accounting for 89.82% and 10.18%, respectively, of the stored C. Five types of forests, a subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forest, a subtropical coniferous and broad-leaved mixed forest, a subtropical coniferous forest, a timber forest, and a non-wood forest, stored 257.55 ± 15.01, 218.92 ± 9.59, 195.24 ± 18.29, 177.42 ± 17.55, and 117.86 ± 6.04 Mg C ha−1, respectively. In the forest ecosystem C stocks of the basin, soils averagely contribute about 73.78%, not including root underground biomass. It provides a comprehensive method for forest ecosystem carbon investigation and forest management in small basin scale.

CacaoFIT: the network of cacao field trials in Latin America and its contribution to sustainable cacao farming in the region

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This study aimed at establishing the potential of fruit trees in carbon sequestration. The specific objectives were to establish the carbon stocks in fruit trees compare the potential of carbon stocks in citrus and mango trees and examine the relationship between the management practices and carbon stocks in fruit trees. At the farm level, plots were identified and transects established and individual fruit trees from sampled individual farms along the transect were selected. At the tree level, measurements of tree height and diameter at breast height were made. They were converted to biomass using allometric equations. Analysis of Variance was used to compare the differences in carbon stocks between the fruit trees and between the different management practices. Findings revealed higher biomass and carbon stocks in mango trees as compared to citrus (74.57 ± 14.95 and 13.52 ± 1.25 t/ha respectively). Significant differences are also reported in carbon stocks under different management practices (p < 0.05). Irrespective of the species type, above-ground carbon under different management practices followed the order (from highest to lowest): Inorganic fertilizer < Intercrop < Monocrop < organic fertilizer and irrigation < intercrop and inorganic fertilizer. The results also point out that mango fruits have a high potential to sequestrate carbon emissions hence mitigating global warming.

The role of shade tree pruning in cocoa agroforestry systems: agronomic and economic benefits

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Dec 2022
AGROFOREST SYST

Cocoa-based agroforests are promoted to replace monocultures for the provision of ecosystem services. However, shade tree pruning, an important tool to sustain cocoa yields, is not commonly implemented. This study investigates the effect of pruning on both agronomic and economic performance. In Bolivia, four famers’ sites were divided in half, and shade trees pruned in one of the two plots. Pruning resulted in a significant increase in cocoa yield, from an average of 430 to 710 kg ha ⁻¹ by boosting flowering and pod production, but not reducing the proportion of damaged pods, and of those lost to cherelle wilt. Additionally, scenario calculations using international and organic premium cocoa prices were conducted to evaluate the economic feasibility of pruning. The minimum, mean and maximum yield of 22 local cocoa-based agroforestry farms were used as reference for 25, 50 and 75% yield increase scenarios. Offsetting the pruning costs highly depended on the initial yield levels. Using the minimum yield, all scenarios led to a lower net income compared with no pruning. For the mean yield level, the net income was equal to that obtained without pruning when the yield increase was above 51%. At the maximum yield level, all increase scenarios resulted in a higher net income. Our results prove the importance of pruning agroforestry trees to increase cocoa yields. However, with current farm-gate prices for cocoa, farmers alone cannot cover the extra management costs. The cocoa sector should discuss different strategies to support pruning for a broader adoption of agroforests.

Above- and belowground biomass and biomass carbon stocks in homegarden agroforestry systems of different age groups at three sites of southern and southwestern Ethiopia

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As the loss of forests over time results in a net flux of carbon (C) into the atmosphere, the practice of agroforestry can combat this and serve as a long-term sink for CO2. Based on the inventory of 93 homegarden agroforestry systems (AFS) in three study sites and using a non-destructive method involving allometric equations, the research assessed aboveground (AG) and belowground (BG) biomass and biomass C stocks across sites and along age groups in homegarden AFS in southern and southwestern Ethiopia. Plant diversity parameters were also gathered on perennial plant species. Results indicate that the mean perennial plant species richness per homegarden agroforestry, and other diversity parameters varied strongly among sites (p < 0.05). Biomass C stocks range from 18.11 at Malo Ezo to 32.86 Mg C ha⁻¹ at Saja Laften for AG, 3.97 to 7.10 Mg C ha⁻¹ for BG, and 22.02 to 39.96 Mg C ha⁻¹, for each respective sites, for the overall biomass C stocks were recorded within the homegarden agroforestry systems. In terms of age groups, the mean total biomass C stock did show numerical change from the initial, ≤10 years (22.49 Mg C ha⁻¹) to the middle age group, >10 and ≤20 years (39.96 Mg C ha⁻¹), but it was stagnant 20 years onward (28.49 Mg C ha⁻¹). The homegarden agroforestry systems had the potential to store up to 80.81–112.30 Mg·ha⁻¹ of CO2 equivalents across sites, and 82.53–104.55 Mg·ha⁻¹ of CO2 equivalents along age groups. A positive relationship was noted between AG woody biomass C stocks and attributes such as woody species richness, and woody plant density. Considering the involvement of large numbers of homegardeners, future improvements and expansion of homegarden agroforestry to larger areas can enhance to a great extent the potential to sequester C and thereby mitigate climate change.

U. Schneidewind (2022) Above- and belowground biomass and nutrient stocks in monoculture and agroforestry cacao production systems in the Alto Beni, Bolivia - eDiss

Thesis

Mar 2022

Ulf Schneidewind

There is hardly any place left on earth that can be considered untouched nature. Humans penetrate into all areas of this earth, and may it be through greenhouse gas emissions or other types of air and environmental pollution. Deforestation and the conversion of land to agriculture are processes that accompany the spread of humans on this earth, and which shape the landscapes. In this context, tropical forests are nowadays in the focus of forest clearing and land use change. To maintain or restore the ecosystem functions and biodiversity of tropical forests, alternative agricultural land uses are needed. In order to test alternative production systems, the Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL) launched the research project "Comparison of cropping systems in the tropics" (https://systems-comparison.fibl.org/). In Alto Beni (Bolivia), five different cacao production systems are being tested in a long-term trial with regard to their economic, ecological and social impacts. The farming systems range from monocultures to simple agroforestry systems, each under conventional and organic management, to highly complex successional, multistrata agroforestry systems. The plots were established in 2008, in a completely randomized block design, with four replications. The general objective of this dissertation is to compare, within the long-term experiment in Bolivia, the different cacao cropping systems in terms of their capacity to store and convert carbon, and to draw conclusions on the availability of nutrients through microbial activity. It was hypothesized that (1) AFS store more above and below ground biomass, in the form of carbon, over time, and that (2) both biological management and AFS result in higher biological activity. To verify this, (1) the different aboveground biomass pools were studied, (2) the biomass obtained from pruning was measured, (3) the annual leaf fall was recorded, (4) the decomposition of leaf litter within one year was analyzed, and (5) the root growth was estimated. The work performed showed that total aboveground biomass is greater in AFS than in monocultures. However, in the monocultures, the biomass of cacao trees is larger than in the other cropping systems. The total aboveground biomass in AFS is only about one-third of the biomass stored in trees in the surrounding forests. In managed AFS, the biomass produced by pruning can be twice that of natural leaf fall, and is thus an important source of carbon and nitrogen. The half-life of litter decomposition in the different systems did not differ, despite different microclimates and higher microbial activity in the organically managed plots. Nitrogen-rich leaves of legumes were decomposed faster than lignin-rich cacao leaves. Soil quality is improved 6 years after installation, in the organically managed plots compared to the conventional plots, as evidenced by higher carbon and nitrogen levels, as well as higher microbial activity. Fine root growth is also greater in AFS and biologically managed plots than in the monocultures. The different studies show that AFS have a pronounced advantage over monocultures in terms of biomass accumulation, even if they do not reach the level of primary or secondary forests. The work shows that there is a strong linkage of the different carbon pools in AFS. More aboveground biomass and fast-growing legumes allow regular pruning, which stimulates carbon and nitrogen cycling. Accumulated litter is decomposed by microorganisms, leading to better soil conditions and nutrient availability. Therefore, it can be concluded from the present work that AFS cannot per se prevent the clearing of rainforests for agricultural land. However, AFS, unlike monocultures, have a better ecological balance, with more biomass and better soils. The more stable and sustainable AFS are therefore preferable from an ecological perspective to monocultures which are designed for short-term profit.

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Jan 2021

Results from long-term comparative farming systems research of FiBL and its partners in Kenya, India, and Bolivia – which were presented today – reveal that profitability and productivity of organic agriculture can equal other production systems. Furthermore, the results of this long-term research show that well-managed organic farming systems can increase soil fertility, reduce pesticide residues and enhance biodiversity.F

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Chocolate production faces nutritional, environmental and socio-economic challenges present in the conventional cocoa value chain. Here we developed an approach that addresses these challenges by repurposing the often-discarded pectin-rich cocoa pod endocarp and converting it into a gel. This is done using cocoa pulp juice concentrate to replace traditional sugar from sugar beets. Although swelling of fibres, proteins and starches can limit gel incorporation, our proposed chocolate formulation contains up to 20 wt% gel. It also has comparable sweet taste as traditional chocolate while offering improved nutritional value with higher fibre and reduced saturated fatty acid content. A cradle-to-factory life cycle assessment shows that large-scale production of this chocolate could reduce land use and global warming potential compared with average European dark chocolate production. The process also provides opportunities for diversification of farmers’ income and technology transfer, offering potential socio-economic benefits for cocoa-producing regions.

Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.)

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Cocoa is a commercial beverage crop being grown in several countries in Africa, South America, and Asia. The crop is raised as an understory component in agroforestry systems all over the world, while it is considered as suitable component crop in coconut, arecanut, or oil palm-based cropping systems in parts of Asia. Being grown on a variety of soils which are basically poor in nutrition, soil test-based nutrient management is vital not only to obtain optimum growth and productivity but also to arrest soil degradation. A review of the various studies in different countries revealed that soil fertility status, carbon sequestration, and ecosystem functions were improved when cocoa was a component crop in agroforestry systems or palm-based cropping systems. Research work done by various institutions on technological interventions to enhance soil health including integrated nutrient management, conservation measures, cropping system approach, crop residue recycling, biofertilizers, and carbon sequestration are reviewed and future strategies formulated.

Do farmers’ perceptions and socio-economic factors drive cocoa agroforestry and sustainable soil carbon management practices in West Africa?

