New Pathways of Sociopolitical Complexity in Southern Africa

Abstract

Much is known about the economy and spatial organization of Zimbabwe culture entities of Mapungubwe, Great Zimbabwe and Khami but less in terms of their origins and relationship with each other. Based on little tangible evidence, it is believed and widely accepted that the societies based at Mapungubwe (ad 1220–1290), Great Zimbabwe (ad 1300–1450) and Khami (ad 1450–1820) rose, developed and eclipsed in tandem. A recent reexamination of the relationship between these settlements and related ones using local ceramics, imported artefacts, stone architecture and Bayesian modelling suggests this may not have been the case. The synthesis proffered revelations which temper the widely accepted assumption that sociopolitical complexity in southern Africa began in the Shashi-Limpopo Valley before anywhere else in the region. Firstly, there are numerous Zhizo and Leopard’s Kopje sites that predate Mapungubwe but contain prestige goods and stone structures dating from the late first millennium ad. Secondly, material culture studies and modelled radiocarbon dates indicate that Great Zimbabwe evolved out of Gumanye while Khami, like Mapungubwe, may have developed out of the Leopard’s Kopje. In fact, Great Zimbabwe was already a place of importance when Mapungubwe collapsed. Thirdly, Khami and Great Zimbabwe overlapped for over a century, before the latter buckled. Therefore, the evolution of sociopolitical complexity in southern Africa may have followed trajectories that are different from what the current understanding implies.

Full text

REVIEW ARTICLE
New Pathways of Sociopolitical Complexity
in Southern Africa
Shadreck Chirikure &Munyaradzi Manyanga &
Innocent Pikirayi &Mark Pollard
Published online: 26 October 2013
#Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013
Abstract Much is known about the economy and spatial organization of Zimbabwe
culture entities of Mapungubwe, Great Zimbabwe and Khami but less in terms of their
origins and relationship with each other. Based on little tangible evidence, it is believed
and widely accepted that the societies based at Mapungubwe (AD 1220–1290), Great
Zimbabwe (AD 1300–1450) and Khami (AD 1450–1820) rose, developed and eclipsed in
tandem. A recent reexamination of the relationship between these settlements and
related ones using local ceramics, imported artefacts, stone architecture and Bayesian
modelling suggests this may not have been the case. The synthesis proffered revelations
which temper the widely accepted assumption that sociopolitical complexity in southern
Africa began in the Shashi-Limpopo Valley before anywhere else in the region. Firstly,
there are numerous Zhizo and Leopard’s Kopje sites that predate Mapungubwe but
contain prestige goods and stone structures dating from the late first millennium AD.
Secondly, material culture studies and modelled radiocarbon dates indicate that Great
Zimbabwe evolved out of Gumanye while Khami, like Mapungubwe, may have
developed out of the Leopard’s Kopje. In fact, Great Zimbabwe was already a place
of importance when Mapungubwe collapsed. Thirdly, Khami and Great Zimbabwe
overlapped for over a century, before the latter buckled. Therefore, the evolution of
sociopolitical complexity in southern Africa may have followed trajectories that are
different from what the current understanding implies.
Résumé Nous savons beaucoup de choses à propos de l’organisation spatiale et de
l’économie des entités culturelles Zimbabwéennes de Mapungubwe, Great Zimbabwe et
Khami, mais peu sur leurs origines et leurs relations. Selon le peu de données disponibles,
Mapungubwe (1220–1290 ap. J-C), Great Zimbabwe (1300–1450 ap. J-C) et Khami
Afr Archaeol Rev (2013) 30:339–366
DOI 10.1007/s10437-013-9142-3
S. Chirikure (*):M. Manyanga
Cape Town, South Africa
e-mail: shadreck.chirikure@uct.ac.za
I. Pikirayi
University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
M. Pollard
Oxford University, Oxford, United Kingdom

(1450–1820 ap. J-C) auraient été fondés, se seraient développés et se seraient effondrés
successivement. De récentes recherches ont exploré les relations entre ces différents sites
ainsi que ceux qui y sont rattachés, en étudiant les céramiques locales, les objets
importés, la typologie des murs de pierres et notamment les préférences résidentielles,
et la modélisation Bayesienne. La synthèse permet de tempérer la vision dominante
selon laquelle la complexité sociopolitique dans le Sud de l’Afrique a commencé dans la
vallée du Shashi-Limpopo, avant tout autre site dans la région. Tout d’abord, il y a de
nombreux sites antérieurs à Mapungubwe, Zhizo et Leopard’s Kopje, avec des biens de
prestige et des fortifications en pierre datant de la fin du premier millénaire ap. J-C. Ces
caractéristiques seraient apparus à K2 et Mapungubwe dans la dépression du Limpopo.
Deuxièmement, la culture matérielle et les datations carbones indiquent que Great
Zimbabwe était déjà un lieu important quand Mapungubwe s’est effondré. Enfin, Khami
et Great Zimbabwe coexistent pendant plus d’un siècle, avant que ce dernier ne tombe
en déchéance. Par conséquent, la complexité sociopolitique dans le Sud de l’Afrique a
probablement emprunté des trajectoires différentes de celles qui sont actuellement
tracées avec les connaissances disponibles.
Keywords Zimbabwe culture .Sociopolitical complexity .Southern Africa .Great
Zimbabwe .Khami .Mapungubwe
Introduction
The Zimbabwe culture, famous for its dry-stone-built capitals, is arguably one of the most
important cultural developments in the last two millennia of sub-Saharan prehistory/history
(MacIver 1906; Caton-Thompson 1931;Garlake1973; Robinson 1985;Sinclair1987; Pwiti
1996;Pikirayi2001;Huffman2007; Kim and Kusimba 2008). Three former capitals, Great
Zimbabwe, Khami and Mapungubwe, are all UNESCO World Heritage Sites. For a very
long time, the culture has attracted the awe of foreign observers such that when Karl Mauch
reported it to the outside world in 1871, amateur and academic archaeologists engaged with
Great Zimbabwe and associated places in mesmeric detail (Bent 1896; Hall and Neal 1902;
MacIver 1906; Caton-Thompson 1931;Summerset al. 1961;Hall1987;Huffman1996;
Beach 1998;Pikirayi2001;KimandKusimba2008; Chirikure et al. 2012). However, most
of this took place without the participation of local scholars and communities, resulting in an
archaeology that is incompatible with local understandings and expectations (Garlake 1982;
Pwiti 1996; Kusimba 2006; Chirikure and Pikirayi 2008). Fontein (2006)deploredthe
championing of singular interpretations at Great Zimbabwe which marginalised alternative
and subaltern voices. This tendency, argues Fontein, also pushed local myths, legends and
histories into the abyss, resulting in a poorer past.
Expressing his frustration at how the archaeology of the Zimbabwe culture marginalised
local people and their narratives from the mainstream, Garlake (1982:3) cogently argued
that “the settler paradigm has governed all protohistoric research in Zimbabwe even though
archaeologists all recognized the absurdity of the settler view on the origins of Great
Zimbabwe.”The settler paradigm held that Great Zimbabwe and related sites were built
by exotic people since local peoples were incapable of making such achievements (Bent
1896). Cultural change was explained in terms of domination and migration against a
background of passive African communities. Garlake called upon local scholars to enter the
340 Afr Archaeol Rev (2013) 30:339–366

fray to temper some of the assumptions emanating from the colonial ancestry of Zimbabwe
culture studies. So far, few local scholars have taken up this challenge (Pikirayi 2001;
Kusimba 2006; Kim and Kusimba 2008; Chirikure et al. 2012) despite the fact that
researchers such as Hall (2009), Schmidt (2009)andLane(2011) have fervently advocated
for a postcolonial archaeology that is simultaneously multivocal and locally empowering.
The main topics that dominated research on the Zimbabwe culture during the past
century include the origins and identity of the societies attributed to the construction of
monumental architecture (MacIver 1906; Caton-Thompson 1931), dating and chronology
(Summers et al. 1961;Garlake1973; Huffman and Vogel 1991; Chirikure et al. 2013),
material culture identities (Schofield 1937; Robinson 1961b; Pikirayi 1993;Pwiti1996),
migrations as the prime mover of cultural change (Schofield 1937;Jaffey1966;Huffman
1982), divine kingship (Jaffey 1966;Huffman1982), and spatial organization and ritual
and symbolic meaning (Huffman 1982,2007). A central thread that runs through some of
the earliest works was the idea that domination and population replacement were engines
for cultural change. For example, according to Schofield (1937), “the pottery of Zimba-
bwe III [Great Zimbabwe] was similar to class MI at Mapungubwe, indicating perhaps
that the latter came within the sphere of Zimbabwe III about the fourteenth or fifteenth
century”(own emphasis). The legacy of this view is that although the argument was
flipped by Huffman (1982,2000,2009) to make Great Zimbabwe fall under the state of
Mapungubwe in the thirteenth century, the basic idea is still that of the domination of
southern Africa by a single entity at a time. Thus, Garlake (1982:6) observed that even
though new concepts were introduced to the study of the Zimbabwe culture particularly in
the 1980s, the basic paradigm remained entirely unchanged going back through Sum-
mers, Robinson and Schofield, in that little attention was given to smaller sites while
internally generated change was downplayed in explaining major cultural changes.
Not surprisingly, the beginning of sociopolitical complexity is reduced to one point on
the landscape—the Shashi-Limpopo confluence area—where, purportedly, ideological
transitions associated with class distinction were nurtured before being materialized on
Mapungubwe Hill (Huffman 1982,2009). Indeed, Mapungubwe is assumed to represent
the earliest palace which is spatially organized like Great Zimbabwe and other settlements
that came after (Sinclair 1987; Huffman and Vogel 1991;Huffman1996;Pikirayi2001).
Furthermore, long-distance trade is often seen as a catalyst that provided the means to
create social inequalities (Pwiti 1991). This is the widely accepted view but has never
been scrutinized using multiple strands of evidence and a local point of view as advocated
by Garlake (1982). Although ideology may have been important, it is not clear how the
elites managed to impose their power over large tracts of land. Recently, Kusimba (2006)
andKimandKusimba(2008) have passed useful comment on the role of warfare and
coercion, factors that—despite historically promoting state formation in southern
Zambezia (Beach 1980; Mudenge 1988,Pikirayi2001)—have been marginalised in the
study of the emergence of sociopolitical complexity in southern Africa. The significance
of warfare and coercion is that as with all other local factors, they force researchers to
move away from a preoccupation with the question of why sociopolitical complexity
emerged, to considering how the process might have unfolded, thereby considering a
series of related sites on the landscape and not just the biggest ones.
In this milieu, we present our study, which is based on three core pillars: (1) a review of
the ceramic evidence, (2) a reexamination of the stone architecture and (3) Bayesian
modelling of radiocarbon dates. It aims to reexamine the material culture and chronology
Afr Archaeol Rev (2013) 30:339–366 341

