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Sex during menstruation: Race, sexual identity, and women’s accounts of pleasure and disgust
Abstract
While much research has addressed negativity surrounding women’s menstruation, surprisingly little research has interrogated the relationship between menstruation and sexuality. This study used inductive thematic analysis of qualitative interviews with 40 women across a range of age, race and sexual orientation backgrounds to examine women’s experiences with sex during menstruation. Results showed that, while 25 women described negative reactions — and two described neutral reactions — 13 women described positive reactions to menstrual sex. Negative responses cohered around four themes: women’s discomfort and physical labor to clean ‘messes’, overt partner discomfort, negative self-perception and emotional labor to manage partner’s disgust. Positive responses cohered around two themes: physical and emotional pleasure from sex while menstruating, and rebellion against anti-menstrual attitudes. Notable race and sexual identity differences appeared, as white women and bisexual or lesbian-identified women described positive feelings about menstrual sex more than women of color or heterosexual women. Bisexual women with male partners described more positive reactions to menstrual sex than did heterosexual women with male partners, implying that heterosexual identity related to negative menstrual sex attitudes more than heterosexual behavior. Those with positive menstrual sex attitudes also enjoyed masturbation more than others. Implications for sexual identity and racial identity informing body practices, partner choice affecting women’s body affirmation, and women’s resistance against common cultural ideas about women’s bodies as ‘disgusting’ were addressed.
... Moreover, this chapter focuses cisgender boys and men. While a critically important topic to study, the experiences of men and non-binary people who menstruate is not covered in this chapter-largely because, to date, there is little academic work on this topic (for notable exceptions, see Chrisler et al. 2016;Fahs 2016; Rydström, this volume; Frank and Dellaria, this volume). ...
... In a study conducted in the United States, men reported being concerned with the messiness inherent in menstrual sex, but they also reported that engaging in this behavior was shameful-particularly for the menstruating women (Allen and Goldberg 2009). However in multiple studies conducted in the United States, women do report desiring and having sex during menstruation even though actual rates of sexual activity go down during this phase compared to others across the menstrual cycle (Fahs 2011;Hensel, Fortenberry, and Orr 2007). However, some of the reason why women do not have sex with men while menstruating may be due to their concerns about disgusting or discomforting male partners (Fahs 2011). ...
... However in multiple studies conducted in the United States, women do report desiring and having sex during menstruation even though actual rates of sexual activity go down during this phase compared to others across the menstrual cycle (Fahs 2011;Hensel, Fortenberry, and Orr 2007). However, some of the reason why women do not have sex with men while menstruating may be due to their concerns about disgusting or discomforting male partners (Fahs 2011). For men in a United States sample who did report having menstrual sex regularly, they talked about it as a sign of maturation and viewed it as part of being in a trusting and caring intimate relationship (Allen and Goldberg 2009). ...
This chapter reviews the scant amount of research that exists about the relationship that boys and men—who are not menstruators—have with menstruation. In looking at this relationship, Erchull sheds light on how boys and men learn about menstruation, what they actually know about it, and what beliefs and attitudes they hold about both menstruation and menstruators. The author pays special attention to fathers and the role they can play in educating their children about menstruation. Erchull concludes that, while there are still many questions and much to be learned, the knowledge, beliefs, and attitudes that boys and men hold about menstruation influence them in their interactions with menstruators.
... Feminists have aimed to both understand these experiences and reshape and recenter the experiences of those on the margins. In this study, we look both at groups on the margins, their subjective narratives of their bodies, and their experiences with sex during menstruation, an experience often marked by cultural norms as "abject" (Fahs, 2011). Menstruation remains a fraught and ...
... Period sex has been associated with shame and stigma for many people who menstruate (Fahs, 2011;Jackson & Falmagne, 2013;Rubinsky et al., 2020;Van Lonkhuijzen et al., 2022). Despite this, studies show that a majority of women have engaged in menstrual sex, particularly women in committed relationships (Allen & Goldberg, 2009;Fahs, 2011), though many women are reluctant to do so (Van Lonkhuijzen et al., 2022). ...