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We evaluated the farmer’s local knowledge and perceptions of sustainable cocoa agroforestry and sustainable soil carbon management in Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire using a social survey research methodology. We employed in-depth interviewing and focus group discussions to solicit information from identified key stakeholders in the cocoa supply chain focusing on the perception of sustainable cocoa agroforestry and soil carbon management. Our results revealed that about 83% and 50.5% of smallholder cocoa farmers from Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana respectively practiced agroforestry on their farms. The respondents, however, had limited knowledge about the term agroforestry and were also not very much aware of soil carbon management. Also, about 53% and 22% of the respondents from Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana perceived agroforestry practice as better than practicing cocoa monoculture. The results further revealed that most of the cocoa farmers in these study areas had limited knowledge of the approaches or strategies to achieve sustainable cocoa agroforestry and soil carbon management on their farms. At the same time, the industry’s stakeholders had different perceptions about the approaches or strategies to achieve these. Our results also revealed that educational level was the only socio-economic factor that influenced the farmer’s awareness of agroforestry and soil organic carbon. This study thus suggests the need for appropriate training and education for smallholder cocoa farmers, and harmonization of the understanding among different stakeholder groups along the cocoa supply chain of common strategies to adopt to achieve sustainable cocoa production that addresses low productivity, biodiversity loss and carbon emission within the smallholder cocoa production system in West Africa.

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Soil represents Earth's largest terrestrial reservoir of carbon (C) and is an important sink of C from the atmosphere. It remains unclear to which extent the inclusion of best management practices (BMPs) can contribute to increasing soil C sequestration in large-scale agrosystems. Solving the lack of soil C references can also allow the implementation of the C market, envisioned by the Paris Agreement. This study brings an overview of thousands of research articles and reveals that upscaling BMPs over 30% of the agricultural area (334 Mha) of the Americas would promote a soil C sequestration of 13.3 (± 7.30) Pg CO 2 eq in 20 years, offsetting ~ 39% of agricultural emissions in the same period. These results suggest that BMPs have great potential for C removal from the atmosphere and represent a positive impact in terms of climate change mitigation and adaptation, combatting land degradation, and promoting food security.

Harnessing the socio-ecological benefits of agroforestry diversification in social forestry with functional and phylogenetic tools

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Following severe forest loss in recent decades, Southeast Asian countries are increasingly employing social forestry as a means to ensure the sustainable development of their forest-dwelling communities. Given the potential of agroforestry to provide multiple ecosystem services, habitat for the maintenance of biodiversity, and the economic and social development of communities that cultivate them, many civil society organizations and NGOs involved are turning to agroforestry to achieve the goals of social forestry. However, implementing agroforesty per se may not be sufficient if agroforestry systems are not adequately diversified to meet management goals and limited tools exist that facilitate appropriate species selection in diversification. Here we review the potential of diversified agroforestry for social forestry and similar schemes, critically evaluating its advantages and challenges, before detailing two methodological tools, one based on functional traits and the other phylogeny, that may aid in generating recommendations for the effective diversification of agroforestry. Diversified agroforestry was found to have great potential as a sustainable, multifunctional land-use that is predominantly held back by the availability of resources, technical aid and tailored market access. Appropriate species selection may be a bottle-neck that can be alleviated by the tools presented. The first tool enables comparable species (in this case woody species) to be delineated into functionally distinct groups from functional trait data, which is illustrated using data from agroforests in Central Kalimantan, Borneo. The second produces co-cultivation recommendations based on phylogenetic distances between species. The functional groups identified and the recommendations based on phylogenetic distance both correspond to product types and specific uses within agroforestry, further incentivizing on-farm income diversification due to additional environmental benefits. When applied appropriately, the tools presented would allow for the cultivation of complementary species that may lead to improved habitat and ecosystem service provision without compromising yields. When coupled with appropriate market mechanisms, cultivating diversified agroforests may ensure the sustainable use of land under social forestry in Southeast Asia. Additionally, the two tools presented here have applicability in silviculture, restoration and other agroecosystems worldwide.

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The challenges and opportunities Latin American and Caribbean countries face to meet sustainable development force nations to seek technological alternatives to ensure better policy design. It also includes technology transfer for the productive inclusion of the rural population in the region. This paper aims to characterize the conceptual frameworks applied to studying socio-technical transitions related to sustainable agriculture in the region. A systematic literature review (SRL) was conducted covering 2010 and 2021. The main findings suggest that the general ideas of socio-technical transition have been used to study sustainable agriculture in LAC. However, its use has been more implicit than explicit, with some predominance of the Strategic Niche Management (SNM) and the Transition Management Approach (TMA) frameworks. In addition, the socio-technical transitions as a straightforward approach have started to be incorporated more clearly after 2020. Finally, the leading technologies to foster socio-technical transitions to sustainable agriculture in the region are related to pest control and soil conservation, so social practices such as certifications have had preponderance in this transition. This paper contributes to the existing literature, broadens the frontier of socio-technical analysis in the transition to sustainable agriculture, and expands our knowledge on applying socio-technical analysis in marginal contexts.

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Jun 2023
ENVIRON RES LETT

Many farmers around the world are confronted with the decision of adopting high-yielding varieties or maintaining the diverse portfolio of ancient varieties and cultivars that constitute the basis of local and global agrobiodiversity. This dilemma often resolves towards ensuring short-term individual profits at the expense of long-term biodiversity conservation. In this paper we argue that specialty markets can act as a driving force to resolve this balance towards the conservation of agrobiodiversity, supported by collective action. We use the case of the Ecuadorian cacao producers to illustrate this possibility. The upper Amazon is the center of origin of cacao, one of the top traded global commodities. Since the 1990s Ecuadorian farmers have been substituting regional varieties with a clone developed in the country, the CCN-51 that has shown to be a high-yielding variety that is also resistant to monillia, a common cacao disease. In some areas of the country, however, farmers belonging to cooperatives have been able to keep local varieties, obtain ecological certifications for adhering to the recommended practices, and reach specialty markets that pay higher prices for their cacao. We call this set of benefits upgrading. We conducted a study of 205 household surveys and several interviews in four provinces along the West coast of Ecuador. We assessed the role of collective action (in the form of cooperative participation) in enhancing farmers’ access to high-value chains. Our results show that collective action enables economic upgrading by providing participants with higher incomes and more formal contracts. As farmers join direct trade and certification, other benefits are accrued, such as cacao and non-cacao tree biodiversity conservation. This analysis shows that, once niche markets are open for farmers, collective action boosts the benefits of such opportunities.

Can carbon payments improve profitability of traditional conventional and organic cocoa agroforests? A case study in the Eastern Region of Ghana

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AGROFOREST SYST

This study investigates the carbon (C) sequestration of traditional cocoa agroforestry systems in the Eastern Region of Ghana and the theoretical impact of CO2 emission rights trading on their profitability. The study was conducted in four villages of Suhum Municipality, two each with either conventional or organic cocoa cultivation systems. Profitability was calculated using net present value of net cashflow (NPV), benefit cost ratio (BCR), and modified internal rate of return (MIRR). Carbon revenues were calculated using CO2 emission trading rights prices ranging from 7.5 € tCO2eq.⁻¹ (average EU trading price) to 42 € tCO2eq.⁻¹(estimated social cost of CO2 release). We tested the sensitivity of profitability indicators with three scenarios: 300% increase in interest rates, 20% yield reduction, and 10% increase in cost. NPV without CO2 payment for conventional agroforest was 20% higher than that of organic agroforest. Contrarily, BCR for the organic system was 30% larger than for the conventional counterpart. Profitability indicators for both systems were most sensitive to the 300% interest rate. The average C sequestered was 153 ± 13 t ha⁻¹ whereby soil contributed the largest fraction with an average of 88 ± 11 t ha−1. Total C sequestered in the organic system was 30% higher than in the conventional system. In conclusion, CO2 payments can improve the attractiveness of organic cocoa cultivation for farmers, although the paid price must be oriented to the estimated social costs caused by CO2 release rather than the currently used trading price in the EU.

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Full-text available

May 2022

Background: Cocoa is a species commonly cultivated under agroforestry systems (AFs), when microclimate conditions are adequate, it achieves high growth rates and seed yield. Questions and Hypotheses: How do four cocoa varieties respond to open (OC) and closed (CC) shade tree canopy conditions within AFs? We hypothesized that cocoa functional traits values correlate with microclimate conditions in the CC. Studied species: Theobroma cacao L. (Malvaceae). Study site and dates: Papantla, Nautla, Veracruz; San Pedro, Oaxaca. Rainy season, 2018. Methods: Three AFs were selected; either one with OC and CC zones, photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), vapor pressure deficit (VPD), air temperature (Ta) and relative humidity (RH) were registered. Cocoa tree and leaves functional traits were evaluated in four regional cocoa varieties, in ten individuals per variety, canopy condition and AFs. Results: Higher values of PAR, VPD and Ta, and lower RH were recorded under OC than in CC. Cocoa tree height, stem diameter, fruit production, SLA (Specific Leaf Area), LWC (Leaf Water Content) and SS (Stomatal Size) were higher for Nautla. Only the cocoa clone Inifap8 displayed higher height and fruit production than the other varieties. Conclusions: Veracruz and Oaxaca states have AFs with microclimatic conditions where cocoa cultivation can potentially develop. However, it is essential to incorporate our understanding of the adaptive responses of cocoa to particular shade trees canopy structure. Cocoa leaf traits, SLA, LWC and SS, may be used as indicators for enhancing management and sustainability in AFs in the face of climate change. Translate stop Translate stop

Carbon footprint of Brazilian cocoa produced in Pará state

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2022

Pará is the main cocoa producing state in Brazil. To provide a comprehensive picture of the carbon cootprint from cocoa production (conventional and organic cultivation systems in Brazilian Trans-Amazon and Xingu regions), the Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Protocol methodology was used to calculate greenhouse gas emissions with a focus on the impact of climate changes. The carbon footprint was calculated based on original data collected in the conventional and organic cocoa cultivation of the Trans-Amazon and Xingu regions in the State of Pará. The harvesting, fermentation and drying steps were analyzed, with data collection in nine farms, three of each type of agricultural production: conventional; organic; and organic-fairtrade. The fruit is harvested manually, the husk is left at the field for natural fertilization without composting. The small amount of inputs, such as herbicides, insecticides and fertilizers, are used only on farms with cocoa conventional production. Eliminating the use of nitrogen fertilizers and implementing an efficient method of composting without the emission of methane in the air, the carbon footprint will be only 2.01 kg CO2 eq./kg cocoa, i.e., total reduction of 81%.