of the archaeological sites dating between the late first and early second millennium AD in
southern Africa, to shed new light on the beginning of sociopolitical complexity in the
region (Fig. 1). The results indicate the existence of numerous sites dating from the late
first millennium AD that intimate the presence of sociopolitically complex communities. It
was also demonstrated that Great Zimbabwe developed out of Gumanye (see also Sinclair
1987), while the material culture from the basal levels of the stone-walled area at Khami
(see Robinson 1959) indicates that it probably developed from the Leopard’sKopje
tradition. This establishes a relationship between Khami and Mapungubwe showing
they were founded by Kalanga (a sub-branch of Shona) speakers, as widely acknowl-
edged (Huffman 2007). Our understanding of the emergence of sociopolitical complex-
ity is likely to change further if research is directed to archaeological sites such as
Mapela and Jahunda that have yet to receive detailed attention. Ongoing research on the
Leopard’s Kopje levels at Jahunda has dated high-tin bronzes to the early twelfth century
AD (Chirikure et al., in preparation). Because bronze is regarded as an elite metal (Killick
2009), its appearance at Jahunda almost a century before at Mapungubwe may indicate
the presence of other important places on the landscape that require research attention.
A Historiography of the Zimbabwe Culture
Since the first research encounters with the Zimbabwe culture, the topics of investi-
gation and resulting interpretations have shifted with time (Hall 1990; Pikirayi 2001).
During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Great Zimbabwe was seen as
Fig. 1 Map of southern Africa showing the location of some elite sites and approximate boundaries of the
states of Mapungubwe, Great Zimbabwe, Khami and Venda as implied in published works
342 Afr Archaeol Rev (2013) 30:339–366

a remnant of Hamitic, Semitic or Phoenician occupation (Bent 1896; Hall and Neal
1902). In a bid to demonstrate this exotic origin, Richard Hall caused extensive
damage at Great Zimbabwe, throwing away material culture, primarily local, that was
inconsistent with his desired exotic interpretation. So harmful were his methods that a
professional archaeologist, MacIver (1906), was invited to excavate Great Zimbabwe
to solve the origins issue. MacIver concluded that Great Zimbabwe was medieval in date
and thus local in origin. Due to strong beliefs in African incapacity, and a lack of absolute
methods of dating, the settlers resisted MacIver’s findings (Garlake 1982;Hall1987).
Caton-Thompson (1931), an expert archaeologist who had excavated in Egypt, investi-
gated Great Zimbabwe and related sites and deduced that they were local in origin. Caton-
Thompson also noted that it was virtually impossible to interpret the Zimbabwe culture
without making recourse to local history. Ever since, every archaeologist has taken up this
advice, but the failure to engage historians lamentably has resulted in an improper and
almost perfunctory use of historical information (Beach 1998).
In the early 1930s, the site of Mapungubwe situated near the confluence of the Limpopo
and Shashi rivers was brought to the attention of the world (Fouché 1937;Gardner1955,
1963). What made Mapungubwe famous was the recovery of gold-rich burials that
enchanted professionals and amateurs alike (Fouché 1937). Further research around
Mapungubwe uncovered a large mound at the site of Bambandyanalo, more widely known
as K2 (Gardner 1963). As it turned out, K2 was rich in burials with significant amounts of
accompanying grave goods. Because it was smaller than Great Zimbabwe, Mapungubwe
was seen as an extension of the former (Fouché 1937). Van Riet Lowe (1936)andCaton-
Thompson (1939), however, noted significant differences between the ceramics, stone
walling and other material culture of Mapungubwe and Great Zimbabwe.
In the late 1950s, Roger Summers, Keith Robinson and Antony Whitty commenced
an interdisciplinary study of Great Zimbabwe in an effort to correlate artefact types to
the stratigraphy, as well as to build a chronology of the stone walls (Summers et al.
1961). Samples of carbonaceous materials were submitted for dating using the newly
developed radiocarbon technique. While Robinson (1961a) concentrated on the Hill
Complex, Summers and Whitty (1961) focused on the Great Enclosure. Their work
represents the most detailed professional archaeological work ever carried out at Great
Zimbabwe and is the source of most primary data relating to the site. Robinson (1961b,
c) analysed local ceramics and exotic beads recovered from Great Zimbabwe. The
material culture evidence was combined with architectural information, stratigraphic
details and radiocarbon dates to define a five-phase sequence of occupation at the site
(Summers et al. 1961). Period I (AD 100–300) was characterised by the presence of class
I pottery, while period II and its class 2 pottery dated between AD 300 and 1085. Period
III, defined on the basis of class 3 pottery and P-style walling (earliest walling with no
clear courses), flourished between AD 1085 and 1450. On its part, period IV and the
associated class 4 pottery and Q-style (neatly coursed) walling lasted from AD 1450 until
1833. Finally, period V (AD 1833–1900), characterised by class 5 pottery and R (rough)
walling, was the youngest. Periods II to V were associated with the Karanga branch of
the Shona speakers (Summers et al. 1961). Using imports, Garlake (1973)arguedthat
the main occupation at Great Zimbabwe dated between AD 1200 and 1450.
Robinson (1959) carried out detailed excavations in southwestern Zimbabwe focus-
ing on Khami and numerous Leopard’s Kopje sites. His work remains the most detailed
archaeological research ever carried out in the area. The Khami excavations generated
Afr Archaeol Rev (2013) 30:339–366 343

local ceramics characterised by bands and panels of graphite and red ochre and many
others. Some beakers with close affinities to those from Mapungubwe and other
Leopard’s Kopje sites were recovered. Furthermore, a significant number of imports
that include various types of glass beads were recovered as well. Robinson (1959:147)
noted that his group I beads from the basal levels corresponded closely to the bedrock
series (K2/Mapungubwe types) at Great Zimbabwe. Because of a stratigraphic break
between Leopard’s Kopje layers and a Khami occupation in one of his trenches, Robinson
believed that the two were unrelated. However, Robinson (1965) excavated a deposit
showing a direct succession from Woolandale (phase II Leopard’s Kopje) and Khami
pottery at Taba Zika Mambo. Stylistically, Woolandale has graphite burnishing to red
slipping just as at Khami. A careful study of Leopard’s Kopje and Khami ceramics,
however, reveals that Khami is more closely related to Woolandale and Mapungubwe
(phaseII)thantoMamboandK2(phaseILeopard’s Kopje). Like other researchers,
Robinson focussed more on the material he believed to postdate AD 1450, when Great
Zimbabwe was believed to have declined. It was widely believed that Khami was an
offshoot of Great Zimbabwe because it had Portuguese-period imports. And yet, a careful
examination of Robinson (1959) shows that the basal levels in the stone-built area
contained black opaque glass beads and other material culture comparable to that of
Mapungubwe and other places. Had attention been directed at these deposits, the place of
KhamiinthebeginningofcomplexityinsouthernAfricawouldhaveshiftedlongago.
Across the Limpopo, archaeological work continued at Mapungubwe and K2 in a
context where ideas of African incapacity were rife (Hall 1990). Physical anthropological
evidence ostensibly suggested that the human skeletons from K2 and Mapungubwe were
Boskopoid and not Bantu (Galloway 1963). As the excavations unfolded, attempts were
made to forge a relationship between Mapungubwe and Great Zimbabwe (see for example,
Schofield 1937). Because Great Zimbabwe was the biggest, it was seen as the progenitor of
the Zimbabwe culture, such that Mapungubwe was believed to be a manifestation of the
extent of Great Zimbabwe’s influence (Fouché 1937;Garlake1973). The dating of
carbonized seeds from Mapungubwe, however, produced dates from the fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries AD (Hall and Vogel 1980), which made the site younger than Great
Zimbabwe. These dates from Mapungubwe were later rejected on technical grounds.
Huffman (1978) argued for what he called the early second-millennium AD Kutama
tradition associated with ceramic clusters known at the time. This tradition was a result
of a northward migration of ancestral Shona speakers from the south (Huffman 1978). It
consisted of four facies or geographical entities—Leopard’s Kopje, Gumanye, Harare
and Musengezi. The Leopard’s Kopje is associated with western Shona (Kalanga) who
resided in northeastern Botswana, southwestern Zimbabwe and adjacent areas of north-
ern South Africa, while Gumanye is linked to early Karanga (central Shona) settlement
mostly concentrated in south–central Zimbabwe. Harare and Musengezi are respectively
associated with Zezuru and Korekore speakers of northern Zimbabwe.
Huffman (1982) used cognitive structuralist theories to reinterpret data from Great
Zimbabwe and Mapungubwe, arguing that the latter was an offshoot from the former. This
argument is clearly along the lines which Schofield (1937) and others had suggested. By
combining selected ethnographic evidence with a reading of ideologies associated with
settlement organization, it was argued that early in the second millennium AD, ideological
transformations occurred at K2, resulting in the removal of cattle from the centre, and putting
an end to the Central Cattle Pattern (CCP). The CCP is an ethnographically derived model to
344 Afr Archaeol Rev (2013) 30:339–366