... Period sex has been associated with shame and stigma for many people who menstruate (Fahs, 2011;Jackson & Falmagne, 2013;Rubinsky et al., 2020;Van Lonkhuijzen et al., 2022). Despite this, studies show that a majority of women have engaged in menstrual sex, particularly women in committed relationships (Allen & Goldberg, 2009;Fahs, 2011), though many women are reluctant to do so (Van Lonkhuijzen et al., 2022). Researchers in a recent study reiterated that interest in sex is relatively consistent across the menstrual cycle, so having sex during one's period occurs more for social than biological reasons (Macbeth et al., 2021). ...
While some research has focused on menstrual sex, little work has centered the menstrual sex experiences of queer women and queer individuals assigned female at birth (AFAB) who do not identify as women. This study drew from qualitative data collected in 2019–2020 from 26 women and AFAB individuals (mean age = 30.2 years) throughout the U.S. Midwest to explore how queer women and queer AFAB individuals who do not identify as women talked about their experiences with having sex during their periods (“period sex”). Using feminist phenomenological thematic analysis, we identified six themes for how participants discussed period sex: (1) entitlement to and enjoyment about period sex; (2) period sex feels different physically; (3) efforts to minimize shame and discomfort with period sex; (4) looking for partner cues to determine feelings about period sex; (5) period sex as messy and “unsexy”; and (6) embracing vaginal sex but not cunnilingus while menstruating. Implications for understanding intrapsychic, relational, and sociocultural aspects of menstrual sex were explored, as were patterns of accommodating stigma compared to resisting stigma when reflecting on meanings of menstruation, sexuality, eroticism, queer identity, and relationships. Tensions between enacting resistance during period sex, and subscribing to heteronormative and patriarchal notions of period sex as “gross” were explored.
... Men's attitudes toward menstruation may influence their attitudes toward sexual activity during menstruation (Barrington et al., 2021;Hensel et al., 2007). However, research studies addressing menstruation experiences in relation to sexual activity are limited (Barrington et al., 2021;Fahs, 2020a) and often conducted from the perspective of women (Fahs, 2020a;Peranovic & Bentley, 2017). Additionally, to our knowledge, thus far no studies have addressed this issue in the Netherlands, a society which generally has positive attitudes and approaches toward sex and sexuality. ...
... Men's attitudes toward menstruation may influence their attitudes toward sexual activity during menstruation (Barrington et al., 2021;Hensel et al., 2007). However, research studies addressing menstruation experiences in relation to sexual activity are limited (Barrington et al., 2021;Fahs, 2020a) and often conducted from the perspective of women (Fahs, 2020a;Peranovic & Bentley, 2017). Additionally, to our knowledge, thus far no studies have addressed this issue in the Netherlands, a society which generally has positive attitudes and approaches toward sex and sexuality. ...
... Because non-Dutch female participants, and in particular Table 1. Scores and differences between men and women, and Dutch and Surinamese women, on 12 stigma statements composed by the authors (N ¼ 439), inspired by Goffman's stigma-theory (1963) (abomination of the body, 1-4; blemish, 5-8; social marker, 9-12 Surinamese participants, were well represented in the survey, and because the literature suggests that differences in menstruation stigma exist between ethnicities (Fahs, 2020a), we examined differences between Dutch women and Surinamese women. The eight (six female, two male) interview respondents all lived in different places in the Netherlands. ...
This article describes the findings of a mixed-methods study aimed to understand attitudes and practices regarding menstruation and sexual activity during menstruation due to stigma. Findings from the surveys (n = 439), eight in-depth interviews, and four expert interviews show that both men and women hold stigmatizing attitudes toward menstruation and sexual activity during menstruation. Most respondents were not sexually active during menstruation. Stigmatizing attitudes resulted in constant physical and mental menstrual management for women, negatively influencing their lives. Surinamese women displayed significantly more stigmatizing attitudes and practices than Dutch women. Results imply that improving menstrual education could have a destigmatizing effect.