Organic vs conventional plant-based foods: A review

Article

Feb 2022
FOOD CHEM

Organic farming is characterized by the prohibition of the use of chemical synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, feed additives and genetically modified organisms and by the application of sustainable agricultural technologies based on ecological principles and natural rules. Organic products are believed to be more nutritious and safer foods compared to the conventional alternatives by consumers, with the consequent increase of demand and price of these foodstuffs. However, in academic circles there is much debate on these issues, since there is not a clear scientific evidence of the difference on the environmental impact and on the nutritional quality, safety and health effects between conventional and organic foods. Therefore, this work aims to describe and update the most relevant data on organic foods, by describing the impact of this practice on environment, producers, consumers and society, as well as by comparing the physicochemical, nutritional and phytochemical quality of conventional and organic plant foods.

Farm Rejuvenation-Induced Changes in Tree Spatial Pattern and Live Biomass Species of Cocoa Agroforests in Central Cameroon: Insights for Tree Conservation Incentives in Cocoa Landscapes

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2021

Cocoa agroforests sustain ecosystem services (ESs) to varying degrees. These services are otherwise mostly provided by other non-cocoa shade or companion trees. However, the density of shade trees is associated with services and/or disservices that drive farm-specific tree management successions. Considering the growing impacts of climate crisis on farm productivity and the need for adaptation strategies, the ESs are increasingly provisional and contingent on the prevailing vegetation, land tenure, and management successions, amongst others social and ecological factors. To assess the temporal changes in shade management, we surveyed an age gradient of “family farms” in cocoa agroforests created from forest (fCAFS) and savannah (sCAFS) land cover. We evaluated the temporal changes in farm structure, relative tree abundance, and live aboveground biomass of the major canopy strata. We used a spatial point process and linear mixed effect analysis to assess the contributions of associated perennial trees (AsT) on farm rejuvenation patterns. The density of cocoa trees was inconsistent with farm age; this was significantly high on farms in sCAFS (1544 trees ha−1) with spatially random configuration across farm age. On farms in fCAFS, we observed a transition of the cocoa tree configuration in the order regular, random, and clustering from young (with highest density of 1114 trees ha−1) to old farms. On a temporal scale, there is no clear distinction of farm structure and biomass between fCAFS and sCAFS. However, the cycle of tree species and structural composition of the canopy strata are dissimilar; the live biomass allocation for the considered use groups of tree species was different with farm age. The observed dynamics in canopy tree structure and live biomass provide insights into farmers’ temporal allocation of uses and prioritization of different tree species with farm age. We recommend the consideration of such landscape-specific, tree management dynamics in proposing on-farm tree conservation incentives. Our results are also conducive to reliable estimates of the ecosystem services from CAFS in the national implementation of conservation mechanisms such as REDD+.

Caracterización y evaluación de la sostenibilidad de sistemas agroforestales en la Amazonia Sur de Bolivia

Book

Full-text available

Dec 2020

En Bolivia los sistemas agroforestales (SAF) son de gran relevancia para la seguridad alimentaria y el desarrollo de estrategias de vida de miles de familias indígenas y campesinas que practican la agricultura familiar. En regiones como la Amazonia Sur, estos fueron implementados desde finales de los 90; sin embargo, aún son escasas las evaluaciones respecto a su contribución enfocada en la sostenibilidad y su relación con los productores indígenas y campesinos. En ese sentido, esta investigación tuvo como objetivo general caracterizar y evaluar la sostenibilidad de sistemas agroforestales de comunidades indígenas y campesinas de los municipios de San Javier, San Andrés, San Ignacio de Mojos y Baures ubicados todos en la Amazonia Sur del departamento de Beni. La medición de la sostenibilidad de los sistemas agroforestales es compleja por naturaleza, dado que se debe integrar en el análisis las dimensiones social, ambiental y económica para recién entonces determinar la contribución integral de las familias productoras en la consolidación de los SAF, así como los aspectos relacionados a los beneficios. Es por eso que se desarrolló un sistema metodológico de medición a partir de 20 indicadores ambientales, sociales y económicos cuya formulación fue sencilla, práctica y comprensible para los productores indígenas y campesinos. En una primera etapa se realizaron mediciones in situ y entrevistas semi estructuradas con los productores de 239 SAF: 36 en San Andrés, 43 en San Javier, 142 en San Ignacio de Mojos y 18 en Baures. Los sistemas agroforestales evaluados en su mayoría fueron establecidos a partir de 1999, por lo que a la hora de su caracterización se debe considerar su antigüedad. Entre algunas de las variables que se midió están la composición de especies, superficie, la pérdida de cultivos por eventos climáticos y/o antrópicos, el grado de apropiación de la población para con los SAF, etc. A partir de estos resultados se realizó una segunda fase de trabajo de campo en la que se midió indicadores de sostenibilidad en 42 SAF de productores indígenas y campesinos de los cuatro municipios, en donde previamente se identificaron avances importantes en torno al proceso de consolidación. Los resultados indican que, entre las principales características de los SAF son las siguientes: parcelas altamente diversificadas, en algunos casos, con más de 20 especies; una producción catalogada como regular por más de 64 % de los productores en los diferentes municipios; el 50 % tiene un estado de manejo regular, 17,67 % deficiente, 27,45 % bueno y tan solo 4,83 % muy bueno. Asimismo, se estableció que la sequía, seguida de las inundaciones y los incendios son las principales causas de pérdida de SAF y la consecuente reducción de la producción. Los SAF de la Amazonia Sur tienen un tamaño promedio de 0,69 hectáreas a nivel municipal, propio de la agricultura familiar y responden al modelo productivo dirigido a garantizar la seguridad alimentaria. Estos sistemas son la primera o segunda opción de modalidad de producción en las unidades productivas de las familias indígenas y campesinas, y por lo general se centran en cultivos estratégicos como el cacao y la toronja. Con respecto a la sostenibilidad los SAF muestran un grado medio y alto: hasta de un 90 % de los 20 indicadores evaluados, sobre todo aquellos de las dimensiones ambiental y social. En el aspecto ambiental se destaca la alta diversidad florística y sus capacidades de almacenamiento de carbono en la vegetación arbórea y en el suelo, como proceso de mitigación del cambio climático. En ámbito social, se estableció que el conocimiento adquirido por los productores desde la implementación de los SAF, les permite tomar decisiones independientes con respecto a sus actividades; además, logran fortalecer sustancialmente sus modos de vida en la comunidad al reducir la migración, lo que facilita la cohesión social y una gestión sostenible de los recursos naturales a nivel local. Los municipios de Baures y San Andrés avanzaron considerablemente en esta esfera. En cuanto a la dimensión económica, aún se requiere desarrollar acciones para lograr un mayor impacto en la vida de las familias productoras indígenas y campesinas; urge, sobre todo, mejorar la accesibilidad a los mercados para acrecentar los ingresos. Los resultados de esta investigación deben servir para el diseño de estrategias, planes, proyectos y propuestas de políticas públicas, en diferentes niveles, encaminados a resolver los problemas con los que lidian permanentemente los productores que implementan los SAF e impulsar la producción local de la región amazónica de Bolivia.

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10457-020-00574-7

Article

Dec 2020
AGROFOREST SYST

Cocoa is traditionally grown in agro-forestry systems (AFS). It is essential to the household and regional economy and plays an important role in natural resource and environmental services conservation. In recent years, the vegetation structure and diversity of cocoa AFS throughout the world are being simplified as farmers consider that the removal of trees helps to increase yields and reduce disease incidence. However, debate exists on the relationship between tree shade and diversity and cocoa yields and the incidence of disease such as frosty pod rot, one of the most important fungal infections in cocoa cultivation. The objective of this study was to analyze changes in agroforestry structure, plant species diversity, uses, yields, the incidence of frosty pod rot disease in cocoa agroforestry systems, and discuss the consequences of the simplification of this particular AFS in the municipality of Acacoyagua, Chiapas, Mexico. Inventories were carried out in 27 plots. Interviews were applied to families to assess ecological, technical, and productive variables. Incidence of frosty pod rot disease and yields were estimated on-farm and through interviews over a period of 3 years. Multi-variate cluster analysis, Pearson correlation analysis, the Levene test for equality of variances and a non-parametric U Mann-Whitney test were carried out. Three types of cocoa agroforests were identified as a result of a structure simplification: (1) traditional cocoa polyculture; (2) cocoa with Legumes Inga spp and Lonchocarpus spp.; and (3) cocoa with diverse, scattered, predominantly wild trees. Fifty species were recorded in shade vegetation, with a diversity index of 3.15. Simplification in tree structure did not have a significant effect on cocoa yield nor on the incidence of frosty pod rot disease. On the contrary, it resulted in a decrease in plant diversity and provisioning of food and other products. Farmers undertake few agricultural practices; some practices are eventually carried out, such as the pruning of cocoa trees and shade-trees, removal, and burial of diseased fruits, and weeding. Seven out of 27 plots sampled yielded more than().,-volV) (01234567 89().,-volV) Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Simplification of the structure and diversity of cocoa agroforests does not increase yield nor influence frosty pod rot in El Soconusco, Chiapas, Mexico

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2021
AGROFOREST SYST

Cocoa is traditionally grown in agroforestry systems (AFS). It is essential to the household and regional economy and plays an important role in natural resource and environmental services conservation. In recent years, the vegetation structure and diversity of cocoa AFS throughout the world are being simplified as farmers consider that the removal of trees helps to increase yields and reduce disease incidence. However, debate exists on the relationship between tree shade and diversity and cocoa yields and the incidence of disease such as frosty pod rot, one of the most important fungal infections in cocoa cultivation. The objective of this study was to analyze changes in agroforestry structure, plant species diversity, uses, yields, the incidence of frosty pod rot disease in cocoa agroforestry systems, and discuss the consequences of the simplification of this particular AFS in the municipality of Acacoyagua, Chiapas, Mexico. Inventories were carried out in 27 plots. Interviews were applied to families to assess ecological, technical, and productive variables. Incidence of frosty pod rot disease and yields were estimated on-farm and through interviews over a period of 3 years. Multivariate cluster analysis, Pearson correlation analysis, the Levene test for equality of variances and a non-parametric U Mann–Whitney test were carried out. Three types of cocoa agroforests were identified as a result of a structure simplification: (1) traditional cocoa polyculture; (2) cocoa with Legumes Inga spp and Lonchocarpus spp.; and (3) cocoa with diverse, scattered, predominantly wild trees. Fifty species were recorded in shade vegetation, with a diversity index of 3.15. Simplification in tree structure did not have a significant effect on cocoa yield nor on the incidence of frosty pod rot disease. On the contrary, it resulted in a decrease in plant diversity and provisioning of food and other products. Farmers undertake few agricultural practices; some practices are eventually carried out, such as the pruning of cocoa trees and shade-trees, removal, and burial of diseased fruits, and weeding. Seven out of 27 plots sampled yielded more than 300 kg ha⁻¹, and one plot attained a yield of 437.5 kg ha⁻¹; however, yields averaged 155.8 kg ha⁻¹ and incidence of frosty pot rot averaged 9.6%, regardless of AFS type. These results highlight the importance of improving AFS management which in this case appears to be the most critical factor for attaining an increase in yields. Low levels of production and the incidence of frosty pod rot subsequently reduces farmers’ motivation to continue cultivating cocoa, placing the crop at risk and increasing the possibility of a change in the land-use.