interpret spatial organization of southern African Sotho-Tswana and Nguni settlements
(Kuper 1982), popularised by Huffman (1982,1996,2007). It states that houses in Iron
Age settlements formed a horseshoe around a central kraal, and were organized by seniority
such that authority and politics could be read from settlement layout. Subsequently,
settlement was thought to have shifted to the nearby settlement of Mapungubwe. The hilltop
occupation of Mapungubwe, when contrasted with that of the low-lying southern terrace,
materialized the ideology of sacred leadership and class distinction early in the thirteenth
century (Huffman 1982). This initiated what is now known as the elite Zimbabwe Pattern
(also ethnographically derived, associated with a palace of the king, residence for royal
wives, public court and a place for guards, with cattle no longer at the centre; Huffman 1982,
1996,2007). According to Huffman (1982,2009), this ideological transition marks the
beginning of sociopolitical complexity in southern Africa. It is also associated with political
centralization and the emergence of Mapungubwe as an influential capital. The use of space
at Mapungubwe was identical to that at Great Zimbabwe and its successors, but because
Mapungubwe was the earliest, it was considered the birthplace of the Zimbabwe culture.
This is regardless of the fact that outwardly, Mapungubwe and Great Zimbabwe have little in
common(VanRietLowe1936;Caton-Thompson1939; Robinson 1961b).
Huffman and Vogel (1991) redated Great Zimbabwe and revised Summers et al.’s
(1961) long chronology to 150 years. They argued that stone walling, believed by
Robinson (1961a) to have started in the early thirteenth century, began after AD 1300
when Mapungubwe collapsed. The main problem with Huffman and Vogel’srevised
chronology, as pointed by Chirikure et al. (2013), is that to factor in the effect of the oceans
on the level of radiocarbon in the atmosphere, they subtracted plus or minus 20 years from
calibrated dates as a correction procedure. Nowadays, such computations are unnecessary,
for southern hemisphere calibration has improved significantly (see McCormac et al.
2004). A recent Bayesian modelling of the radiocarbon dates from Great Zimbabwe, using
the widely accepted southern hemisphere curve, demonstrated that the site overlapped
with Mapungubwe for over a century while lasting until the sixteenth century (Chirikure
et al. 2013). This is supported further by the combined dating and material culture
evidence, which suggests that Great Zimbabwe was already an important place during
K2 times (see Robinson 1961c;Wood2011; Chirikure et al. 2012).
Although various archaeologists such as Pwiti (1991,1996), Garlake (1978)and
Pikirayi (2001) have argued for the importance of local factors such as cattle and religion
in the development of sociopolitical complexity, today the most commonly held assump-
tions about the Zimbabwe culture are as follows: (1) K2 and Mapungubwe are the origins
of regional sociopolitical complexity (Huffman 1982,1996,2000,2009), (2) sociopolit-
ical complexity is only defined on the basis of class distinction (i.e., the physical
separation of the rulers from the ruled), (3) the spatial organization at Zimbabwe culture
places was one and the same (Huffman 1982,1996,2009) and (4) Mapungubwe (AD
1220–1290) is the first Zimbabwe culture state, which was succeeded by Great Zimbabwe
(AD 1300–1450) and in turn followed by Khami (AD 1450–1820) (Huffman 2000,2009).
Unequivocally, this suggests that the rise and fall of these places occurred in tandem. Not
surprisingly, Mapungubwe was nominated for the World Heritage List on the basis that it
was the first Zimbabwe culture state and capital (DEAT 2002), one that failed as a result of
environmental constraints and resulting in the rise of Great Zimbabwe (see also Huffman
2000,2009). Perhaps the only worrisome point here is that this framework is based on
limited evidence that not only excluded the basal levels of Khami, but ignored the
Afr Archaeol Rev (2013) 30:339–366 345

significance of similarities in material culture and presence of prestige goods at many sites
dating to the first- and second-millennium AD interface (Chirikure et al. 2012).
Not surprisingly, researchers familiar with the archaeology of the region that encompasses
southern and southwestern Zimbabwe, eastern Botswana and the Limpopo Depression have
long expressed their reservations about the validity and appropriateness of this widely held
view (Robinson 1965,1985;Garlake1982;Hall1984; Beach 1994,1998; Chipunza 1994;
Manyanga et al. 2000;Lane2005; Chirikure and Pikirayi 2008; Chirikure et al. 2012). For
example, Robinson (1985), who excavated Great Zimbabwe extensively and spent most of
his professional life excavating in southwestern Zimbabwe, argued that Huffman’s opinions
about the beginning of sociopolitical complexity in southern Africa did not accurately reflect
the archaeology on the ground. Based on primary evidence, Robinson (1985:32–33) made the
point that from the early twelfth century AD, large houses of dhaka (adobe) were built on the
hill at Great Zimbabwe. Because they are massive, a command of a large pool of labour would
have been required, indicating a high degree of authority on the residents of the Hill Complex.
In this case, coercion and force may have enabled the elites to extract labour from commoners,
resulting in the rise of sociopolitical complexity in our region (Kim and Kusimba 2008). Thus,
Robinson (1985) believes that Great Zimbabwe was already a place of importance long before
Mapungubwe’sdemiseatAD 1290. Unlike other researchers whose interpretations are based
on secondary evidence, Robinson’s observations flowed from primary data—he was in the
trenches (see Robinson 1961a,b,c).
Several other scholars have weighed in with useful criticisms of the cognitive
structuralism-inspired interpretation, which over the years have enhanced our under-
standing of the Zimbabwe culture. For example, Lane (1994/1995, 1998, 2005) has
pointed out the problems associated with the selective use of ethnographic evidence,
which tended to promote singular interpretations of the past while downplaying
change. Furthermore, Beach (1998) and Beach et al. (1997) have decried the failure
by archaeologists to incorporate more of local history into their interpretations. The
most pertinent point here is that even if one were to remove elements of cognitive
structuralism from understanding the second millennium AD in southern Africa, the
same historical baseline would remain. Beach (1998) also criticised the lack of rigour
in the use of historical information by archaeologists. And yet, some researchers have
argued that the distribution of material culture must play an important role in
understanding the use of enclosures at places such as Great Zimbabwe (Chirikure
and Pikirayi 2008). Such a view encourages the archaeological investigation of lesser
known sites to build a vibrant picture supported by observations on the ground. On
their part, Kim and Kusimba (2008) have argued that conflict and coercion may have
played an important role in the rise of various Zimbabwe culture entities. In a way,
this opens up opportunities for works that seek to consider the many sites associated
with the beginning and flourishing of urban centres in southern Africa.
Furthermore, research into the archaeology of the Zimbabwe culture has hardly
moved away from sites such as Mapungubwe and Great Zimbabwe and has agonisingly
ignored other places that are equally important, such as Mapela (Chirikure et al. 2012).
Yes, Mapungubwe, Khami and Great Zimbabwe were important, but how did they relate
to their little-known contemporaries? The result of this status quo is that some sites have
become more important than others only because they are better known archaeologi-
cally, a phenomenon not unique to this region. It is therefore important to consider
multiple places in the development of new understandings of the evolution of
346 Afr Archaeol Rev (2013) 30:339–366

sociopolitical complexity in southern Africa. Building on a foundation established by
other researchers past and present, this paper advocates the use of multiple strands of
evidence—material culture, ideology and radiocarbon dates—to offer fresh and broad-
based perspectives on the development of the Zimbabwe culture.
Intrasite Comparisons of Local Ceramics from Zimbabwe Culture Centres
This section draws from our original research into the Zimbabwe culture ceramics
spanning more than a decade. Pikirayi (1993) studied period IV Zimbabwe culture
ceramics from northern Zimbabwe in the 1990s. Furthermore, he investigated Khami
pottery that is archived at the Pitt Rivers Museum, Oxford. Manyanga et al. (2000)and
Manyanga (2001) analysed a large sample of Zhizo and Leopard’s Kopje ceramics in the
Shashi-Limpopo confluence area, while Chirikure et al. (2001) worked with Khami
pottery excavated by MacIver (1906) and by teams led by Caroline Thorp and Gwylum
Hughes, respectively. We combine our observations with published accounts by other
researchers.
In Iron Age studies in southern Africa, local ceramics have played a significant
role in the establishment of culture historical sequences. Ceramic decorative style has
been used as a proxy for group identity because a correlation between ceramic style
and group identity has been postulated. Huffman (1980) studied the material culture
of different ethnographic groups and observed similarities in the repertoire of sym-
bols and designs that appear on varied categories of material culture such as items of
dress, stone walls and pottery. In this experimental study, Huffman established that
the goodness of fit between ceramic decorative style and group identity was far better
than any other types of material culture. Thus, based on his multidimensional
typological approach which considers vessel shape, decoration technique, placement
and motifs, Huffman argued that this methodology can identify archaeological
ceramic groups that can be equated to linguistic groups (Huffman 1974a).
Archaeological work on the Zimbabwe culture ceramics has identified a number of
ceramic units that on the basis of radiocarbon dating appeared from the tenth century AD
onwards (Robinson 1965). Huffman (1978) defined a Kutama tradition which he
identified with ancestral Shona speakers and which he argued was unrelated to the
preexisting Zhizo Early Iron Age tradition (see also Huffman 1974b). The Kutama
tradition consists of four facies and phases: the Leopard’s Kopje, distributed in south-
western Zimbabwe and adjacent regions of Botswana and northern South Africa, being
the earliest; Gumanye, distributed in south–central Zimbabwe and seemingly an expan-
sion of the tradition to the Zimbabwe plateau; and the twelfth–sixteenth-century Harare
and Musengezi phases found in north–central and northern Zimbabwe (Huffman 1978).
The Leopard’s Kopje and Gumanye phases of the Kutama tradition are directly associ-
ated with the Zimbabwe culture. The Leopard’s Kopje flourished from the late first
millennium AD to the fourteenth century AD (Robinson 1965). In southwestern Zimbabwe
and northeastern Botswana, it is associated with two phases, Mambo and Woolandale, while
in the Limpopo Depression it is linked with K2 and Mapungubwe (Robinson 1959,1965;
Huffman 1974b). According to Huffman (1974b:109), Mapungubwe should not be con-
sidered as a type site, but only as a member of Leopard’s Kopje. In other words, when
compared to many other features of the Leopard’s Kopje sites, Mapungubwe does not stand
Afr Archaeol Rev (2013) 30:339–366 347

out as the only one of its kind. The distribution of the Leopard’s Kopje in all its phases
stretches from Taba Zika Mambo in west–central Zimbabwe to southwestern Zimbabwe,
northeastern Botswana and adjacent areas of northern South Africa. This wide area was also
home to Khami pottery, which like the Leopard’s Kopje, is also associated with Kalanga
speakers (Huffman 2007). In terms of designs, Khami pottery is as complex as that from
Mapungubwe (see Fig. 2a–b) although it is often characterised by bands and panels of red
ochre and graphite. The polychrome designs feature on Woolandale, the Leopard’s Kopje
phase which lies directly below Khami at Taba Zika Mambo and other places (Robinson
Fig. 2 a Mapungubwe pottery (1–5after Schofield 1937,6after Garlake 1968 and 7after Manyanga
2001). bKhami pottery (after Robinson 1959, Chirikure et al. 2001 and Pikirayi n.d.)
348 Afr Archaeol Rev (2013) 30:339–366