... Where their menstruation did become obvious to others this resulted in strong negative emotions, feeling distressed and embarrassed. Participants generally did not speak about menstruation (their own or others') publicly, particularly not with men and boys, as they considered this to Washing/drying materials, n = 1 study [50] Perceptions of physical environment (n = 18 studies) n = 8 studies [26,28,47,51,111,122,126,132] n = 9 studies [24,25,54,80,81,88,115,117,138] n = 1 study [10] (Continued ) Analgesic or anti-inflammatory medicines, n = 2 studies [64,129] Sex, n = 2 studies [33,73] Sex, n = 1 study [56] Sex, n = 1 study [41] IMPACTS (Continued ) There were a few examples in the studies from participants who reached menarche from the late 20 th C onwards of insisting that this secrecy should be challenged, for example, displaying menstrual materials publicly [pg. 54,81] or insisting on menstrual discussions with boys and men who did not want to engage [pg. ...
... Occasionally participants mentioned relief on beginning their period each month, as this indicated that they did not have any menstrual disorders or were not pregnant [26,32,47,68,75,98,105]. Some participants noted experiencing pleasure during menstrual sex [33,56,73,74]. Positive emotional responses often had beneficial impacts on participants' relationships, explored more below. ...
... Confidence to engage in activities during menstruation. A number of studies included participants who spoke of their confidence (or lack of) to engage in activities during menstruation [28,33,38,40,47,56,73,80,81,106,108,112,114,[117][118][119]122]. Often those who had begun using tampons or a menstrual cup particularly mentioned how this gave them the confidence to engage in more activities [28,38,56,81,114,117]. ...
Background
There is growing recognition of the importance of menstruation in achieving health, education, and gender equality for all. New policies in high income countries (HICs) have responded to anecdotal evidence that many struggle to meet their menstrual health needs. Qualitative research has explored lived experiences of menstruating in HICs and can contribute to designing intervention approaches. To inform the growing policy attention to support people who menstruate, here we review and synthesise the existing research.
Methods and findings
Primary, qualitative studies capturing experiences of menstruation in HICs were eligible for inclusion. Systematic database and hand searching identified 11485 records. Following screening and quality appraisal using the EPPI-Centre checklist, 104 studies (120 publications) detailing the menstrual experiences of over 3800 individuals across sixteen countries were included. We used the integrated model of menstrual experiences developed from studies in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) as a starting framework and deductively and inductively identified antecedents contributing to menstrual experiences; menstrual experiences themselves and impacts of menstrual experiences. Included studies described consistent themes and relationships that fit well with the LMIC integrated model, with modifications to themes and model pathways identified through our analysis. The socio-cultural context heavily shaped menstrual experiences, manifesting in strict behavioural expectations to conceal menstruation and limiting the provision of menstrual materials. Resource limitations contributed to negative experiences, where dissatisfaction with menstrual practices and management environments were expressed along with feelings of disgust if participants felt they failed to manage their menstruation in a discrete, hygienic way. Physical menstrual factors such as pain were commonly associated with negative experiences, with mixed experiences of healthcare reported. Across studies participants described negative impacts of their menstrual experience including increased mental burden and detrimental impacts on participation and personal relationships. Positive experiences were more rarely reported, although relationships between cis-women were sometimes strengthened by shared experiences of menstrual bleeding. Included studies reflected a broad range of disciplines and epistemologies. Many aimed to understand the constructed meanings of menstruation, but few were explicitly designed to inform policy or practice. Few studies focused on socioeconomically disadvantaged groups relevant to new policy efforts.
Conclusions
We developed an integrated model of menstrual experience in HICs which can be used to inform research, policy and practice decisions by emphasising the pathways through which positive and negative menstrual experiences manifest.
Review protocol registration
The review protocol registration is PROSPERO: CRD42019157618.
... People who menstruate have mixed feelings about menstrual sex and their partner's perceptions of menstrual sex ranging from overt disgust, to general neutrality, to enjoying and prioritizing physical intimacy while menstruating (Fahs 2011(Fahs , 2013(Fahs , 2014. Most scholarly work on the subject focuses on attitudes toward menstrual sex or risk perception when engaging in menstrual sex (Allen and Goldberg 2009), attending less to interpersonal conversations and discussions surrounding the topic. ...