Arthropod diversity of cocoa farms under two management systems in the Eastern and Central regions of Ghana

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2021
AGROFOREST SYST

Diversity of insect communities can be used as bioindicators for change in the environment especially in farms under different management systems. In line with that, we conducted a research on insect species associated with cocoa under organic and conventional management systems in the Eastern and Central regions of Ghana. Insect collection was done using Hand height visual count, Canopy, and ‘‘Knock down’’, pitfall, coloured bowl and fruit-baited traps. A total of 13,742 individual insects belonging to 138 species from 63 families and 12 orders were recorded in the study. Insect abundance and diversity were generally higher in organic farms compared to conventional farms with Oecophylla longinoda as the most dominant species in both management systems and especially more dominant in organic cocoa farms. Our study revealed that most of the insect species recorded were known cocoa pests although there was high abundance of beneficial insects too. Some of the pest species were Planococoides njalensis, Salhbergella singularis, Helopeltis spp and Pseudococus spp, while some of the beneficial insects recorded were Pheidole spp, Tegenaria spp, Camponotus spp, Crematogaster spp. We can conclude that cocoa farms are potential habitats for insect biodiversity conservation. We recommend that management and/or agronomic practices used in cocoa farms should be geared towards protecting beneficial organisms for instance pollinators and natural enemies by effectively suppressing insect pest populations while enhancing good seed production. Keywords: Central Region, Cocoa, Conventional, Eastern Region Farm, Ghana, Insect, Organic.

Cocoa agroforestry systems versus monocultures: A multi-dimensional meta-analysis

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2020
ENVIRON RES LETT

Scientific knowledge, societal debates, and industry commitments around sustainable cocoa are increasing. Cocoa agroforestry systems are supposed to improve the sustainability of cocoa production. However, their combined agronomic, ecological, and socio-economic performance compared to monocultures is still largely unknown. Here we present a meta-analysis of 52 articles that directly compared cocoa agroforestry systems and monocultures. Using an inductive, multi-dimensional approach, we analyzed the differences in cocoa and total system yield, economic performance, soil chemical and physical properties, incidence of pests and diseases, potential for climate change mitigation and adaptation, and biodiversity conservation. Cocoa agroforestry systems outcompeted monocultures in most indicators. Cocoa yields in agroforestry systems were 25% lower than in monocultures, but total system yields were about 10 times higher, contributing to food security and diversified incomes. This finding was supported by a similar profitability of both production systems. Cocoa agroforestry contributed to climate change mitigation by storing 2.5 times more carbon and to adaptation by lowering mean temperatures and buffering temperature extremes. We found no significant differences in relation to the main soil parameters. The effect of the type of production system on disease incidence depended on the fungal species. The few available studies comparing biodiversity showed a higher biodiversity in cocoa agroforestry systems. Increased and specific knowledge on local tree selections and local socio-economic and environmental conditions, as well as building and enabling alternative markets for agroforestry products, could contribute to further adoption and sustainability of cocoa agroforestry systems.

Microbial biomass and cellulase activity in soils under five different cocoa production systems in Alto Beni, Bolivia Microbial biomass and cellulase activity in soils under five different cocoa production systems in Alto Beni, Bolivia

Article

Mar 2014

Impact of insecticide and pollinator-enhancing substrate applications on cocoa (Theobroma cacao) cherelle and pod production in Côte d’Ivoire

Article

May 2020
AGR ECOSYST ENVIRON

C A F F E I N AT E D A N D C O C O A- B A S E D B E V E R A G E S

Chapter

Apr 2019

Quality and Safety Issues Related With the Presence of Biogenic Amines in Coffee, Tea, and Cocoa-Based Beverages

Chapter

Jan 2019

Impacts of shaded agroforestry management on carbon sequestration, biodiversity and farmers income in cocoa production landscapes

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2018
LANDSCAPE ECOL

Purpose Conversion of shaded agroforests to unshaded monocultures endangers the resilience of tropical landscapes. Landscape-scale impacts of alternative shade managements have rarely been assessed. This study explored plantation- and landscape-level impacts of different shade management strategies on aboveground biomass, functional group diversity, and economic potential of cocoa production in northern Ecuador. Methods We simulated several cocoa shade management scenarios, using the dynamic forest model LANDIS-II: (i) ‘baseline’ projections representing the current mosaic of traditional agroforests, planted agroforests, and unshaded monoculture plantations; (ii) ‘traditional’ agroforestry shaded by native fruit and timber trees; (iii) ‘planted’ agroforests shaded by planted fruit trees; and (iv) ‘monoculture’ unshaded plantations. The impacts of setting aside 20, 30, and 40% of cocoa plantations for natural regeneration was tested for the monoculture scenario. Results Traditional agroforests shaded by native trees stored up to 7% more aboveground biomass and had higher abundances of rare functional groups compared to monocultures after 50 years of simulation. Smaller effects were found for planted agroforests. Shaded plantations and land set aside for natural regeneration reduced forest fragmentation at the landscape level. The estimated yield gap for monoculture and shaded plantations could not be compensated by additional revenues for carbon storage at current carbon market price. Conclusions Improving payment-for-ecosystem services and certification schemes are needed to incentivize smallholders to maintain substantial non-cocoa tree cover that may provide an environmental-friendly way to improve economic potential and food security for smallholders, while supporting biomass and functional group diversity at the landscape level.

CacaoFIT: the network of cacao field trials in Latin America and its contribution to sustainable cacao farming in the region

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2024

A network of agronomists, researchers, and practitioners associated with cacao farming provided open access to their independent field trials across Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). A centralized dataset was assembled using qualitative and quantitative data from 25 experimental field trials (hereafter referred to as “CacaoFIT”) spanning several LAC agroecosystems. This dataset was used to document the main traits and agroclimatic attributes of the cacao cultivation model being tested within the CacaoFIT network. By synthesizing data from an entire network of cacao trials, this study aimed to highlight specific design features and management practices that may contribute to better cacao farming sustainability. The CacaoFIT network comprises 200 ha of field trials testing over 150 cacao genotypes and set up under different shade canopy design, management, and research goals. Small-sized trials were common across Mesoamerica, whereas medium to large-size trials were distinct to South America. Cacao trials were 15 years old (on average) and ranged from 3 to 25 years of establishment. Most cacao trials were managed conventionally (i.e., 55%), while 20% were under organic practices, and the remaining 25% presented both conventional and organic management approaches. Most field trials (ca. 60%) planted an average of 10 international clones or national cultivars at high (1,230–1,500 plants ha⁻¹) and medium density (833–1,111 plants ha⁻¹). Mixed shade canopies were the dominant agroforestry model, while timber vs. leguminous shade canopies were also common. The diversity and depth of research domains examined across the CacaoFIT network varied widely. Agronomy and agroforestry topics dominated the research agenda across all trials, followed by environmental services domains. Cacao physiology and financial performance were researched to a lesser extent within the network. Five featured field trials from CacaoFIT offered technical guidelines to inform cacao farming within similar contexts. This collaborative work is a scaffold to encourage public–private partnerships, capacity building, and data sharing amongst cacao researchers across the tropics.

Informing REDD+ Afforestation, Reforestation, and Revegetation (ARR) Project Development in the SAVA Region, Madagascar

Thesis

Full-text available

Apr 2021

Duke University aims to become carbon neutral by 2024 which means potentially offsetting up to 82,000 metric tons of carbon dioxide per year. In partnership with the Duke Carbon Offsets Initiative and Duke Lemur Center, we used a multidisciplinary analytical approach to inform the development of a Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation (REDD) + Afforestation, Reforestation, and Revegetation (ARR) project in the SAVA region, Madagascar. The SAVA region is known for its vast amount of old growth forests, which have become increasingly deforested over the last twenty years. The goal of this carbon offset project is to reforest degraded forest sites, to increase carbon storage, and to offset some of Duke University's emissions. Our clients identified four project sites to be evaluated for carbon offset project activities. We assessed potential project activities in four sections. The first section of this project describes the methods used for creating deforestation threat maps, current land cover maps, and tracking historical land use and land cover trends. We created a land use and land cover map for two reference regions encompassing the four project sites. We analyzed land cover changes from 2009 to 2019 and combined the results with a deforestation threat map to predict future land cover changes. We used these results to establish the baseline scenario—the state of the project sites in ten years without project implementation. Sections two and three describe the methods for quantifying the change in carbon stocks under native forest restoration and agroforestry scenarios. Using local botanical data, allometric models, and baseline landcover maps, we estimated the carbon stocks in the baseline scenario on all project sites. We then predicted the total amount of carbon in each project site if reforested through native forest restoration and through several agroforestry practices. We used these results to assess carbon benefits in different project scenarios. Section four describes the methods for evaluating the additionality of project scenarios through barrier and common practice analyses. We conducted a literature review and collected information through key informant interviews to identify alternative land use scenarios that would discount the additionality of project activities. We then identified the barriers that would prevent these scenarios. Based on the barriers to alternative land use scenarios, we determined whether the project scenarios would be additional in providing increases in carbon storage. We found that all four sites have the potential to provide carbon offsets through native forest restoration or agroforestry scenarios. However, further data collection and analysis will be necessary to verify the total reduction in emissions at each site under the chosen project activities. Additional analyses are also required as outlined by the REDD+ ARR methodology. If completed, this project would contribute to helping offset Duke University’s carbon emissions while restoring degraded landscapes in the SAVA region.

Plantation Crops and Soil Health Management: An Overview

Chapter

May 2024

Plantation crops are perennials, cultivated in a contiguous area in agroecosystems mostly confined to tropical belt, and comprise estate crops which include tea, coffee, and rubber and small holders’ plantation crops, viz., coconut, oil palm, arecanut, cashew, cocoa, and spices. The cultivation of these crops in ecologically vulnerable regions including coastal belts and hilly areas and in locations endowed with high rainfall and high humidity makes the maintenance of soil health a serious challenge. The agroecosystems of plantation crops are confronted with several constraints including multi-nutrient deficiencies, nutrient imbalances, decline in SOM and biological attributes affecting the soil health, and climatic aberrations, which influence the sustainability of production systems. Research programs undertaken in different countries resulted in the development of technologies to improve soil health and to achieve sustainability in production systems of plantation crops. This chapter covers a brief introduction to plantation crops, their production systems, and the strategies for soil health management such as diversification of nutrient sources including inorganic, organic, and bio-fertilizers; conservation agriculture practices; efficient biomass resource recycling practices; agroforestry/cropping/integrated farming systems; and microbiome approaches to achieve sustainable production. Efforts to augment agroecosystem properties through various nature-based technologies would enhance carbon sequestration and soil health in general, finally contributing to sustainability and resilience of this group of crops under adverse weather and edaphic conditions.