1965). Although Khami and Leopard’s Kopje pottery co-occur at most sites and were all
created by Kalanga speakers, the relationship between the two has never been explored in
full. This is because Khami has only been considered as a post-Great Zimbabwe entity.
However, ceramic evidence indicates unequivocally that there is a relationship between
Khami and Leopard’s Kopje, an observation also supported by other lines of evidence such
as stone architecture and radiocarbon dating (Chirikure et al. 2012).
The Gumanye people (Karanga) occupied much of south–central Zimbabwe and adja-
cent territories. However, the distribution of Gumanye is poorly understood because
research coverage has been biased in favour of areas in close proximity to towns (Sinclair
1987). Gumanye pottery was first recovered at Gumanye Hill in the southern Chivi District,
from Chivowa Hill west of Masvingo, and on the hill at Great Zimbabwe (note that
Gumanye is also known as Zimbabwe period II pottery; Robinson 1961b). Unlike the
lavishly decorated Leopard’s Kopje ceramics, Gumanye pottery is plain, with occasional
incisions (Fig. 3). Robinson (1961b) suggested that there was a difference in paste between
Gumanye and its successor period III pottery (overlapping with Mapungubwe ceramics),
although no differences in vessel form and decoration technique were observed. Huffman
(2000), like Schofield (1937), suggested a connection between Mapungubwe ceramics and
period III pottery and used this as evidence that a Mapungubwe dynasty likely established
Great Zimbabwe. However, like period II pots, period III ceramics at Great Zimbabwe were
hardly decorated (see also Robinson 1961b; Sinclair 1987;Huffman2000). This is at
variance with the lavishly decorated Mapungubwe and Leopard’s Kopje pottery (see
Figs. 2a, b and 3). In contrast, Khami pottery inherited the beakers decorated with complex
geometrical motifs from Leopard’s Kopje I and II. In the absence of petrographic work, the
differences in paste between period II and III ceramics noted by Robinson (1961a) at Great
Zimbabwe are likely a result of changing clay sources rather than an intrusion of
Mapungubwe people. This makes sense if the view that even in cases where periods II
and III pottery exist at other places outside Great Zimbabwe, the decoration is consistently
absent (Sinclair 1987). Furthermore, even Mapungubwe ceramics were made using fabrics
of varying textures from fine to coarse, and yet no intrusion of people has been invoked to
explain this difference in raw material selection (Schofield 1937).
The most important observation relating to the distribution and occurrence of
Gumanye and Leopard’s Kopje is that the latter is invariably geographically and perhaps
stratigraphically associated with Khami (e.g., Taba Zika Mambo, Robinson 1965), while
the former is always overlain by Zimbabwe pottery (Sinclair 1987). Sites where the
Leopard’s Kopje and Khami co-occur include Khami itself, Taba Zika Mambo, Mapela
and many others. This is hardly surprising given that they were made by Kalanga people
(see Huffman 2007) and have a high level of similarity in terms of vessel types,
decoration designs and complex geometric motifs. Gumanye pottery was found strati-
fied below period III and IV levels at Great Zimbabwe and other places (Sinclair 1987),
while stylistic similarities strengthen the possibility that period III pottery at Great
Zimbabwe evolved out of Gumanye (Chirikure et al. 2013).
Stone Walling, Settlement Preferences and Ideology
Arguably, the most distinctive features of the Zimbabwe culture are the dry-stone-walled
enclosures and platforms where elite houses were built (Garlake 1970). Inside the
Afr Archaeol Rev (2013) 30:339–366 349

enclosures and on the platforms, houses of solid dhaka or earthen structures were
constructed. The raw materials vary from area to area depending on geology, but granite
seems to be the most preferred rock type,particularly onthe Zimbabwe plateau. The dry-
stone walls of the Zimbabwe culture appear mainly in two forms—terraced walls
designed to create platforms for building houses, and freestanding walls that formed
Fig. 3 Local pottery from Great Zimbabwe (after Robinson 1961b). Class 2 overlaps chronologically with
K2, while class 3 is coeval with Mapungubwe
350 Afr Archaeol Rev (2013) 30:339–366

enclosures (Figs. 4,5,and6). According to Summers (1965), Khami buildings differ
markedly from the freestanding walls of Great Zimbabwe and related sites, in that like
those at Mapungubwe, Mapela and other sites, they are built for the purpose of retaining
the fill of an artificial platform.
Garlake (1970) produced one of the most useful typologies of the Zimbabwe culture
dry-stone walls. His various subclasses (styles I, II and III) collapse into two major
geographical variants. There is the southwestern Zimbabwe, northeastern Botswana and
northern South Africa cluster or style III, dominated by terraced platforms belonging to
the Leopard’s Kopje and Khami periods. Examples of Leopard’s Kopje sites with
terraced walls include Mapungubwe Hill, Mapela Hill and others such as Malumba.
These walls are indistinguishable from those of Khami-type sites such as Khami itself,
Naletale, Taba Zika Mambo, Danamombe and many others (Robinson 1959,1985;
Summers 1965; Huffman 1996). The freestanding walls are rare in this cluster. The
second cluster (styles I and II) is dominated by freestanding walls which form enclosures
where houses of the elites were built. The freestanding walls are mostly decorated with
Fig. 4 Retaining walls of the “palace”on top of Mapungubwe Hill (photo: S. Chirikure)
Fig. 5 Retaining walls on the Hill complex at Khami. Note the multiple bands of check decoration (photo:
W. Ndoro)
Afr Archaeol Rev (2013) 30:339–366 351

chevron designs and thus contrast with the check-decorated terraced platforms. Garlake
(1970) suggested that the distribution of the stone wall types follows ethnic lines. The
Fig. 6 Example of freestanding walls at Great Zimbabwe, the outer curtain wall of the Great Enclosure.
Note the chevron pattern at top (photo: I. Pikirayi)
Fig 7 Approximate distribution of Zimbabwe culture walls in southern Africa, after Garlake (1970). Stars
are retaining walls of Leopard’s Kopje/Khami, while dots are freestanding walls
352 Afr Archaeol Rev (2013) 30:339–366

terrace walls dominate the Leopard’sKopje–Khami–Kalanga area (southwestern Zim-
babwe, northeastern Botswana and adjacent parts of northern South Africa). On their
part, freestanding walls are mostly common in the south central, northern and eastern
parts and adjacent areas (Fig. 7). Thus, they correspond to the distribution of the Gumanye–
Great Zimbabwe–Karanga cluster.
What, therefore, is the earliest style of stone walling? According to Huffman (1982),
Mapungubwe has the Zimbabwe culture’s earliest stone wall atop the hill representing
the region’s first palace. This suggestion, however, requires careful consideration of the
situation on the ground. Robinson (1965:7) has convincingly demonstrated that late
first-millennium AD Zhizo and Leopards’Kopje phase I sites (Mambo and K2) are
invariably associated with low stone walling or terracing. The scale of these walls
increases during phase II (Mapungubwe and Woolandale) of Leopard’s Kopje with rough
stone walling being universal. In some cases such as Mapela and Mapungubwe, some
terraces were well dressed and were used as revetment walls for building platforms for
houses (Garlake 1970; Robinson 1985). Radiocarbon dates from undisturbed contexts at
Nali Hill, a phase 2 Leopard’s Kopje site, shows that it either overlaps or predates
Mapungubwe (Robinson 1985). The tradition of building neatly dressed terraces was
elaborated during the later Leopard’s Kopje and Khami periods, such that the walls from
Khami itself and related places such as Naletale were impressively dressed and decorated
with check and other patterns. There is, however, a mismatch in knowledge regarding early
stone walls of the Leopard’s Kopje when compared to Gumanye. The Leopard’s Kopje and
Zhizo sites are mostly distributed around Bulawayo where archaeologists such as Robinson
were based, and as a result, we know more about this area. Gumanye sites are only known
from a few places that surround Great Zimbabwe and at places such as Gweru Kopje. Stone
walling was observed at the Gumanye site of Chivowa although the association has not
been considered in detail (Sinclair 1987). However, it is possible that some of the earliest
stone walls on the hill at Great Zimbabwe were built during this period (Robinson 1985;
Chipunza 1994; Chirikure et al. 2013).
Another important but related variable is that most Gumanye and Leopard’s Kopje sites
assume a hilly location. Hilly or hilltop locations are generally associated with leaders and
positions of power. A literature survey indicated that most pre-K2/Mapungubwe Zhizo,
Leopard’s Kopje and Gumanye sites were either located on hilltops or on raised ground
(Robinson 1965; Denbow et al. 2008). Some of them, for example Malumba (Manyanga
et al. 2000) and Mapela, have evidence of occupation on flat areas and on raised ground,
while others have evidence of occupation inside the enclosures and outside them. More
importantly, the material culture used by residents of the hilltops was more or less identical
to that of the occupants of the flat areas at places such as Mapungubwe and Great Zimbabwe
(Caton-Thompson 1931;Summerset al. 1961; Meyer 1998). Given that hilltops such as
Toutswe, Zimbabwe Hill, Mapela, Malumba, Leopard’s Kopje, Zhizo Hill and many others
have evidence of prestige goods in the form of glass beads, it becomes clear that they were
also economically and politically important. This indicates that the idea of elite occupation
on hilltops may have been on the landscape much more broadly and, in some cases, earlier
than Mapungubwe. Another important point is that there are other places such as Mutota’s
Zimbabwe and Ngome Hill that were walled but located on level ground, despite the
existence of hilltops nearby (Pikirayi 1993;Pwiti1996) suggesting that hilltop location
should not be the only important variable in determining the significance of a place and
whether class distinction was present. Given that the Kalanga and Karanga were part of the
Afr Archaeol Rev (2013) 30:339–366 353

Shona people who share the same worldview, it is difficult to understand why the pre-
Mapungubwe walling on raised ground would not have been associated with the majesty of
kingship. It therefore appears that Mapungubwe was rather late in embracing this new
ideology given that hilltop settlements with walls and prestige goods existed before it
(Robinson 1965,1985; Manyanga et al. 2000; Manyanga 2001).
Bayesian Modelling of Zimbabwe Culture Radiocarbon Dates
So far, the story from local material culture has highlighted a partitioning of Zimbabwe
culture ceramics and walls along the Kalanga–Karanga axis. It is now important to
consider radiocarbon evidence. Radiocarbon dating played an important role in building
interpretations of the Zimbabwe culture. The whole idea about cultural precedence in the
Shashi-Limpopo is anchored on the premise that Mapungubwe (AD 1220–1290) is the
earliest Zimbabwe palace on a hill that demonstrates evidence of class distinction
(Huffman 1982,1996,2000,2007). Great Zimbabwe (AD 1300–1450) was the inheritor
of the tradition after Mapungubwe’s relapse. Around AD 1450, Khami succeeded Great
Zimbabwe after the latter’s decline (Pikirayi 2001;Huffman2009). However, a
reevaluation of the available radiocarbon dates using widely respected Bayesian model-
ling revealed a completely different picture where Mapungubwe and Great Zimbabwe
overlap in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries,whileKhamiseemedtoflourishwell
before AD 1450 (see Chirikure et al. 2012,2013).
A desktop search of the published dates for sites associated with the beginning,
blossoming and relapsing of Zhizo, Leopard’s Kopje, Gumanye, Zimbabwe and Khami
sites was carried out. Attention was placed on the stratigraphic relationships between the
contexts where the dates were derived. The materials that were dated vary from site to
site but range from wood charcoal to carbonized seeds, charred bone and carbonized
posts. In some cases, only a few dates were available with no stratigraphic relationships
provided. The dated material is often presented as charcoal without elaborating whether
it is from long- or short-lived samples. Furthermore, there are some inconsistencies that
must be considered. For example, the archaeology of Great Zimbabwe has period II
material culture, the equivalent of K2, but no dates are available (Huffman and Vogel
1991; Chirikure et al. 2013). Equally, the top sections of the stratigraphy have been
destroyed by early excavators without record, so no dates are available. These legacies
affect our current understanding of the regional radiocarbon chronology (see Chirikure
et al. 2012).
The major advantage of Bayesian modelling is that it combines preexisting informa-
tion with radiocarbon dates to generate modelled dates through likelihood estimation
(Buck et al. 1991). The collected dates were fed into the program OxCal version 4
(Bronk Ramsey 1994,1995,2009) using the calibration curve for the southern hemi-
sphere (McCormac et al. 2004) at the Research Laboratory for Archaeology and the
History of Art, University of Oxford, by Mark Pollard. To begin with, Bayesian models
were created for the individualsites factoring in the generally accepted phasesat the sites
(Chirikure et al. 2012). For example, at Mapungubwe, the following phases were noted:
K2, Transitional K2 and Mapungubwe. Finally, the dates for all sites were combined
into a single model that declared all phases equal, i.e., without declaring which site is
earlier than the others. The results are shown in Fig. 8.
354 Afr Archaeol Rev (2013) 30:339–366

