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When Does Virtuality Really "Work"? Examining the Role of Work-Family and Virtuality in Social Loafing
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We sought to clarify the relationship between virtuality and social loafing by exploring two work–family moderators—family responsibility and dissimilarity in terms of family responsibility—and two mediators—cohesion and psychological obligation—in two studies. We expected that “busy teams” (i.e., comprising similar individuals with many family responsibilities) would exhibit the strongest positive virtuality–social loafing relationship, and teams comprising similar individuals with few family responsibilities would experience a weaker virtuality–social loafing relationship. We expected that individuals working with dissimilar others would report consistently high levels of social loafing regardless of virtuality. Furthermore, we expected cohesion and psychological obligation to one’s teammates would mediate these effects. Similar individuals in teams indeed exhibited different virtuality–social loafing relationships in both studies, suggesting that the flexibility provided by virtuality might be more effective in teams comprising similar people with few family responsibilities. Study 2 further revealed that cohesion and obligation may mediate these effects, such that high levels of these mediators were associated with low levels of social loafing in similar teams comprising people with few family responsibilities. We discuss contributions to the virtual work and social loafing literatures, as well as the work–family and team literatures. We also suggest several specific actions managers can take on the basis of these findings, including for employees with few versus many family responsibilities.
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... Although some scholars have hinted at social loafing's adaptive functions (Bluhm, 2009;Jackson & Harkins, 1985), we model and empirically test its potential adaptive effects. Outside of laboratory research, social loafing has been assessed mainly as a between-person phenomenon reflecting mean levels of activity avoidance (e.g., Perry et al., 2016;Xu et al., 2017). Conducting a daily study that brackets short-term effort reductions and perceived outcomes, we take an actor-centric view and assess how employees may come to perceive functional aspects that reinforce social loafing. ...
... Our approach advances our understanding of social loafing by, for example, revealing that coworkers may collaborate to use social loafing more strategically, thereby improving team performance. We note, however, that acknowledging the functional intrapersonal effects of social loafing does not contradict the dysfunctions associated with social loafing that have been identified using between-person analyses (e.g., Mihelič & Culiberg, 2019;Pearsall et al., 2010;Perry et al., 2016). Instead, our work complements the extant research on social loafing (for reviews, see Karau & Williams, 1993;Simms & Nichols, 2014) and provides another reason it persists despite adverse social and moral consequences for social loafers. ...
Many previous studies have documented the detrimental effects of social loafing on others (interpersonal impacts) at the between-person level. However, social loafing may carry underappreciated intrapersonal functional effects at the within-person level. Our research develops a novel theoretical framework to investigate when and how engaging in social loafing enhances one’s job performance. Drawing on the effort-recovery model and moral cleansing theory, we propose that social loafing may improve subsequent job performance by enhancing recovery and guilt. Specifically, we argue that among employees who experience higher job demands or have higher moral identity, social loafing in the morning enhances their job performance in the afternoon by facilitating recovery or guilt in the morning. Two-wave daily data collected across ten consecutive workdays using the experience sampling method (ESM) supports this model. We discuss how this research identifies a functional basis for social loafing and provides implications for research and practice.
... Selain itu, (Perry et al., 2016) mengeksplorasi dampak teknologi komunikasi terhadap kepemimpinan dan menemukan bahwa pemimpin yang mengadopsi teknologi komunikasi baru dapat lebih efektif dalam mengelola tim yang tersebar secara geografis. Penggunaan alat komunikasi digital memungkinkan pemimpin untuk tetap terhubung dengan anggota tim, memperkuat hubungan, dan memastikan bahwa semua anggota tim mendapat akses ke informasi yang sama, tanpa memandang lokasi fisik mereka. ...
Buku ini membahas tentang dinamika komunikasi organisasi, menyoroti strategi-strategi yang mendukung pencapaian kinerja unggul dalam konteks kerja sama tim dan kolaborasi efektif. Melalui paparan yang komprehensif dan aplikatif, pembaca akan diperkenalkan pada berbagai konsep dasar komunikasi organisasi serta praktek-praktek terbaik yang dapat diterapkan dalam berbagai jenis organisasi. Dari membangun budaya komunikasi yang inklusif hingga mengelola konflik dengan produktif, buku ini memberikan panduan yang berharga bagi para pemimpin dan anggota tim untuk meningkatkan efektivitas komunikasi mereka. Sebagai sumber inspirasi dan pengetahuan yang praktis, buku ini akan membantu membentuk fondasi yang kuat bagi pengembangan keterampilan komunikasi yang mendukung pertumbuhan dan keberhasilan organisasi di masa depan.