Kapitel 4. Anpassungsoptionen in der Landnutzung an den Klimawandel

Chapter

Full-text available

Apr 2024

Zusammenfassung Die vielfältigen Auswirkungen des Klimawandels führen in Österreich zu einem dringenden Anpassungsbedarf von menschlichen und natürlichen Systemen (APCC, 2014). Während Anpassung prinzipiell ein biologischer oder sozialer Entwicklungsprozess ist, sind jene Anpassungen an den Klimawandel effektiver, die proaktiv, geplant und vorausschauend passieren sowie unterschiedliche Akteur_innen, wie z. B. Wissenschafter_innen, Praktiker_innen und Entscheidungsträger_innen, involvieren (Adger et al., 2009; Berrang-Ford et al., 2011; Smit und Skinner, 2002)

Timber growth, cacao yields, and financial revenues in a long-term experiment of cacao agroforestry systems in northern Honduras

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2022

Cacao in Honduras is cultivated under traditional shade tree species (Inga sp., Erythrina sp., Gliricidia sp.), fruit and timber species deliberately planted or selected and managed from natural regeneration. Typically, the shade canopy of these cacao plantations is poorly managed resulting in high tree density and heavy shading, thus affecting cacao yield performance overtime. We assessed 12 cacao plots made up of 15–35 useful timber shade trees with varying spacing 6 × 9, 9 × 9, 8 × 10, and 10 × 12 m. Initially, each plot consisted of three shade components plus cacao. Plantain ( Musa x paradisiaca ) and madreado ( Gliricidia sepium ) were used as temporary shade and timber species, were selected as permanent shade. Dasometric data were retrieved to assess growth rates of timber species and cacao yield per plant were recorded to explore the effects of shade cover yield performance and the incidence of main diseases. Specifically, we: a) calculated growth rates and build curves for diameter (DBH), total height (Ht), and commercial volume (Vc) and compared the growing performance with ANOVA and DGC tests; b) run a correlation analysis between shade cover, timber basal area, cocoa yields, and the incidence of monilia and black pod. Statistical differences were found in terms of growth rates among timber species evaluated. Mean annual growth rates were 2.25 cm in DBH, 1 m in Ht, and the standing commercial timber gained was 4.2 m ³ ha ⁻¹ year ⁻¹ . Cocoa yields ranged between 950 and 1,365 kg ha ¹ year ¹ and were negatively affected by both increased tree cover and timber basal area. Cacao yields were reduced up to 25% when tree cover and tree basal area were over 40% and 10 m ² ha ⁻¹ , respectively. Regardless of timber tree species, no significant effect of tree cover was found on the incidence of cacao diseases. After 22 years, total revenues were determined by the proportion of incomes provided by each component of the agroforestry systems assessed. Five out of 12 timber-based cacao plantations accumulated more than U

95,000 of combined revenues, equivalent to incomes of US

3775 ha ⁻¹ year ⁻¹ . Timber-based cacao plantations are a promising alternative for farm diversification in northern Honduras.

Accounting for land use changes beyond the farm-level in sustainability assessments: The impact of cocoa production

Article

Feb 2022
SCI TOTAL ENVIRON

Impact assessments are used to raise evidence and guide the implementation of sustainability strategies in commodity value chains. Due to methodological and data difficulties, most assessments of agricultural commodities capture the impacts occurring at the farm-level but often dismiss or oversimplify the impacts caused by land use dynamics at larger geographic scale. In this study we analyzed the impacts of two cocoa production systems, full-sun and agroforestry, at the farm-level and beyond the farm-level. We used life cycle assessment to calculate the impacts at the farm-level and a combination of land use modelling with spatial analysis to calculate the impacts beyond the farm-level. We applied this to three different future cocoa production scenarios. The impacts at the farm-level showed that, due to lower yields, cocoa agroforestry performs worse than cocoa full-sun for most impact indicators. However, the impacts beyond the farm-level showed that promoting cocoa agroforestry in the landscape can bring the largest gains in carbon and biodiversity. A scenario analysis of the impacts at the landscape-level showed large nuances depending on the cocoa farming system adopted, market dynamics, and nature conservation policies. The analysis indicated that increasing cocoa demand does not necessarily result in negative impacts for carbon stocks and biodiversity, if sustainable land management and sustainable intensification are adopted. Landscape-level impacts can be larger than farm-level impacts or show completely opposite direction, which highlights the need to complement farm-level assessments with assessments accounting for land use dynamics beyond the farm-level.

Drivers and constraints of on-farm diversity. A review

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2022
AGRON SUSTAIN DEV

Enhancing and maintaining on-farm diversity is a potential strategy to improve farming systems’ sustainability and resilience. However, diversification is driven or constrained by different factors and dynamics that vary across environmental, socio-economic and political contexts. Identifying drivers and constraints of diversification can help to support the adoption of on-farm diversification strategies, where doing so is beneficial. For the first time, we systematically review and summarise recent peer-reviewed studies assessing drivers and constraints of on-farm diversity from 42 different countries. From 2312 studies, we selected a total of 97, reporting 239 drivers and constraints, which we categorised using the Sustainable Rural Livelihood Framework. We extracted the number of times they were assessed as having a positive, negative or neutral relationship with on-farm diversity. Some factors mainly have a positive relationship, such as the need to adapt to risks or belonging to indigenous ethnicities, but for most of the others the results are mixed. Our major conclusions are as follows: (1) The adoption of diversification strategies is affected by both production and demand dynamics, with differences depending on farms and contexts; (2) small subsistence-oriented farms tend to adopt on-farm diversification strategies to cope with environmental characteristics and risks and satisfy their subsistence needs; (3) farmers may shift towards specialisation strategies if the comparative advantage of diversification and its natural insurance effect gets displaced by market opportunities, financial capital, technologies and the availability of alternative and more profitable sources of income; (4) the availability of technologies enabling farm diversification and the access to alternative market options are crucial to stimulate the implementation and maintenance of on-farm diversity; (5) future policies and research promoting the adoption of on-farm diversification strategies need to design mechanisms and incentives that consider the opportunity-cost of alternative livelihood opportunities, and that are suitable for the local context and for farmers’ objectives.

Sustainability performance of organic and conventional cocoa farming systems in Atwima Mponua District of Ghana

Article

May 2021

The potential of organic agriculture to contribute to sustainable development in Ghana is unclear. This article assesses the sustainability performance of organic and conventional cocoa farming systems in Ghana. Data was collected from 398 organic and conventional cocoa farmers using the SMART-Farm tool. Compared to conventional cocoa farming systems, we found a higher environmental sustainability performance in organic cocoa farming systems regarding water withdrawal (+29%), species diversity (+26%), land degradation (+24%), genetic diversity (+24%) and greenhouse gases (+22%). The organic farming systems performed better compared to conventional in profitability (+20%) due to market premiums, gender equity (+27%), and verbally committed to sustainability topics (+25%). Agronomic practices had a strong influence on the observed sustainability performance, especially the environmental performance. Typical organic cocoa farming system has small farm sizes, spends more hours weeding manually since chemical weedicides are prohibited and has more diverse crops. Measures to improve performance is paramount for farming systems sustainability.

CONTRIBUTION OF ORGANIC COCOA AGROFORESTRY TO SUSTAINABLE LAND MANAGEMENT

Thesis

Full-text available

Jan 2019

Michael Asigbaase

This research was undertaken to evaluate the potential of organic and conventional cocoa agroforestry systems in different productive stages (Young, ≤ 15 years; Mature, 16 to 30 years; Old, ≥ 31 years) to contribute to sustainable land management through tree biodiversity conservation, carbon sequestration and nutrient recycling. It also assessed the influence of organic and conventional management of cocoa agroforestry systems on soil physico-chemical properties, cocoa pod production and crop (Musa spp.) yield. The study was conducted in the Moist Semi-deciduous Forest Zone of the Eastern Region of Ghana. Cocoa systems under organic management consistently maintained greater shade tree species diversity compared to those under conventional management. Shade tree species richness was higher on organic farms (5.10 ± 0.38) than conventional farms (3.48 ± 0.39). On organic farms, density of food and fruits shade trees (per ha) was three-fold (Org. 341 ± 38 vs. Con. 106 ± 18) when compared to conventional farms. Organically managed cocoa agroforestry systems demonstrated a greater potential to sequester and store carbon in the aboveground (39.6 Mg C ha-1), belowground (10.3 Mg C ha-1) and soil (0-30 cm depth, 59.7 Mg C ha-1) pools compared to conventionally managed cocoa systems (22.1 Mg C ha-1, 7.1 Mg C ha-1, 49.7 Mg C ha-1, respectively). The rate of total carbon storage (vegetation plus soils) ranged from 3.4 Mg C ha-1 yr-1 (young cocoa systems) to 9.0 Mg C ha-1 yr-1 (old cocoa systems) in the organic systems and 1.1 Mg C ha-1 yr-1 (young cocoa systems) to 4.9 Mg C ha-1 yr-1 (old cocoa systems) on conventional farms. Annual litterfall (Org. 12.4 Mg ha-1 yr-1 vs. Con. 12.7 Mg ha-1 yr-1) and nutrient deposition through litterfall were similar on both organic and conventional cocoa farms. The contribution of shade tree species to nutrient return via litterfall was more pronounced in organic systems than conventional systems. Organic cocoa farms had a greater rate of leaf litter decomposition (k = 1.9) than conventional cocoa systems (k = 1.3). Similarly, the rate of macro- and micro-nutrient mineralization was consistently greater on cocoa farms under organic management compared to those under conventional management. The time required for 99% mineralization of nutrients (t99) in leaf litter ranged from 1.30 (Fe) to 2.22 years (Ca) on organic cocoa farms versus 1.84 (K) to 3.22 years (Ca) on conventional cocoa farms. Organic management enhanced the physico-chemical properties of soils compared to conventional management; soil moisture content and electrical conductivity were consistently greater on organic cocoa systems than conventional cocoa systems. Similarly, organic farms had significantly higher stocks of P (51.0 kg ha-1), Mn (310 kg ha-1) and Cu (0.4 kg ha-1) at the 0-30 cm depth compared to conventional farms (28.1 kg ha-1, 165 kg ha-1 and 0.1 kg ha-1, respectively). Annual cocoa pod production per tree was similar for both organic and conventional farms (10 pods per tree for both farm types). However, the overall cocoa pod production was greater on conventional farms (12,433 ha-1 yr-1) than organic farms (9,560 ha-1 yr-1) due to greater cocoa tree density (Org. 1012 ± 40 stems ha-1 vs. Con. 1203 ± 40 stems ha-1). The annual production of banana (Musa sapientum L. f. thomsonii King ex Baker) and plantain (Musa paradisiaca L.) was significantly greater in organic cocoa systems (186.3 kg ha-1 yr-1) than conventional systems (31.6 kg ha-1 yr-1). The results emphasize the potential of smallholder organic cocoa systems to ensure environmental sustainability and long-term cocoa productivity. The adoption of organic management in smallholder cocoa systems is therefore recommended.