The modelled dates provided some refreshing perspectives on the relationships between
numerous late first- and early second-millennium AD sites in southern Africa. Figure 8
shows that Zhizo sites in southwestern Zimbabwe and northeastern Botswana are much
earlier when compared to those in the Limpopo Depression. Furthermore, it shows that
Zhizo communities occupied sites such as Toutswe into the thirteenth century. This
observation is important because it was once suggested that Zhizo people moved out of
the Shashi-Limpopo and settled in northeastern Botswana. The long sequence at places such
as Bosutswe, Taukome and other sites questions this migrationist thinking. The same
situation existed at places such as Taba Zika Mambo that have Zhizo, Leopard’s Kopje
and Khami material culture. Robinson (1985) actually argues for a relationship between
Zhizo and Mambo which contradicts the concept of a northward migration of Shona people
from AD 1000, thereby questioning the way southern African archaeologists explain
continuity and change in ceramic units. Calabrese (2007) has demonstrated that Zhizo
people may not have left the middle Limpopo but instead existed alongside Leopard’s
Kopje people. More importantly, the dates for Malumba, Mapungubwe, Chivowa and
Mapela overlap as they straddle the late first-millennium and early second-millennium AD
interface (see Fig. 8). As mentioned earlier, these sites are located on hilltops and exhibit
identical cultural attributes such as participation in long-distance trade.
The modelled chronology further indicates that Mapungubwe, Great Zimbabwe and
places such as Tsindi and Harleigh Farm were overlapping (see Fig. 8). For Mapungubwe,
occupation on the Hill and Mapungubwe Southern Terrace seem to relapse in the fourteenth
century. This also supports the conclusion made by Prinsloo and Colomban (2008)onthe
Fig. 8 The modelled dates for selected elite sites in southern Africa
Afr Archaeol Rev (2013) 30:339–366 355

basis of a Raman spectrometric study of Chinese porcelain from the hill. Then there are a
number of Khami sites such as Khami itself, Domboshaba and others that flourished from
the early fourteenth century AD onwards. Taba Zika Mambo is an interesting case because it
also has a Zhizo occupation and a Leopard’s Kopje component, which is directly succeeded
by a Khami occupation (Robinson 1965). It is clear from the modelled dates that Khami was
established long before Great Zimbabwe relapsed and possibly when Mapungubwe was
still occupied. Zvongombe and Nhunguza, which are associated with the extension of the
Zimbabwe culture into northern Zimbabwe, were established towards the end of Great
Zimbabwe’s flourishing. It seems that the development of the Zimbabwe culture in the north
was achieved when Great Zimbabwe was still occupied. These data show that it is not
prudent to consider Khami as an important place only after Great Zimbabwe was aban-
doned; it was on the landscape much earlier.
Of course, issues still require attention regarding the radiocarbon chronology, but there
are strong indicators that Mapungubwe overlapped with numerous sites that exhibit similar
cultural attributes and material culture (Chirikure et al. 2012,2013). A succession of Zhizo
sites seem to have flourished from about AD 800 until the thirteenth century in southwestern
Zimbabwe and northeastern Botswana (see also Denbow et al. 2008,fig.8). Some of these
sites had glass beads and were located on hilltops with accompanying settlement on the flats,
indicating some hierarchy and social differentiation (Pwiti 1996). The same observation
applies to the many Leopard’s Kopje and Gumanye sites widely scattered in the region.
Therefore, it is unlikely that only one place was associated with the development of
complexity in southern Africa. Across space and time, numerous places were widely
separated and exhibited identical cultural traits. It is also not clear from well-accepted
explanations how the elites based at places such as Mapungubwe and Great Zimbabwe
would have established and maintained their hegemony over vast areas involving hundreds
of kilometres. It seems that the sociopolitical organization of major Shona subgroups such as
Karanga and Kalanga started to evolve towards complexity from the late first millenni-
um AD, resulting in the establishment of early states at Mapela, Mapungubwe, Zimba-
bwe Hill, Khami and other sites (see Beach 1984:38; Soper 1990; Pwiti 1996). Thus, the
dating evidence as well as the ceramics and stone walling is pointing to the multiple
trajectories that the development of sociopolitical complexity may have taken.
Discussion: Towards a New Framework for Zimbabwe Culture Archaeology
Tying together the evidence from local ceramics, stone architecture and Bayesian
modelling, a number of statements can be made on the evolution of sociopolitical
complexity and the development of the Zimbabwe culture. The first is that there seem
to be major differences between the local ceramics at K2/Mapungubwe and Great
Zimbabwe. Khami seems to be related more closely to Mapungubwe than to Great
Zimbabwe. The evidence for this comes from the ceramics as well as the stone
architecture. For local ceramics, the differences appear mostly in vessel shapes, and
decoration techniques and placement. The ceramics from K2 and Mapungubwe are
all lavishly decorated with incisions that often form arcades and triangles (Schofield
1937; Manyanga 2006; Huffman 2007). In contrast, pottery from periods II to IV at
Great Zimbabwe is decorated hardly at all, and there is continuity in shape forms,
decoration placement and techniques through time (Robinson 1961b; Chirikure et al.
356 Afr Archaeol Rev (2013) 30:339–366

2013). While this contrast is remarkable, there is a striking resemblance between
Mapungubwe pottery and the Leopard’s Kopje ceramics in southwestern Zimbabwe
and northeastern Botswana (Robinson 1965; Denbow et al. 2008). This distribution
corresponds to the geographical concentration of Kalanga and Karanga speakers.
More interestingly, there are strong similarities between Leopard’s Kopje and Khami
ceramics in terms of lavish designs and vessel shapes and types such as beakers, but
more empirical work is required.
Evidence from stone walling also indicates major differences between Mapungubwe,
Great Zimbabwe and Khami. The stone walls of Mapungubwe and other Leopard’s
Kopje sites are mostly retaining walls, some of which are decorated with the check
pattern (Garlake 1970). These retaining walls seem to be prototypes of the platforms of
Khami, the only difference being that of scale. The walling at Khami-type sites such as
Domboshaba and Khami itself is far more extensive and elaborate (Robinson 1959).
This again contrasts with Great Zimbabwe and related sites that are dominated by
freestanding walls with chevron designs (Garlake 1970). Indeed, most dry-stone walls
in central, northern and eastern Zimbabwe are all freestanding. The settlement prefer-
ence of communities occupying these areas from the late first and early second millen-
nium AD suggests that hilltops were preferred alongside flats during this time (see
Tab le 1). Most Leopard’s Kopje and Gumanye sites are located on hilltops, with
Malumba having both a hilltop settlement and a seemingly contemporary occupation
on the hill floor (Manyanga et al. 2000). As with Mapungubwe (Meyer 1998), the
material culture of the hilltop and flat area is not substantially different. When placed
within the context of ideology, it appears that the idea of class distinction evolved from
the late first millennium AD and early second millennium AD. Given that Leopard’s
Kopje sites such as Nali Hill are earlier or contemporary with Mapungubwe (see also
Robinson 1985), it becomes persuasive to argue that the Shashi-Limpopo was reflecting
cultural developments that were taking place in the broader Shona world. There is no
reason why hilltop occupations at Great Zimbabwe, Gweru Kopje and other places may
nothavebeenassociated“with the majesty of kingship”in view of a shared worldview
that the Shona people possessed.
In view of the major differences that exist between the Leopard’sKopje–Khami and
Gumanye–Great Zimbabwe, the dating evidence is very important. The Bayesian
modelling has suggested that most important sites overlap (for example Mapela,
Mapungubwe, Malumba, Great Zimbabwe, etc.). The strong nature of these overlaps
makes it difficult to sustain the argument that Mapungubwe had the Shona world’sfirst
palace. The modelled dates, however, indicate that Khami was an important place by the
late thirteenth/early fourteenth century AD. It has been argued that Zhizo occupants of
Schroda moved into northeastern Botswana to establish the Toutswe state. However, the
dates from Zhizo sites in the area indicate continuity at places including Bosutswe. The
dating evidence suggests that Zhizo communities were established in southwestern
Zimbabwe and northeastern Botswana earlier than in the Shashi-Limpopo. Furthermore,
these communities flourished well into the thirteenth century. As such, by focusing only
on the Shashi-Limpopo, archaeologists in the process ignore the majority of sites on the
landscape and that exhibit similar attributes. This biased perception should be balanced
by redirecting attention to the core area and comparing the picture to what is happening
at the edge (Shashi-Limpopo). Table 1summarises the key features of sites from late-
first-millennium AD to second-millennium AD sites.
Afr Archaeol Rev (2013) 30:339–366 357