... Women and gender minorities who menstruate express polarized attitudes toward menstrual sexual activity (Fahs 2013(Fahs , 2014, with half identifying that they engage in some kind of menstrual sex (KI-CURT 2018;Fahs 2011). Given this range of attitudes toward menstrual sex, the present study qualitatively explores the conversations women and gender minorities report having with current and former intimate partners surrounding sexual activity during menstruation. ...
... Older research indicates that both men and women with higher education may be more likely to engage in sexual activity during menstruation and spotting, compared to those with less education who were more likely to view menstrual sexual activity as unhygienic and uncomfortable (Barnnart et al. 1995). Another study found a higher prevalence of negative attitudes categorized by uncleanliness, partner discomfort, and partner emotional maintenance amongst white, heterosexual women and women of color compared to white lesbian or bisexual women (Fahs 2011). Although comparatively fewer, positive accounts of menstrual sex in regards to emotional pleasure and rebellion against anti-feminist opinions were more prevalent in women who identify as bisexual or lesbian (Fahs 2011). ...
Despite its stigma, menstrual sexual activity is fairly common. The present study investigates the topics and attitudes surrounding conversations about menstrual sex that take place between intimate partners in which one or more may menstruate. Participants included 136 people who either identified with the experience of being a woman or had female sex assignment, of diverse gender and sexual identities. Findings suggest that across the gender spectrum, most people feel positively or neutrally toward menstrual sexual activity, and are generally satisfied with their interpersonal conversations about the subject. Many conversations about menstrual sex revolved around planning and negotiating the “messy” aspects of the sex act. Importantly, participants who were transgender or gender non-conforming identified that feelings of dysphoria may inhibit desire for menstrual sexual activity if they were the one menstruating, but they did not have negative feelings toward menstrual sex in general, and were generally happy to participate if a partner was the menstruating body. Findings and implications for perceptions of menstrual stigma’s filter on interpersonal communication and consequences for sexual communication are discussed.
... For example, increased sexual desire during menstruation was mentioned, with some participants considering it to be partially positive. Norms about not having sex during menstruation were among the reasons why some abstained, which is consistent with other studies [63][64][65][66]. A study by Fahs reveals that positive experiences of sex during menstruation were more common among white, lesbian and bisexual women than among heterosexual women of colour [65]. ...
... Norms about not having sex during menstruation were among the reasons why some abstained, which is consistent with other studies [63][64][65][66]. A study by Fahs reveals that positive experiences of sex during menstruation were more common among white, lesbian and bisexual women than among heterosexual women of colour [65]. Not having sex during menstruation could be due to decreased sexual desire, as some people feel low, bloated or tender. ...
Background
Menstrual health is a recognised important public health issue and is essential for the realisation of gender equality and the achievement of Sustainable Development Goals. This study aimed to explore the menstrual health experiences of young people in Sweden and how the menstrual cycle affects their health and lives. The study also aimed to identify the facilitators and barriers to achieving menstrual health.
Methods
We conducted a qualitative study in Sweden. Sixteen young people aged 18–28 who have experienced the menstrual cycle participated in individual interviews. Purposeful sampling combined with snowball sampling was applied to recruit the participants. The data were analysed using reflexive thematic analysis.
Results
Participants viewed menstruation as a sign of having a healthy and functioning body. Menstruation was linked to becoming a woman and fostered a sense of community and sisterhood, which was viewed as positive among cis women. Further, the results showed that physical and emotional symptoms related to the menstrual cycle limited the participants’ everyday lives and social relationships and had a negative effect on their sexual and mental health. While managing their emotional discomfort and other menstrual complaints, they also had to deal with the public stigma and norms about menstruation contributing to shame and worries. Barriers to menstrual health included stigma and norms related to menstruation, which led to the adoption of expected behaviours, such as avoiding participation in social activities. The normalisation of menstrual complaints also contributed to delays in seeking healthcare, despite having symptoms that had a negative effect on their health. An important factor promoting menstrual health and quality of life is access to prompt treatment to mitigate and decrease symptoms that limit everyday life.