Natural Resources -Sustainable Environmental Management) BSc. (Natural Resources Management)

Thesis

Jan 2019

Michael Asigbaase

FOREST LAND

Chapter

Full-text available

Dec 2019

As countries advance in greenhouse gas accounting for climate change mitigation, consistent estimates of aboveground net biomass change are needed. Countries with limited forest monitoring capabilities in the tropics and sub‐ tropics rely on IPCC 2006 default rates, which are values per ecological zone, per continent. Similarly, research into forest biomass change at a large scale also makes use of these rates. IPCC 2006 default rates come from a handful of studies, provide no uncertainty indications and do not distinguish between older secondary forests and old‐growth forests. Since the 2019 Refinement to the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories was done, it was incorporated some keys for improving the GHG calculations in the forest land.

Ecosystem carbon stocks in different aged tea agroforestry systems: implications for regional ecosystem management

Article

Jun 2020

Tea (Camellia sinensis) is often grown under a canopy of trees forming a distinctive agroforestry system covering an estimated area of 3.94 million ha of land globally. Although, tea is a major commercial crop in many countries in tropical and sub-tropical regions, including China, India and Sri Lanka, tea agroforestry systems (TAFS) have remained little studied for their role in carbon management and climate change adaptation/mitigation actions. We, therefore, undertook a detailed study on the storage of organic carbon in above- and below-ground vegetation and soil under age chronosequence of TAFS in North East India. The specific aim of this study was to quantify variations in soil physical and chemical properties, carbon storage in shade trees and tea bushes, and ecosystem carbon stocks under the chronosequence of TAFS. This study has established significant variations in soil properties and carbon storage in different aged TAFS. One of the salient findings is the decrease in soil bulk density and increase in water holding capacity with the age of TAFS in the 0–50 cm depth. The total vegetation C stock (shade trees + tea bushes + litter biomass) increased with increase in the age of TAFS, and the increase was as high as 25% in > 20 years compared to younger (< 10 years old) TAFS. The ecosystem C stock estimated at 162–187 Mg ha−1 was higher than many temperate and tropical agroforestry systems suggesting TAFS may effectively contribute to Clean Development Mechanisms CDM/REDD+ mechanisms of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) once standard guidelines for market mechanisms are in place.

Improving smallholder livelihoods and ecosystems through direct trade relations: High‐quality cocoa producers in Ecuador

Article

Jul 2019

Global trade in niche commodities has increased the influence of consumers' choices on land use change and livelihoods in developing rural areas. New niche commodity markets for fine cocoa—produced by old tree varieties frequently grown in shaded agroforestry systems—create more direct linkages between producers and buyers. We explored the socioeconomic and environmental outcomes for cocoa smallholders that participated in direct trade relations compared with smallholders that sold through mainstream markets. Household interviews were conducted with cocoa smallholders in northern Ecuador. Biodiversity conditions at farm level were monitored for 75% of surveyed households. Using a counterfactual based on genetic matching, we found that smallholders engaged in direct trade (a) captured superior prices for cocoa sales; (b) had greater access to agricultural training, technical assistance, and improved social networks; and (b) applied more nature‐friendly management practices, compared with smallholders selling through mainstream markets. However, a strong overlap between direct trading practices and organic certification made attribution of environmental benefits difficult. This overlap likely explained why farmers engaged in direct trade used more organic fertilizers and less herbicide. Shade level and plant species richness and abundance in plantations were unrelated to market participation. Additional qualitative analyses suggest that certification facilitates engagement in direct trade and that some direct buyers request certification. This study provides insights on the potential of developing value chain innovations for high‐quality commodity trade. The success of value chain innovations hinges on the competitiveness of farmers' cooperatives and involvement of governments, nongovernmental organizations, and private actors.

Sistemas agroforestales y almacenamiento de carbono en comunidades indígenas de Chiapas, México

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2008

One of the consequences of slash-and-burn agriculture is the conversion of forests into open areas, contributing carbon (C) emissions and consequently increasing the greenhouse effect. The aim of this study was to evaluate the C stocks in four agroforestry systems, exploring its relationship with system age and structural and functional complexity. Carbon inventories were undertaken, in the context of the Scolel’te Project, in four indigenous communities within the Chilón municipality, Chiapas, Mexico, in 25 circular plots. Destructive sampling methods were used for all pools, except for tree/shrub and thick roots, for which allometric formulae were used. The Holdridge complexity index was applied to each system. Plots with higher complexity contained a higher carbon concentration. Taungya systems, traditional milpa, enriched fallow and natural fallow presented 109.4, 127.9, 150.1 and 177.6Mg C·ha-1, respectively. Soil organic matter was the largest C pool in all systems, with 70% of the total C stock; whereas living biomass and dead organic matter contributed one third of total C. Total C increased with system age in taungya and natural fallow, while in milpa a negative relationship between dead matter and age was found. Taungya and enriched fallow may be regarded as an alternative for slash and burn agriculture, since in addition to C sequestration, farmers do not burn vegetation, thus avoiding emissions. These agroforestry systems hold significant pools of C and also offer key local goods for local people.

Sombra y especies arbóreas en los cacaotales del Alto Beni, Bolivia

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2005

Se aplicó una metodología de análisis y diseño del dosel de sombra del cacao para 1) recopilar y evaluar el conocimiento de 173 pro-ductores cacaoteros sobre los productos y servicios que esperan obtener de los árboles asociados al cacao; 2) comparar los niveles de sombra que aplicarían en plantaciones en diferentes condicio-nes agroecológicas con las recomendaciones técnicas desarrolladas para condiciones similares, y 3) elaborar listas priorizadas de las especies arbóreas locales que se podrían utilizar en los cacaotales del Alto Beni. Los productores esperan obtener de los árboles y otras plantas altas presentes en el cacaotal madera, fruta, produc-tos medicinales y mejorar las condiciones del suelo. Los producto-res desconocen qué niveles de sombra mantener en cacaotales de diferentes condiciones agroecológicas; su tendencia es a mantener bajos niveles de sombra en cualquier escenario. Se requiere asis-tencia técnica y capacitación de los productores en el manejo de árboles y regulación de sombra en el cacaotal. Se elaboró una lista priorizada de 60 especies nativas, maderables, frutales y mejora-doras de suelo que podrían utilizarse en el dosel de sombra de los cacaotales del Alto Beni. Shade regulation and tree species in cocoa plantations in Alto Beni, Bolivia Key words: local knowledge, multistrata systems, Theobroma cacao

Arboles maderables en fincas de Cacao Orgánico del Alto Beni, Bolivia

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2005

Se inventariaron los árboles maderables (dap ≥ 10 cm) en las áreas agrícolas de 100 fincas de productores cacaoteros de aso-ciaciones y cooperativas del Alto Beni, Boliva. Se estimaron la riqueza de especies y la densidad de maderables en las áreas agrícolas y se hizo una comparación entre fincas de cooperati-vas y de asociaciones y entre usos de la tierra. Se registraron 33 familias, 50 géneros, 54 especies y 2211 árboles maderables en un área agrícola de 614 ha (3,5 árboles ha-1 ; 5 especies ha-1). La densidad y la riqueza de maderables en las áreas agrícolas fue similar en fincas de cooperativas y de asociaciones y entre usos de la tierra. El 8% de las fincas no tiene maderables. Las especies más abundantes fueron Swietenia macrophylla, Schyzolobium parahyba, Amburana cearensis, Centrolobium ochroxylum y Cedrela odorata. Los usos de la tierra con mayor riqueza de maderables fueron huerto casero, cacaotal y bananal. Las fincas tienen muy poca madera en los campos agrícolas, la mayoría de los árboles son jóvenes, de pequeñas dimensiones y tienen fustes con torceduras fuertes y baja calidad. Los productores requieren de germoplasma superior de especies maderables valiosas, apoyo en la producción de plantines y capacitación y asistencia técnica en varios aspectos silviculturales.

Estrategias de vida y desarrollo empresarial rural de productores emprendedores del Alto Beni, Bolivia

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2005

Se analizaron las estrategias de vida y las oportunidades y limitaciones que enfrenta un grupo de 64 productores emprendedores del Alto Beni, Bolivia, para poner en marcha iniciativas empresariales. Se identificaron cuatro estrategias de vida: 1) agricultura como la única fuente de ingreso (65% de estos hogares); 2) agricultura combinada con la ganadería (13%); 3) agricultura y empleo como jornalero o como proveedor (muchas veces temporal) de servicios como promotor, albañil, plomero o electricista (17%); y 4) agricultura y pequeñas empresas rurales como apicultura, venta de leche, queso, víveres y enseres, etc. (5%). Los bloqueos de caminos, las sequías, las fluctuaciones en precios de los productos agrícolas y los deficientes servicios de salud son los principales factores de vulnerabilidad de la zona. Las fincas, sus plantaciones y la buena reputación de las frutas del Alto Beni de esta zona en el mercado nacional son el principal capital natural de los hogares. Los capitales físico, financiero, humano y social del Alto Beni son bajos. La presencia de organizaciones consolidadas, como la Central de Cooperativas El Ceibo, y el comercio entre los hogares de Alto Beni y sus familiares en La Paz, El Alto y Oruro abren buenas oportunidades para el desarrollo de iniciativas y empresas rurales que aprovechen la riqueza natural de la zona.