Table 1 Key features of Zhizo, Leopard’s Kopje, Khami, Great Zimbabwe and Mutapa sites
Cultural tradition Walling type Local ceramics Settlement
location
Glass beads
Zhizo (cal AD 700–cal
AD 1250)
Terrace walls?
(Leopard’s Kopje main site)
Comb stamping, incisions, polychrome Near
hilltops,
on
hilltops
Drawn translucent blue, green and yellow
beads
Leopard’s Kopje (cal
AD 1000–cal AD
1450)
Terraced walls (Mapungubwe, Mapela,
Malumba, Taba Zika Mambo)
Incisions, graphite burnishing, polychrome
designs
Flats,
hilltops
Transparent to translucent blue–green to light
green beads, Garden Rollers, Indo-Pacific
beads, Mapungubwe oblates
Khami (cal AD 1250–
AD 1900)
Terraced walls, few freestanding enclosures
(Khami, Danamombe, Taba Zikamambo,
Regina, Village 16, Dzata, Machemma)
Incisions, graphite burnishing, polychrome
designs
Hilltops,
flats
Mostly transparent and translucent cylinders,
ranging from black and brownish–red to
blue, blue–green, yellow, dull orange, and
green
Gumanye (cal AD
1000–AD 1250)
Low freestanding walls? (e.g., Chivowa,
Gumanye Hill, Great Zimbabwe)
Incisions, occasional comb stamping,
graphite burnishing, rare polychrome
Hilltops,
flats
Transparent to translucent blue–green to light
green beads, Garden Rollers, Indo-Pacific
beads
Great Zimbabwe (cal
AD 1200–AD 1550)
Freestanding walls, occasional terraces
(Great Zimbabwe, Tsindi, Zvongombe,
Musimbira)
Incisions, graphite burnishing, occasional
polychrome
Hilltops,
flats
Mapungubwe oblates, transparent and
translucent green, brown, Khami-type beads
Mutapa (cal AD 1450–
AD 1900)
Freestanding walls, occasional terraces
(Mutota, Kasekete, Matusadona, Tere)
Incisions, graphite burnishing, occasional
comb stamping, occasional polychrome
Hilltops,
flats
Indo-Pacific beads mainly appearing as
oblates, cylinders and barrels
(Sources: Robinson 1959,1961a,b,c,1965; Garlake 1968; Huffman 1974b; Pwiti 1996; Robertshaw et al. 2010, Wood 2011)
358 Afr Archaeol Rev (2013) 30:339–366

The three core pillars of evidence considered so far indicate that Mapungubwe, Mapela,
Great Zimbabwe and many other places overlap chronologically and that they share key
cultural attributes. The distances between these places such as Mapungubwe and Great
Zimbabwe or Mapungubwe and Taba Zika Mambo make it difficult to understand how
one place would have maintained hegemony over another given limitations with logistics
and travel at the time. Another category of evidence is the imports recovered from the
early and later Zimbabwe culture sites. Locally, it is believed that imports such as glass
beads were seen as prestige goods (Garlake 1973). Zhizo and pre-Mapungubwe Gumanye
and Leopard’s Kopje people participated in long-distance trade and exchange relationships
as evidenced by the recovery of exotic goods such as glass beads (Wood 2012).
The earliest glass beads in southern Africa are known as Zhizo beads which were
common from the ninth century AD onwards. Zhizo beads were recovered at multiple
places in southwestern Zimbabwe, central Zimbabwe and northeastern Botswana (Rob-
inson 1965;Denbowet al. 2008). These are followed by K2 series beads that were found
at both Gumanye and Leopard’s Kopje sites. K2 series are associated with the Garden
Roller beads that occur at Leopards’Kopje sites such as K2 itself (Gardner 1963),
Malumba (Manyanga et al. 2000) and at Great Zimbabwe (Robinson 1961c). Chrono-
logically, K2 series are followed by Mapungubwe bead series which are dominated by
black oblates. As with the K2 types, Mapungubwe series havea wide distribution at sites
in southern Africa (Wood 2012). After Mapungubwe came the Great Zimbabwe series,
difficult to distinguish from the Mapungubwe series (Robertshaw et al. 2010). Khami
series replaced Great Zimbabwe-type beads from the fifteenth century. The major
problem with existing works on beads from southern African sites is that rather than
using the artefacts to establish independent chronological control over radiocarbon
dating, all the researchers have pigeonholed bead types into the existing chronology.
This is a fundamental flaw because the overlaps in the radiocarbon chronology of
Mapungubwe and Great Zimbabwe may suggest that the black oblates were used during
the same period, and with other bead types found from chronologically overlapping sites
in the region (see Chirikure et al. 2013). Because they are chronological markers, the
presence of different types of beads at places such as Great Zimbabwe indicates a long
history of participation in international trade from K2 up to Khami times. Therefore, if
the presence of imports shows the significance of a site, then Great Zimbabwe was
important for this period (Wood 2011).
Wood (2012) studied the frequency of glass beads from commoner and elite sites in the
Shashi-Limpopo and concluded that there is a small discrepancy in terms of quantities
from domestic contexts. She suggested that access to beads may not have been under the
control of a centralised authority. This has some support from historical accounts such as
those by Mudenge (1988) that demonstrate that middlemen known as vashambadzi would
travel from village to village bartering merchandise. Furthermore, young men of mar-
riageable age would travel to look for chuma, or beads to give to the women they intended
to marry (Bhila 1982). This tempers the thinking that capitals such as Mapungubwe and
Great Zimbabwe monopolised all the trade. Even so, glass beads have a high frequency at
commoner sites, posing questions over their role in societies—were they really prestige
goods if, as Wood (2012) argues, they were found at both commoner and elite sites in
comparable frequency? Only further research can tell.
Chinese celadon is one of the imported finds recovered from both Leopard’sKopjeand
Gumanye sites as well as the succeeding ones. However, since Garlake (1968), very few
Afr Archaeol Rev (2013) 30:339–366 359

studies have engaged with this topic. Sung dynasty celadon was recovered from
Mapungubwe, Khami (although unverified), Great Zimbabwe and the Marcadoni claims
site near West Nicholson (Garlake 1968). In period IV levels at Great Zimbabwe, Persian
faience and glass and Ming dynasty ceramics were also recovered (Caton-Thompson
1931;Garlake1973; Collett et al. 1992). After the decline of Great Zimbabwe, imports
continued to filter through into the interior at places such as Khami with finds of late Ming
Dynasty porcelain, Portuguese imitations of Chinese porcelain and Indian beads. These
imports are comparable to those of Zimbabwe tradition and Afro-Portuguese sites in the
north including Dambarare, Baranda, Kasekete and Mutota (Pikirayi 1993).
However, our current knowledge of the imported ceramics requires updating, given
that more is now known about Asian ceramics. A Raman spectrometric study of the
chemical composition of the celadon recovered from Mapungubwe Hill compared its
chemistry with that recorded in Chinese factories. The recipes revealed that the porcelain
was manufactured in China from the fourteenth century onwards (Prinsloo and Colomban
2008;Prinslooet al. 2011). This suggests that Mapungubwe may not have been aban-
doned by AD 1290 as currently believed. The same studies revealed that some of the
porcelain from Great Zimbabwe was earlier than that from Mapungubwe. This indicates
that the two places were flourishing at the same time and that because of its position in the
interior, Great Zimbabwe may have accessed porcelains earlier than Mapungubwe.
Gold-working evidence has also been recovered from some of these sites stretching
from northeastern Botswana to central Zimbabwe. The origins of gold production in
southern Africa are associated with the integration of the region into the international
trading system based at the Indian Ocean (Summers 1969). Not surprisingly, gold is seen
as an elite metal associated with centres of power. Historical documents suggest that
gold working in southern Africa started in the late first millennium AD, but little tangible
evidence has been found (Summers 1969). It is currently not clear archaeologically
when and where gold was first worked in the region, but gold objects were found at elite
sites in northeastern Botswana, southwestern Zimbabwe and northern South Africa.
There is a need for extensive research backed up by a robust dating programme to date
the contexts where gold appears. The late first-millennium AD date makes a lot of sense
given that gold was one of the commodities exchanged for glass beads, cloth and other
exotic objects at the first- and second-millennium AD interface.
The combined material culture and radiocarbon dating evidence indicates that the
current discussions about sociopolitical complexity and the Zimbabwe culture develop-
ment oversimplify a complex situation. Perhaps, it is important to revisit the definition of
sociopolitical complexity. It has been suggested that sociopolitical complexity in south-
ern Africa began with the ideological transformations at K2 and that class distinction and
sacred leadership crystallised at Mapungubwe. Mapungubwe is also viewed as an early
state which makes it the region’s first complex society. By comparison, it is important to
consider definitions of sociopolitical complexity in other parts of the world. Carneiro
(1967) argues that sociopolitical complexity encompasses hierarchically organized
societies, developed chiefdoms and early states. The idea is that sociopolitically com-
plex societies are ranked and have evidence of craft specialization and division of labour,
advanced subsistence and economic systems, political organization, architecture, reli-
gion, writing and so on and so forth (Carneiro 1967; Renfrew and Cherry 1986). Thus,
the Minoan polities, early Mayan city-states and the city-states of Sumer are some of the
well-known examples that meet these criteria (Renfrew and Cherry 1986).
360 Afr Archaeol Rev (2013) 30:339–366

The appropriateness of some of these indicators in non-western communities has been
questioned by scholars such as Connah (1987)andMcIntosh(1999). These scholars argue
that a contextual approach is required to best understand African trajectories. Therefore, it is
essential to provide a brief overview of the organization of southern African communities
from the mid-first millennium AD to the early second millennium AD.Pwiti(1996) identified
four stages of organization. During the first stage (ca.AD 300 to 700), early farming
communities occupied dispersed villages with no evidence of social differentiation and
ranking. The second stage, extending from the seventh century AD, coincides with the
introduction of external trade. Archaeologically, we see a shift in production towards goods
with exchange value (Pwiti 1996). The third stage, from about the ninth century AD, sees an
increase in the volume of trade and is characterised by villages which begin to show
evidence of social differentiation. The fourth and last stage then sees the establishment of
state structures such as Mapungubwe, Mapela and Great Zimbabwe. Therefore, it is prudent
to argue that sociopolitical complexity started from the eighth century AD as evidenced by
multiple sites with evidence of glass beads, worked ivory, metalworking and stone wall
construction. Therefore, from the last two centuries of the first millennium AD, southern
African communities were gravitating towards full sociopolitical complexity. Not surpris-
ingly, the early second millennium AD saw the emergence of places which may be described
as early states or chiefdoms. These include Mapela Hill, Mapungubwe, Zimbabwe Hill and
others (see Beach 1984). The Bayesian modelling has indicated that these sites chronolog-
ically overlap, further showcasing that the developments were spread across the whole
landscape and were not restricted only to the Shashi-Limpopo Valley.
Because distances of at least 100 km separate some of these polities, it is reasonable to
assume that they were autonomous (Beach 1984:38; Huffman 2007). In this milieu, it can
be argued that sociopolitical complexity emerged within the context of peer polity inter-
action as in many other places in the world. According to Renfrew and Cherry (1986:2),
“peer polity interaction designates the full range of interchanges taking place (including
imitation, emulation, cooperation, warfare and exchange of material goods and of infor-
mation) between autonomous (i.e., self-governing and in that sense politically independent)
socio-political units which are situated beside or close to each other within a single
geographical region, or in some cases more widely.”From the late first millennium AD,
we see evidence of many polities, and by the early second millennium AD, settlements are
much bigger, while social differentiation becomes even more visible. Because places such
as Mapela, Mapungubwe, Zimbabwe Hill, Nali Hill, Malumba and many others contain
evidence of walling and exotic goods, it is reasonable to view them as peers and not as
subordinates within the superstates of Mapungubwe, Khami or Great Zimbabwe. This
explains why there are so many elite sites alongside Mapungubwe and Great Zimbabwe:
Khami emerged when Great Zimbabwe was still at the height of its power because the latter
did not have full control of the region. Apart from being backed up by realities in other parts
of the world, this model fits closely Shona political and succession systems. Beach (1994)
has demonstrated that some modern dynasties such as Buhera and Manyika have deep
antecedents in their areas, to the extent that a settlement succession from the time of Great
Zimbabwe’s demise to the recent past can be reconstructed. Buhera has stone-walled sites,
some with gold, whose pottery resembles that from Great Zimbabwe. Therefore, the idea of
superstates is exaggerated; the political units were much smaller while political power
rotated a number of centres creating a chain of capitals (Chirikure et al. 2012). It is not
possible to measure chronologically the time when these places rotated power, given the
Afr Archaeol Rev (2013) 30:339–366 361