... Our study also advances management education research on student teams, which has primarily studied on-campus student teams without accounting for the impact of team virtuality. 1 This research has also included, although to a lesser degree, studies of geographically distributed teams in fully online courses that, as with research on organizational teams mentioned above, have not examined variation in team virtuality (e.g., Erez, Lisak, Harush, Glikson, Nouri, & Shokef, 2013;Johnson, Baker, Dong, Taras, & Wankel, 2021;Maslikowska & Gibbert, 2022). Even the limited number of studies examining the role of virtuality using samples of student teams outside the field of management education (e.g., Bradley, Baur, Banford, & Postlethwaite, 2013;Perry, Lorinkova, Hunter, Hubbard, & McMahon, 2016) failed to consider the impact on team performance, as called for by Mesmer-Magnus et al. (2011). This lack of focus on virtuality's performance effects in management education research is a critical oversight. ...
... We tried to find an explanation for our counterintuitive findings by consulting additional literature. The previous studies have found that free riding (or social loafing) is a relevant factor in VTs (e.g., Furst et al., 1999Furst et al., , 2004Perry et al., 2016). Thus, we added a variable controlling for potential free riding tendencies in the VTs in our final model (M3) for cooperation (Thomas, 1999; see Supplemental Material B, for a detailed description). ...
Organizations have increasingly relied on virtual teams (VTs). For VTs to succeed, the collaborative behavior of team members plays an important role. Drawing from the open systems theory and using a phenomenon-driven approach, we investigate the dynamic pattern of collaborative behavior convergence among members of VTs (i.e., the emergence of collaborative behavior consensus) and its relationship with VT performance. Moreover, we investigate the differential influence of external crises, exemplified by key dynamic facets of the COVID-19 crisis (i.e., COVID-19 health threat and social distance). We used a multilevel approach (i.e., time, individual, and team levels) with the multilevel group-process framework to test our hypotheses. Results from a survey of 3,506 participants nested in 703 teams suggest that collaborative behaviors of VT members tend to converge over time, leading to the emergence of collaborative behavior consensus. Furthermore, a dynamic COVID-19 health threat leads to lower collaborative behavior consensus over time. Moreover, our results show that collaborative behavior consensus is partially positively related to VT performance and is particularly important for VTs with a lower level of collaborative behavior at the end of the collaboration. The practical and theoretical implications of these findings are discussed.
... In this regard, societies that think about improving the current situation and preparing a better future for themselves, pay attention to leisure time, especially in the age group of adolescents, because these people, as energetic and talented people and potential futures of the community. In order to achieve increasing progress and technology, it is necessary to pay attention to this generation and plan for the optimal use of leisure time, and ignoring this issue will have many negative consequences (Perry et al., 2016). According to the relative recognition of social loafing, paying attention to social activities can improve person's individual tendencies and predispositions. ...
... Furthermore, the perception or anticipation of loafing by employees has demonstrated an increase in social loafing (Mulvey & Klein, 1998;Thompson & Glaso, 2018). So far, the role of leadership as a remedy to eliminate social loafing from businesses has frequently been disregarded (Perry, Lorinkova, Hunter, Hubbard, & McMahon, 2016). Brown et al. (2005) found that negative employee behaviours such as CWBs and deviance are discouraged when managers establish dialogue with employees. ...
Purpose: The main objective of this study was to provide empirical evidence in order to enhance the understanding of how ethical leadership influences employees’ organisational citizenship behaviours and occurrence of social loafing through the mediating role of perceived organisational politics in the higher education sector.
Design/methodology/approach: The respondents of the study were academics engaged in the education sector in North Cyprus. Structural equation modelling (SEM), regression analysis and bootstrapping technique were employed to test the model and the hypotheses.
Findings/results: The statistical findings confirm that the presence of an ethical leader encouraged and motivated employees to develop a politically transparent environment, which in turn encouraged academics to develop organisational citizenship behaviours and reduce social loafing intentions in their workplace.
Practical implications: The results demonstrated that organisations aiming to increase organisational performance through encouraging employee discretionary behaviours are recommended to hire and promote ethical leaders and develop strategies to measure perceived levels of organisational politics.
Originality/value: This study fills a gap in the literature by asserting that the complete chain effects of an ethical leadership network enhance employee positivity and reduce negative discretionary behaviours. It also highlights that the effect of ethical leadership on organisational citizenship behaviours (OCBs) and social loafing was partially contingent on perceived organisational politics.