Cómo fijar carbono atmosférico, certificarlo y venderlo para complementar los ingresos de productores indígenas en Costa Rica

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2008

Farmers in the tropics can accumulate carbon in the wood of several woody perennials that grow in their farms, join the global carbon market, bring additional income to the farm economy and conserve the environment. We present a strategy (with its stages and transitions) to estimate how much carbon can be produced on the indigenous farms of Talamanca, how it can be certified and commercialized, who should be involved in the negotiations and how these negotiations should be carried out. The interventions proposed cover 4792 ha of agroforestry systems (AFS), including AFS with cacao, AFS with bananas, plantain plantations, riparian forests and fallows. In these systems it is possible to increase carbon storage without adversely affecting agricultural production. Three strategic interventions are proposed: 1) increasing tree density in AFS; 2) promoting natural regeneration, and 3) reforesting riparian forests. The interventions will capture 1.4 million tons of additional CO2 in 20 years. We propose following the CCB standard (Climate, Communities and Biodiversity) to obtain a certification that takes into account, besides carbon storage, social issues, ecology and culture, which are the strengths of Talamanca as a region. Voluntary carbon markets (non-Kyoto), instead of those under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), are recommended for selling additional carbon fixed in Talamanca, because participating in CDM projects is usually an expensive undertaking.

Valoración biofísica y financiera de la fijación de carbono por uso del suelo en fincas cacaoteras indígenas de Talamanca, Costa Rica

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2008

Se estimó el almacenamiento de carbono de cinco usos de la tierra (cacaotales con árboles, bananales con árboles, plátano monocul-tivo, charrales y bosques de galería), el margen bruto y el costo de oportunidad de cambiar el uso actual del suelo hacia otros con mayor contenido de carbono en las fincas de Talamanca indígena, Costa Rica. Los usos de la tierra en las lomas almacenaron 22% más carbono total y 47% más de carbono en biomasa que los del valle. Los bosques de galería son los sistemas que más carbono almacenaron, seguidos de cacaotales con árboles, charrales, bana¬no con árboles y, por último, plátano en monocultivo. El suelo fue el mayor reservorio de carbono (27-74%), seguido de la biomasa arriba del suelo (15-57%). El plátano es el uso del suelo más ren¬table, con un beneficio neto de 798 US

ha-1 año-1. Las plantaciones de cacao con árboles y arroz presentan beneficios negativos (59 y 14 ha-1 US

año-1, respectivamente), pero permiten capitalizar la mano de obra familiar en zonas sin otras opciones de empleo. El cambio de platanales a otros usos del suelo para fijar carbono es poco factible, ya que el costo de oportunidad es muy elevado (20,8-50,1 US$ tC-1). Los cambios de cultivos de maíz o arroz a charrales y cacaotales son más atractivos por sus bajos costos de oportunidad.

A review on cocoa agroforestry as a means for biodiversity conservation. Paper presented at world cocoa foundation partnership conference

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2006

Richard Asare

psych: Procedures for Psychological, Psychometric, and Personality Research. R Package Version 1.0–95

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2013

William Revelle

Resilient Adaptation to Climate Change in African Agriculture

Article

Full-text available

Chinwe Ifejika Speranza

Biomass estimation of agroforestry systems of the Juba river floodplain in Cametá, Pará

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2003

This work presents an estimation of dry biomass (BS) above ground and stock of carbon (EC) agroforestry systems (SAF), studied in the floodplains of the river Juba in Cametá, Pará. The BS was estimated by the indirect method from the data of a forest inventory carried out in seven plots of 0.25 ha (50 m x 50 m). They were surveyed on average 2594 individuals/ha with DBH >5 cm. Euterpe oleracea Mart.(açaí) and Theobroma cacao L. (cacao), were the most important species and represented 80 % of the individuals (54 % and 26 %, respectively) and the others species (trees) 20 %. On average the BS of the SAF was of 298.44 t/ha. Açaí presented BS of 4.47 t/ha (43 % in leaves and 57 % in stems), cacao 1.45 t/ha (18 % in leaves and 82 % in wood) and the trees 292.52 t/ha (1 % in leaves and 99 % in wood). The EC contained in the BS average total was 134.30 t/ha; the trees had about 131.63 t/ha (98 %), açaí 2.01 t/ha (1.5 %) and cacao 0.65 t/ha (0.5 %). The EC average of SAF studied (average age of 12 years) represented, on average, about of 96 % of carbon that is storaged in a primary forest, about of 62 % more than of storaged in enriched secundary forest (average age of 26 month) and 23 % more than of storaged in forest of floodplains in brasilian Amazonia.

Trees, Crops and Soil Fertility - Concepts and Research Methods

Book

Full-text available

Jan 2003

Tree Diversity Analysis. A Manual and Software for Common Statistical Methods for Ecological and Biodiversity Studies

Book

Full-text available

Jan 2005

This manual can be downloaded for free from URL http://www.worldagroforestry.org/output/tree-diversity-analysis Effective data analysis requires familiarity with basic concepts and an ability to use a set of standard tools, as well as creativity and imagination. Tree diversity analysis provides a solid practical foundation for training in statistical methods for ecological and biodiversity studies. This manual arose from training researchers to analyse tree diversity data collected on African farms, yet the statistical methods can be used for a wider range of organisms, for different hierarchical levels of biodiversity and for a variety of environments — making it an invaluable tool for scientists and students alike. Focusing on the analysis of species survey data, Tree diversity analysis provides a comprehensive review of the methods that are most often used in recent diversity and community ecology literature including: • Species accumulation curves for site-based and individual-based species accumulation, including a new technique for exact calculation of sitebased species accumulation. • Description of appropriate methods for investigating differences in diversity and evenness such as Rényi diversity profiles, including methods of rarefaction to the same sample size for different subsets of the data. • Modern regression methods of generalized linear models and generalized additive models that are often appropriate for investigating patterns of species occurrence and species counts. • Methods of ordination for investigating community structure and the influence of environmental characteristics, including recent methods such as distance-based redundancy analysis and constrained analysis of principal coordinates. The manual also introduces a powerful new software programme, BiodiversityR, that is capable of performing all the statistical analyses described in the book. The software is built using the free R language and environment for statistical computing, and several of its libraries such as the vegan community ecology package and the R-commander graphical user interface. The software is provided on CD. After publishing this manual, the BiodiversityR software was modified into a package that can be downloaded and installed from URL https://cran.r-project.org/package=BiodiversityR The vegan community ecology package can be downloaded from URL https://cran.r-project.org/package=vegan. Installation guidelines for windows users are available from URL http://dx.doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.4706.0082. A tutorial for ensemble suitability modelling is available from URL http://dx.doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.1993.7684.

Sourcebook for Land use, Land-use change and forestry projects

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2005

Greenhouse gas emissions in coffee grown with differing input levels under conventional and organic management

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2012
AGR ECOSYST ENVIRON

Coffee plays a key role in sustaining millions of livelihoods around the world. Understanding GHG emissions from coffee supply chains is important in evaluating options for climate change mitigation within the sector. We use data from two long-term coffee agroforestry experiments in Costa Rica and Nicaragua to calculate carbon footprints (CF) for coffee and identify emission hotspots within different management systems, levels of inputs and shade types. Management system and input level were the main cause of variation in CFs. Carbon footprints for 1 kg of fresh coffee cherries were between 0.26 and 0.67 kgCO2e for conventional and 0.12 and 0.52 kgCO2e for organic management systems. The main contributor to GHG emissions for all management systems was the inputs of organic and inorganic nitrogen. Nitrous oxide emissions from pruning inputs contributed between 7% and 42% of CFs. However, these estimates were strongly influenced by the choice of emission factor used in the calculations. Research is required to develop emission factors that account for different qualities and management of nitrogen inputs to enable effective calculation of the CF from different management strategies, and especially from the pruning and organic inputs managed in agroforestry systems. As such, effective climate change mitigation strategies can only be developed from site-specific studies which utilise accurate accounting and regional-specific emission factors.

Methods for sampling carbon stocks above and below ground

Article

Full-text available

Evaluación agronómica de las plantaciones de cacao injertado de productores de la Central de Cooperativas El Ceibo, Alto Beni, Bolivia1

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2005

La Central de Cooperativas El Ceibo, Alto Beni, Bolivia, entregó injertos de cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) a 260 productores de cacao orgánico entre 1993-1994 y 1997-1999. Se estudiaron las condiciones de sitio, el estado agronómico actual y el manejo aplicado desde el establecimiento en una muestra al azar de 42 plantaciones. Se encontró que las condiciones de suelo, mantillo y pendientes donde se establecieron las plantaciones injertadas fueron, en general, apropiados para el cultivo del cacao. Sin embargo, el manejo de las plantaciones fue deficiente (poco control de malezas, las podas de mantenimiento no se aplicaron oportuna ni regularmente, no se fertilizó para reponer los nutrientes extraídos en la cosecha, no se reguló la sombra ni se controlaron las enfermedades), los niveles de producción fueron muy bajos y las cosechas comenzaron tardíamente a partir del sexto año de edad. Las plantas injertadas no recibieron oportunamente la poda de formación, ramificaron a baja altura (30-35 cm sobre el suelo), cerrando sus copas a baja altura, lo que dificulta el libre tránsito y el manejo de la plantación, inhibe la floración y fructificación y crea condiciones microambientales favorables para el ataque de plagas y enfermedades. Los agricultores requieren asistencia técnica y capacitación en el manejo de plantaciones injertadas de cacao.

Estimating Biomass and Biomass Change of Tropical Forests: A Primer

Article

Full-text available

Jan 1997

Sandra Brown

Cacao Cultivation and the Conservation of Biological Diversity

Article

Full-text available

May 2000

Cacao (Theobroma cacao) is a crop of the humid lowland tropics produced largely by small-scale producers and often on farms with a canopy of shade trees. Where a diverse shaded canopy is used, cacao farms support higher levels of biological diversity than most other tropical crops. A host of viral and fungal diseases, loss of soil fertility, and numerous socioeconomic problems facing producers, often makes cacao production locally unsustainable. Continued clearing of new lands threatens biodiversity. Moreover, new frontiers for cacao expansion are rapidly disappearing. Such problems can be addressed by increasing the long-term productivity of existing cacao farms and restoring abandoned lands. Improved shade management offers guidance along this path. Institutions involved with cocoa should establish collaborations with groups concerned with development, environmental protection, and most importantly producers themselves to pursue a program of research, extension and policy initiatives focused on the ecologically and economically sustainable cacao production on farms with a diverse shade canopy.