limitation of radiocarbon dating, which pulls small events into bigger time periods. Even
the historical Mutapa state was also associated with different centres of power and
coexisted alongside autonomous polities such as the Changamire State. This makes it
possible that most sites which are more than 100 km from places such as Great Zimbabwe,
Khami or Mapungubwe may have been independent. Indeed, as discussed above, many of
these exist. Otherwise, it is difficult to imagine how it would be possible administratively
for one place to dominate tens of places that overlap with it chronologically and were
situated in distant areas.
Against this background of peer polity interaction, the development of the Zimbabwe
culture may not have followed a linear path but was more complex as dictated by specific
political, economic and social conditions of the time. The late first- and early second-
millennium AD communities were more dynamic than we give them credit for. As such,
the linear route that takes off from Mapungubwe via Great Zimbabwe to Khami is far
away from the historical realities presented in historical accounts of Shona communities
(see Beach 1980,1984,1994). Also, it is not clear from current discussions on sociopo-
litical complexity how control and power were exercised. Indeed, Kim and Kusimba’s
(2008) discussion of warfare and coercion as important variables is a refreshing one.
Admittedly, people were not fighting all the time, but Changamire established his state
based on conquest just as the Mutapas carried out wars to expand their territories (Pikirayi
1993). As such, more research and debate are required for us to understand the subject of
sociopolitical complexity in a better way. It is difficult to find the first stone wall, the first
gold object and the first stone palace, but it is possible to identify a suite of sites that show
evidence of growing sociopolitical complexity in our region.
Conclusion
Without the contributions of previous researchers, our understanding of the development of
the Zimbabwe culture would not have reached thus far. For purposes of this study, a wide
array of data was marshalled to elicit a few salient conclusions on the development of
sociopolitical complexity and the relationships between Mapungubwe, Great Zimbabwe
and Khami. The first is that the elements of spatial organization attested at K2/Mapungubwe
were already expressed within much of the landscape as attested at Zhizo and K2/Mambo
sites in northeastern Botswana and southwestern Zimbabwe. Imports started to filter into the
region from AD 800, creating social differentiation and thereby placing the society on the
path to sociopolitical complexity. Furthermore, the numbers of cattle also started to increase
in size closer to AD 1000. Not surprisingly, late first-millennium AD sites increasingly appear
as vast villages on hilltops and flats. The second point is that in terms of local ceramics and
stone walling, there are massive differences between Leopard’sKopje–Khami and
Gumanye–Zimbabwe clusters which mimic the Karanga/Kalanga divide. Imported artefacts
and gold were recovered from numerous sites coeval with Mapungubwe, suggesting that
there was no central redistributing authority. Bayesian modelling indicates that Great
Zimbabwe and Mapungubwe overlap chronologically for the early second millennium AD
together with other sites. Also, Khami flourished earlier than the commonly agreed AD 1450
start date implies. Researchers have ignored the basal deposits at Khami which indicate an
occupation that overlaps with Great Zimbabwe and Mapungubwe. Therefore, the many
chronologically overlapping and widely separated sites that share attributes of stone walling,
362 Afr Archaeol Rev (2013) 30:339–366

hilltop settlement, gold working and so on with Mapungubwe are likely competing and
possibly fighting peers rather than provincial or district centres (Chirikure et al. 2012). Some
of the distances between these sites (for example, 250 km between Mapungubwe and Great
Zimbabwe) would have made administration cumbersome if not impossible. In fact, the
idea of a super Mapungubwe state, a super Great Zimbabwe state and so on is at variance
with how Shona political systems seem to have operated (Beach 1994; Chirikure et al.
2012). Finally, there is no doubt that most researchers of today rely on syntheses of
syntheses. It is important to consult original excavation reports since some important
observations may have fallen through the crevices during selection processes by researchers.
Thirty years ago, Garlake (1982:3) challenged local archaeologists to come up with new
ways of understanding the Zimbabwe culture and sociopolitical complexity. This paper is a
response to that call; hopefully, more research will contribute to these debates.
Acknowledgments Financial support from the National Research Foundation of South Africa (Bluesky
Research Grant: 85892) and the Programme for Enhancement of Research Capacity (PERC) of University
of Cape Town Research Office is acknowledged with sincere gratitude. The research at Khami, Mapela and
Great Zimbabwe was carried out under a permit from the National Museums and Monuments of Zimbabwe
(NMMZ). We thank Dr. Mahachi, the Executive Director of NMMZ, for his generosity and goodwill. Our
thanks also go to Simon Hall, Foreman Bandama, Abigail Moffett and two anonymous reviewers, who
provided tremendous comments that enhanced the quality and scope of this paper. Special thanks also go to
the editor, Adria LaViolette, for additional insights.
References
Beach, D. N. (1980). The Shona and Zimbabwe 900–1850. Gweru: Mambo Press.
Beach, D. N. (1984). Zimbabwe before 1900. Gweru: Mambo Press.
Beach, D. N. (1994). A Zimbabwean past: Shona dynastic histories and oral traditions. Gweru: Mambo Press.
Beach, D. N. (1998). Cognitive archaeology and the imaginary history of Great Zimbabwe. Current
Anthropology, 39,47–72.
Beach, D., Bourdillon, M. F. C., Denbow, J., Hall, M., Lane, P., Pikirayi, I., et al. (1997). Review feature: Snakes
and crocodiles: Power and symbolism in ancient Zimbabwe, by Thomas N. Huffman. South African
Archaeological Bulletin, 52(166), 125–138.
Bent, J. T. (1896). The ruined cities of Mashonaland: Being a record of excavation and exploration in
1891. Green: Longmans.
Bhila, H. H. K. (1982). Trade and politics in a Shona kingdom: The Manyika and their African and
Portuguese neighbours, 1575–1902. Essex: Longman, Harlow.
Bronk Ramsey, C. (1994). Analysis of chronological information and radiocarbon calibration: The program
OxCal. Archaeological Computing Newsletter, 41,11–16.
Bronk Ramsey, C. (1995). Radiocarbon calibration and analysis of stratigraphy: The OxCal program.
Radiocarbon, 37(2), 425–430.
Bronk Ramsey, C. (2009). Bayesian analysis of radiocarbon dates. Radiocarbon, 51(1), 337–360.
Buck, C. E., Kenworthy, J. B., Litton, C. D., & Smith, A. F. M. (1991). Combining archaeological and
radiocarbon information: A Bayesian approach to calibration. Antiquity, 65, 808–821.
Calabrese, J. A. (2007). The emergence of social and political complexity in the Shashi-Limpopo Valley of
Southern Africa, AD 900 to 1300: Ethnicity, class, and polity (Vol. 1617). British Archaeological Reports Ltd.
Carneiro, R. L. (1967). On the relationship between size of population and complexity of social organiza-
tion. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, 23(3), 234–243.
Caton-Thompson, G. (1931). The Zimbabwe Culture: Ruins and reactions. Oxford: Clarendon.
Caton-Thompson, G. (1939). Mapungubwe. I. The excavations and culture. Antiquity, 13(51), 324–341.
Chipunza, K. T. (1994). A diachronic analysis of the architecture of the Hill Complex at Great Zimbabwe.
Uppsala: Societas Archaeologica Upsaliensis.
Afr Archaeol Rev (2013) 30:339–366 363