Purpose
This study investigates which factors are conducive to individual job performance in large-scale work from home (WFH) arrangements that rely on the current generation of technology, such as information and communications platforms.
Design/methodology/approach
The researchers proposed a research model based on research on WFH arrangements. The model was tested based on a survey of 1,183 respondents who engaged in large-scale WFH arrangements during an extensive national COVID-19 lockdown.
Findings
The proposed research model explains 41% of the variance in individual job performance in WFH arrangements. The findings show that the strongest positive predictors for job performance are home office quality and the reach and communication quality of information and communications platforms. A sense of professional isolation was found to have a negative impact.
Originality/value
This study is based on a unique situation of large-scale mandatory WFH arrangements that are comparable to a natural experiment, and it is one of the first studies to conduct an extensive exploration of WFH that relies on the current generation of digital technology.
Perceived reciprocity regarding support in relationships at work was examined among employees of a psychiatric hospital (Study 1) and in a study of employees of the Dutch National Railway Company (Study 2). Relationships with colleagues were more often perceived as reciprocal than relationships with superiors, and in relationships with superiors individuals more often felt overbenefited. Lack of reciprocity—being underbenefited or being overbenefited—was in general associated with negative affect, and these effects were independent of the effect of perceived job stress. In Study 2 it was also found that these effects were moderated by the individual-differences variables exchange orientation (the general expectation of immediate reciprocity) and communal orientation (a positive regard for the needs and feelings of others).
An examination of the literature on conflict between work and family roles suggests that work-family conflict exists when: (a) time devoted to the requirements of one role makes it difficult to fulfill requirements of another; (b) strain from participation in one role makes it difficult to fulfill requirements of another; and (c) specific behaviors required by one role make it difficult to fulfill the requirements of another. A model of work-family conflict is proposed, and a series of research propositions is presented.
We examined the relationships between multiple life roles, psychological well-being, and managerial skills in two studies of managerial women. Qualitative results suggested that the roles women play in their personal lives provide psychological benefits, emotional advice and support, practice at multitasking, relevant background, opportunities to enrich interpersonal skills, and leadership practice that enhance effectiveness in the management role. Quantitative results indicated that multiple role commitment positively related to life satisfaction, self-esteem, and self-acceptance. Commitment to multiple roles was also related to interpersonal and task-related managerial skills.
The process of exchange is almost continual in human interactions, and appears to have characteristics peculiar to itself, and to generate affect, motivation, and behavior that cannot be predicted unless exchange processes are understood. This chapter describes two major concepts relating to the perception of justice and injustice; the concept of relative deprivation and the complementary concept of relative gratification. All dissatisfaction and low morale are related to a person's suffering injustice in social exchanges. However, a significant portion of cases can be usefully explained by invoking injustice as an explanatory concept. In the theory of inequity, both the antecedents and consequences of perceived injustice have been stated in terms that permit quite specific predictions to be made about the behavior of persons entering social exchanges. Relative deprivation and distributive justice, as theoretical concepts, specify some of the conditions that arouse perceptions of injustice and complementarily, the conditions that lead men to feel that their relations with others are just. The need for much additional research notwithstanding, the theoretical analyses that have been made of injustice in social exchanges should result not only in a better general understanding of the phenomenon, but should lead to a degree of social control not previously possible. The experience of injustice need not be an accepted fact of life.
We examined the impact of surface-level (demographic) and deep-level (attitudinal) diversity on group social integration. As hypothesized, the length of time group members worked together weakened the effects of surface-level diversity and strengthened the effects of deep-level diversity as group members had the opportunity to engage in meaningful interactions.
Three investigations are reported that examined the relation between self-appraisals and appraisals of others. In Experiment 1, subjects rated a series of valenced trait adjectives according to how well the traits described the self and others. Individuals displayed a pronounced “self-other bias,” such that positive attributes were rated as more descriptive of self than of others, whereas negative attributes were rated as less descriptive of self than of others. Furthermore, in contrast to C. R. Rogers's (1951) assertion that high self-esteem is associated with a comparable regard for others, the tendency for individuals to evaluate the self in more favorable terms than they evaluated people in general was particularly pronounced among those with high self-esteem. These findings were replicated and extended in Experiment 2, where it also was found that self-evaluations were more favorable than were evaluations of a friend and that individuals with high self-esteem were most likely to appraise their friend...
The history of the person-situation controversy is reviewed. Although this controversy is not new, and most psychologists now see themselves as interactionists, they disagree about the kinds of person, situation, and interaction process units that should be emphasized. Two models, a social intelligence model and a goals model, for analyzing person-situation interaction and the question of person-environment congruence are considered.