El Proyecto "Modernización de la cacaocultura orgánica del Alto Beni, Bolivia

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2005

Entre 2001 y 2005, el Viceministerio de Desarrollo Alternativo (VDA) del Gobierno de Bolivia canalizó recursos financieros de la cooperación internacional bilateral y multilateral hacia varias localidades de los Yungas de La Paz y del Trópico de Cochabamba para incentivar actividades agropecuarias económicamente atractivas y desincentivar el cultivo ilegal de coca en esas regiones. En el Alto Beni, Yungas de La Paz, la CICAD (Comisión Interamericana para el Control del Abuso de Drogas de la Organización de Estados Americanos, OEA) y el VDA encargaron al INIBAP (International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantain) y al CATIE (Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza) diseñar e implementar sendos proyectos para reactivar los sectores bananero y cacaotero orgánicos del Alto Beni, respectivamente. El Alto Beni es una región prioritaria para el Gobierno, por ser esta una zona potencial de expansión del cultivo ilegal de la coca de los Yungas Paceños y por ser ejemplo nacional de desarrollo rural sin confrontación y sin coca.

¿Cómo fijar C atmosférico, fijarlo y venderlo para complementar los ingresos de productores indígenas de Costa Rica?

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2008

The effects of management and plant diversity on carbon storage in coffee agroforestry systems in Costa Rica

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2012
AGROFOREST SYST

Achim Haeger

Agroforestry systems can mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, conserve biodiversity and generate income. Whereas the provision of ecosystem services by agroforestry is well documented, the functional relationships between species composition, diversity and carbon (C)-storage remain uncertain. This study aimed to analyze the effects of management (conventional vs. organic), woody plant diversity and plant composition on aboveground and belowground C-storage in coffee agroforestry systems. It was expected that organic farms would store more C, and that an increase in plant diversity would enhance C-storage due to complementarity effects. Additionally, it was expected that steep slopes decrease C-storage as a result of topsoil erosion. Woody plants were identified on 1 ha plots within 14 coffee farms (7 conventional and 7 organic). C-stocks in trees, coffee plants and roots were estimated from allometric equations. C-stocks in litter and topsoil (0–25 cm) were estimated by sampling. On average, farms stored 93 ± 29 Mg C ha−1. Soil organic carbon accounted for 69 % of total C. Total C-stocks were 43 % higher on organic farms than on conventional farms (P < 0.05). Conventional and organic farms differed in vegetation structure, but not in species diversity. It was found that the combined effect of farm type, species richness, species composition and slope explained 83 % of the variation in total C-storage across all farms (P < 0.001). Coffee agroforestry in general and organic farms in particular may contribute to GHG mitigation and biodiversity conservation in a synergistic manner which has implications for the effective allocation of resources for conservation and climate change mitigation strategies in the agricultural sector.

Enhanced top soil carbon stocks under organic farming

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2012
P NATL ACAD SCI USA

It has been suggested that conversion to organic farming contributes to soil carbon sequestration, but until now a comprehensive quantitative assessment has been lacking. Therefore, datasets from 74 studies from pairwise comparisons of organic vs. nonorganic farming systems were subjected to metaanalysis to identify differences in soil organic carbon (SOC). We found significant differences and higher values for organically farmed soils of 0.18 ± 0.06% points (mean ± 95% confidence interval) for SOC concentrations, 3.50 ± 1.08 Mg C ha(-1) for stocks, and 0.45 ± 0.21 Mg C ha(-1) y(-1) for sequestration rates compared with nonorganic management. Metaregression did not deliver clear results on drivers, but differences in external C inputs and crop rotations seemed important. Restricting the analysis to zero net input organic systems and retaining only the datasets with highest data quality (measured soil bulk densities and external C and N inputs), the mean difference in SOC stocks between the farming systems was still significant (1.98 ± 1.50 Mg C ha(-1)), whereas the difference in sequestration rates became insignificant (0.07 ± 0.08 Mg C ha(-1) y(-1)). Analyzing zero net input systems for all data without this quality requirement revealed significant, positive differences in SOC concentrations and stocks (0.13 ± 0.09% points and 2.16 ± 1.65 Mg C ha(-1), respectively) and insignificant differences for sequestration rates (0.27 ± 0.37 Mg C ha(-1) y(-1)). The data mainly cover top soil and temperate zones, whereas only few data from tropical regions and subsoil horizons exist. Summarizing, this study shows that organic farming has the potential to accumulate soil carbon.

Agroforestry as a strategy for carbon sequestration

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2009
J PLANT NUTR SOIL SC

During the past three decades, agroforestry has become recognized the world over as an integrated approach to sustainable land use because of its production and environmental benefits. Its recent recognition as a greenhouse gas–mitigation strategy under the Kyoto Protocol has earned it added attention as a strategy for biological carbon (C) sequestration. The perceived potential is based on the premise that the greater efficiency of integrated systems in resource (nutrients, light, and water) capture and utilization than single-species systems will result in greater net C sequestration. Available estimates of C-sequestration potential of agroforestry systems are derived by combining information on the aboveground, time-averaged C stocks and the soil C values; but they are generally not rigorous. Methodological difficulties in estimating C stock of biomass and the extent of soil C storage under varying conditions are compounded by the lack of reliable estimates of area under agroforestry. We estimate that the area currently under agroforestry worldwide is 1,023 million ha. Additionally, substantial extent of areas of unproductive crop, grass, and forest lands as well as degraded lands could be brought under agroforestry. The extent of C sequestered in any agroforestry system will depend on a number of site-specific biological, climatic, soil, and management factors. Furthermore, the profitability of C-sequestration projects will depend on the price of C in the international market, additional income from the sale of products such as timber, and the cost related to C monitoring. Our knowledge on these issues is unfortunately rudimentary. Until such difficulties are surmounted, the low-cost environmental benefit of agroforestry will continue to be underappreciated and underexploited.

Organic agriculture and climate change

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Jun 2010
RENEW AGR FOOD SYST

This article discusses the mitigation and adaptation potential of organic agricultural systems along three main features: farming system design, cropland management and grassland and livestock management. An important potential contribution of organically managed systems to climate change mitigation is identified in the careful management of nutrients and, hence, the reduction of N 2 O emissions from soils. Another high mitigation potential of organic agriculture lies in carbon sequestration in soils. In a first estimate, the emission reduction potential by abstention from mineral fertilizers is calculated to be about 20% and the compensation potential by carbon sequestration to be about 40–72% of the world's current annual agricultural greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, but further research is needed to consolidate these numbers. On the adaptation side, organic agriculture systems have a strong potential for building resilient food systems in the face of uncertainties, through farm diversification and building soil fertility with organic matter. Additionally, organic agriculture offers alternatives to energy-intensive production inputs such as synthetic fertilizers which are likely to be further limited for poor rural populations by rising energy prices. In developing countries, organic agricultural systems achieve equal or even higher yields, as compared to the current conventional practices, which translate into a potentially important option for food security and sustainable livelihoods for the rural poor in times of climate change. Certified organic products cater for higher income options for farmers and, therefore, can serve as promoters for climate-friendly farming practices worldwide.

Agro‐Successional Restoration as a Strategy to Facilitate Tropical Forest Recovery

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Jul 2009
RESTOR ECOL

With the increasing need to restore former agricultural lands worldwide and in the tropics, in particular, it is critical to explore different models for how to restore these lands in a cost-effective manner which best simulates natural forest recovery and provides for human livelihoods. We propose that agro-successional restoration, which we define as incorporating a range of agroecology and agroforestry techniques as a transition phase early in forest restoration, could be used more widely to overcome socioeconomic and ecological obstacles to restoring these lands. Over centuries, farmers and scientists have developed various agroforestry techniques that aim to cultivate crops and trees, in a range of crop types, time periods of cultivation (a few years to several decades), and complexity of species planted. The management practices used in these systems, such as weeding and increasing soil fertility, parallel those used in many forest restoration efforts. The synergism between these approaches is evidenced by many existing agro-successional examples currently used by smallholders in the tropics. Benefits of the agro-successional model include extending the management period of restoration, offsetting some management costs, providing food security for small landholders, and involving small landholders in the restoration process.

Productivity of Theobroma cacao agroforestry systems with timber or legume service shade trees

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Feb 2011

Timber production and cocoa yields were studied (initial 10–11 years) in two experimental plantations: a Cocoa-Legume system (CL, Erythrina poeppigiana, Gliricidia sepium or Inga edulis), and a Cocoa-Timber system (CT, Cordia alliodora, Tabebuia rosea or Terminalia ivorensis, plus I. edulis for inter-site comparisons). These trials had two major goals: (1) to evaluate the use of mono-specific timber shade canopies as an alternative to traditional, mono-specific, legume service shade tree canopies; and (2) to determine the production potential of ten cocoa clonal bi-crosses under these shade tree species. Within each site, shade tree species did not influence dry cocoa bean yield nor pod counts (total number of pods produced, number of healthy pods harvested, pod losses due to monilia [Moniliophthora roreri], black pod [Phytophthora palmivora] or other causes—birds and squirrels in this study-, and total pod losses). Significant differences were found between cocoa bi-crosses for both cocoa bean yield and pod counts. Sites differed only in terms of total pod losses (43% in CL; 54% in CT) and their causal factors (mainly monilia in CL; both monilia, squirrels and birds in CT). At CT, all timber tree species grew rapidly, reaching 30–34 cm dbh, 17–25 m total tree height and 97–172 m3 ha−1 total stem volume (age 10 years). Timber species should be promoted for the shade component of cacao plantations given their potential production and the fact that their presence did not negatively affect cocoa yields.

Carbon Sequestration through Agroforestry in Indigenous Communities of Chiapas, Mexico

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Jan 2010

The importance of agroforestry systems as carbon sinks has recently been recognized due to the need of climate change mitigation. The objective of this study was to compare the carbon content in living biomass, soil (0–10, 10–20, 20–30 cm in depth), dead organic matter between a set of non-agroforestry and agroforestry prototypes in Chiapas, Mexico where the carbon sequestration programme called Scolel’te has been carried out. The prototypes compared were: traditional maize (rotational prototype with pioneer native trees evaluated in the crop period), Taungya (maize with timber trees), improved fallow, traditional fallow (the last three rotational prototypes in the crop-free period), Inga-shade-organic coffee, polyculture-shade organic coffee, polyculture-non-organic coffee, pasture without trees, pasture with live fences, and pasture with scattered trees. Taungya and improved fallow were designed agroforestry prototypes, while the others were reproduced traditional systems. Seventy-nine plots were selected in three agro-climatic zones. Carbon in living biomass, dead biomass, and soil organic matter was measured in each plot. Results showed that carbon in living biomass and dead organic matter were different according to prototype; while soil organic carbon and total carbon were influenced mostly by the agro-climatic zone (P

Root biomass allocation in the world's upland forests

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Jun 1997

Carbon stocks, tree diversity, and the role of organic certification in different cocoa production systems in Alto Beni, Bolivia

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