Chirikure, S., & Pikirayi, I. (2008). Inside and outside the dry stone walls: Revisiting the material culture of
Great Zimbabwe. Antiquity, 82, 976–993.
Chirikure, S., Manyanga, M., & Pollard, A. M. (2012). When science alone is not enough: Radiocarbon
timescales, history, ethnography and elite settlements in southern Africa. Journal of Social Archaeology,
12(3), 356–379.
Chirikure, S., Pikirayi, I., & Pwiti, G. (2001). A comparativer study of Khami pottery Zimbabwe. In G.
Pwiti & F. Chami (Eds.), Southern Africa and the Swahili World (pp. 121–135). Dar es Salam: Dar es
Salam University Press.
Chirikure, S., Pollard, A. M., Manyanga, M., & Bandama, F. (2013). A Bayesian chronology of
Great Zimbabwe: Re-threading the sequence of a vandalized monument. Antiquity, 87(337),
854–872.
Collett, D. P., Vines, A. E., & Hughes, E. G. (1992). The chronology of the Valley Enclosures: Implications
for the interpretation of Great Zimbabwe. African Archaeological Review, 10(1), 139–161.
Connah, G. (1987). African civilisations. Precolonial cities and states in tropical Africa: An archaeological
perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
DEAT. (2002). Mapungubwe nomination dossier. South Africa: Government Printer.
Denbow, J., Smith, J., Ndobochani, N. M., Atwood, K., & Miller, D. (2008). Archaeological excavations at Bosutswe,
Botswana: Cultural chronology, paleo-ecology and economy. Journal of Archaeological Science, 35(2), 459–480.
Fontein, J. (2006). The silence of Great Zimbabwe: Contested landscapes and the power of heritage.
Cavendish Pub Ltd.
Fouché, L. (1937). Mapungubwe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Galloway, A. (1963). The skeletal remains of Mapungubwe. In L. Fouché (Ed.), Mapungubwe. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press
Gardner, G. A. (1955). Mapungubwe 1935–1940. The South African Archaeological Bulletin, 10(39), 73–77.
Gardner, G. A. (1963). Mapungubwe, Vol. II. Pretoria: J.L. Van Schaik.
Garlake, P. S. (1968). The value of imported ceramics in the dating and interpretation of the Rhodesian Iron
Age. Journal of African History, 9(1), 13–33.
Garlake, P. S. (1970). Rhodesian ruins—A preliminary assessment of their styles and chronology. Journal
of African History, 11(4), 495–513.
Garlake, P. S. (1973). Great Zimbabwe. London: Thames & Hudson.
Garlake, P. S. (1978). Pastoralism and Zimbabwe. Journal of African History, 19(4), 479–93.
Garlake, P. S. (1982). Prehistory and ideology in Zimbabwe. Africa: Journal of the International African
Institute, 52(3), 1–19.
Hall, M. (1984). The burden of tribalism: The social context of southern African Iron Age studies.
American Antiquity, 49(3), 455–467.
Hall, M. (1987). The changing past. Cape Town: David Philip.
Hall, M. (1990). Hidden history: Iron Age archaeology in Southern Africa. In P. Robertshaw (Ed.), A
history of African archaeology (pp. 59–77). London: James Currey.
Hall, M. (2009). New knowledge and the university. Anthropology Southern Africa, 32(1/2), 69–76.
Hall, M., & Vogel, J. C. (1980). Some recent radiocarbon dates from southern Africa. Journal of African
History, 21(4), 431–55.
Hall, R. N., & Neal, W. G. (1902). The ancient ruins of Rhodesia. London: Methuen.
Huffman, T. N. (1974a). Linguistic affinities of the Iron Age in Rhodesia. Arnoldia, 8(23), 1–12.
Huffman, T. N. (1974b). The Leopard’s Kopje tradition (No. 6). Salisbury: Trustees of the National
Museums and Monuments of Rhodesia.
Huffman, T. N. (1978). The origins of Leopard’s Kopje: An 11th century difaquane. Zimbabwe: National
Museums and Monuments of Rhodesia.
Huffman, T. N. (1980). Ceramics, classification and Iron Age entities. African Studies, 39(2), 123–174.
Huffman, T. N. (1982). Archaeology and ethnohistory of the African Iron Age. Annual Review of Anthropology,
11, 133–150.
Huffman, T. N. (1996). Snakes and crocodiles: Power and symbolism in ancient Zimbabwe. Johannesburg:
Witwatersrand University Press.
Huffman, T. N. (2000). Mapungubwe and the origins of the Zimbabwe Culture. In M. Leslie & T. Maggs
(Eds.), African naissance: The Limpopo Valley 1000 years ago (pp. 14–29). South African Archaeo-
logical Society: Vlaeberg.
Huffman, T. N. (2007). Handbook to the Iron Age: The archaeology of pre-colonial farming societies in
Southern Africa. Scottsville: University of KwaZulu-Natal Press.
Huffman, T. N. (2009). Mapungubwe and Great Zimbabwe: The origin and spread of social complexity in
southern Africa. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, 28,37–54.
364 Afr Archaeol Rev (2013) 30:339–366

Huffman, T. N., & Vogel, J. C. (1991). The chronology of Great Zimbabwe. South African Archaeological
Bulletin, 46,61–70.
Jaffey, A. J. E. (1966). A reappraisal of the history of the Rhodesian Iron Age up to the fifteenth century.
The Journal of African History, 7(2), 189–195.
Killick, D. (2009). Agency, dependency, and long-distance trade: East Africa and the Islamic world, ca.
7001500 CE. In S. E. Falconer & C. L. Redman (Eds.), Polities and power: Archaeological perspec-
tives on the landscapes of early states (pp. 179–207). Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
Kim, N., & Kusimba, C. (2008). Pathways to social complexity and political centralization in the southern
Zambezian region. African Archaeological Review, 25, 131–152.
Kuper, A. (1982). Wives for cattle: Bridewealth and marriage in southern Africa. London: Routledge &
Kegan Paul.
Kusimba, C. (2006). Slavery and warfare in African chiefdoms. In E. Arkush & M. Allen (Eds.), The archaeology of
warfare: Prehistories of raiding and conquest (pp. 214–249). Gainesville: University Press of Florida.
Lane, P. J. (1994). The use and abuse of ethnography in the study of the southern African Iron Age. Azania,
29/30,51–64.
Lane, P. J. (2005). Barbarous tribes and unrewarding gyrations? The changing role of ethnographic imagina-
tion. In A. B. Stahl (Ed.), African archaeology. A critical introduction (pp. 24–54). London: Blackwell.
Lane, P. (2011). Possibilities for a postcolonial archaeology in sub-Saharan Africa: Indigenous and usable
pasts. World Archaeology, 43(1), 7–25.
MacIver, D. (1906). Medieval Rhodesia. London: Routledge.
Manyanga, M. (2001). Choices and constraints: Animal resource exploitation in southeastern Zimbabwe.
Uppsala: Societa Archaeologica Uppsaliensis.
Manyanga, M., Pikirayi, I., & Ndoro, W. (2000). Coping with dryland environments: Preliminary results
from Mapungubwe and Zimbabwe phase sites in the Mateke Hills, south-eastern Zimbabwe. South
African Archaeological Society, Goodwin Series, 8,69–77.
McCormac, F. G., Hogg, A. G., Blackwell, P. G., Buck, C. E., Higham, T. F. G., & Reimer, P. J. (2004).
SHCAL04 Southern hemisphere calibration, 0–11.0 cal Kyr BP. Radiocarbon, 46, 1087–1092.
McIntosh, S. K. (Ed.). (1999). Beyond chiefdoms: Pathways to complexity in Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Meyer, A. (1998). The archaeological sites of Greefswald. Pretoria: University of Pretoria.
Mudenge, S. I. (1988). A political history of Munhumutapa c 1400–1902. Harare: Zimbabwe Publishing House.
Pikirayi, I. (1993). The archaeological identity of the Mutapa state: Towards an historical archaeology of
northern Zimbabwe. Uppsala: Societas Archaeologica Upsaliensis.
Pikirayi, I. (2001). The Zimbabwe Culture: Origins and decline of southern Zambezian states. Walnut Creek: AltaMira.
Prinsloo, L. C., & Colomban, P. (2008). A Raman spectroscopic study of the Mapungubwe oblates: Glass trade beads
excavated at an Iron Age archaeological site in South Africa. Journal of Raman Spectroscopy, 39(1), 79–90.
Prinsloo, L. C., Tournié, A., & Colomban, P. (2011). A Raman spectroscopic study of glass trade beads
excavated at Mapungubwe Hill and K2, two archaeological sites in southern Africa, raises questions
about the last occupation date of the hill. Journal of Archaeological Science, 38, 3264–3277.
Pwiti, G. (1991). Trade and economies in southern Africa: The archaeological evidence. Zambezia, 18(2), 119–129.
Pwiti, G. (1996). Peasants, chiefs and kings: A model of the development of cultural complexity in northern
Zimbabwe. Zambezia, 23,31–52.
Renfrew, C., & Cherry, J. (1986) Peer polity interaction and socio-political change. In R. Preucel & I.
Hodder (Eds.), Contemporary archaeology in theory: A reader (pp. 114–142). Oxford: Blackwell.
Robertshaw, P., Wood, M., Melchiorre, E., Popelka-Filcoff, R., & Glascock, M. D. (2010). Southern
African glass beads: Chemistry, glass sources and patterns of trade. Journal of Archaeological Science,
37, 1898–1912.
Robinson, K. R. (1959). Khami ruins. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Robinson, K. (1961a). Excavations on the Acropolis Hill. Occasional Papers of the National Museums of
Rhodesia, 3(23A), 159–192.
Robinson, K. (1961b). Zimbabwe pottery. Occasional Papers of the National Museums of Rhodesia,
3(23A), 193–226.
Robinson, K. (1961c). Zimbabwe beads. Occasional Papers of the National Museums of Rhodesia, 3(23A), 227–229.
Robinson, K. R. (1965). The Leopard’s Kopje culture: A preliminary report on recent work. Arnoldia, 25,1–7.
Robinson, K. R. (1985). Dated Iron Age sites from the upper Umguza Valley 1982: Their possible
implications. South African Archaeological Bulletin, 40(141), 17–38.
Schmidt, P. R. (Ed.). (2009). Postcolonial archaeologies in Africa. Santa Fe: S chool for Advanced Research.
Schofield, J. F. (1937). The pottery of the Mapungubwe district. In L. Fouché (Ed.), Mapungubwe.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Afr Archaeol Rev (2013) 30:339–366 365

Sinclair,P.J.J.(1987).Space, time and social formation: A territorial approach to the archaeology and
anthropology of Zimbabwe and Mozambique c 0–1700 AD. Uppsala: Societas Archaeologica Upsaliensis.
Soper, R. (1990). Great Zimbabwe tradition in local context. In P. Sinclair & G. Pwiti (Eds.), Urban origins
in Eastern Africa: Proceedings of the 1990 Workshop, Harare and Great Zimbabwe. Stockholm:
Central Board on Antiquities.
Summers, R. (1965). Zimbabwe: A Rhodesian mystery. Johannesburg: Nelson.
Summers, R. (1969). Ancient mining in Rhodesia and adjacent areas. Salisbury: Trustees of the National
Museums of Rhodesia.
Summers, R., & Whitty, A. (1961). The development of the Great Enclosure. Occasional Papers of the
National Museums of Southern Rhodesia, 3(23A), 306–325.
Summers, R., Robinson, K., & Whitty, A. (1961). Zimbabwe excavations. Occasional Papers of the
National Museums of Rhodesia, 3(23A), 15–332.
van Riet Lowe, C. (1936). Mapungubwe. First report on excavations in the northern Transvaal. Antiquity,
10(39), 282–291.
Wood, M. (2011). A glass bead sequence for southern Africa from the 8th to the 16th century AD. Journal
of African Archaeology, 9(1), 67–84.
Wood, M. (2012). Interconnections: Glass beads and trade in southern and eastern Africa and the Indian
Ocean-7th to 16th centuries AD. Uppsala: Studies in Global Archaeology.
366 Afr Archaeol Rev (2013) 30:339–366

CopyrightofAfricanArchaeologicalReviewisthepropertyofSpringerScience&Business
MediaB.V.anditscontentmaynotbecopiedoremailedtomultiplesitesorpostedtoa
listservwithoutthecopyrightholder'sexpresswrittenpermission.However,usersmayprint,
download,oremailarticlesforindividualuse.