Conclusions
The results indicate that menstrual stigma and related norms create challenging situations limiting menstruating people’s everyday lives and reluctance to seek healthcare despite needing to. To promote the menstrual health of menstruating young people in Sweden, organised and systematic screening of menstrual cycle-related symptoms should be provided within student health services at schools and universities, and primary healthcare. Policymakers should consider integrating stigma-reducing efforts into public health interventions to improve general awareness and promote gender equality.
... Schooler et al. (2005) examined menstrual shame as a factor in sexual decision making, concluding that menstrual shame may inhibit sexual agency, and the ability of women to acknowledge and advocate for pleasure; they found that menstrual shame was linked with sexual risk-taking and decreased sexual experience. Qualitative studies of women's attitudes toward menstrual sex indicated widespread negative attitudes (Fahs 2011); women reported disgust and shame associated with the menstrual messiness. Chrisler and Johnston-Robledo (2018, 76) conclude that even when women are not menstruating, sexual subjectivity is impacted by menstrual negativity, and they suggest that reducing menstrual shame may contribute positively to women's sexual agency. ...
... This perspective also has been suggested by Schooler (2001), who found that communication about menstruation among a community of women may lessen girls' shame (Schooler 2001). In fact, talking openly about menstruation is one point of menstrual activism (Fahs 2016). ...
McHugh introduces the term ‘menstrual moaning,’ to refer to women’s negative communication about menstruation. Women’s talk about menstruation is often negative through its focus on pain, discomfort, and moodiness. McHugh ties menstrual moaning to the stigma associated with menstruation. Cultural attitudes that require girls and women to maintain secrecy and silence regarding menstruation contribute to the experience of menstrual shame. Breaking the taboos against menstrual talk may be a form of resistance. Brown argues that breaking the silence and secrecy taboo may help women to develop shame resilience. However, McHugh suggests that menstrual moaning, by reiterating negative cultural constructions of women’s bodies as flawed, deficient, and diseased, may have a deleterious impact on women’s menstrual attitudes, and perpetuate menstrual shame. Women could develop shame resistance and build community through more positive talk about menstruation, but positive menstrual conversations are rarely documented. McHugh recommends further research and activism on menstrual shame, resistance, and resilience.
... However, women who internalize misogynist attitudes do not only enact the internalized sexism upon themselves, but also express them in their interaction with others, mistrusting and devaluing other women, as well as exhibiting a favorable bias towards men. Women will take up racialized, ageist or ableist standards of attractiveness, internalizing them and using them as benchmarks against which women evaluate themselves and others (Wolf 1991;Lovejoy 2001;Wingood et al. 2002;Collins 2004;Fahs 2011). This phenomenon can trigger a range of harmful or self-destructive effects, from harming women's self-image (van den Berg et al. 2010) to raising the likelihood of women engaging in risky sexual behaviors (Eisenberg et al. 2005;Gillen et al. 2006). ...
... Further to the point, we find women who inflicted costly punishment on a sexually accessible woman (methodology based on the Ultimatum Game) (Muggleton et al. 2018). The illusion of power through sexuality is frail not only because it provides women with an untrustworthy aura, but also because it is susceptible to race and class, and of course, age (Collins 2004;England and McClintock 2009;Fahs 2011;Farrer 2010;Lovejoy 2001). Hakim (2010; goes even further with her explanations of erotic capital, talking about the 'male sex deficit', by which she understands that men need more sex than women can provide, thus giving women an advantage in erotic where the countries with worse gender equality scores will also present more widespread sexist attitudes. ...
The present article will tackle the concept of internalized misogyny by trying to review existing theories and to extract a number of common threads of these theories in order to find some useful insights on the internal mechanisms that make up internalized misogyny, and on how internalized misogyny should be approached by practical action. I start the discussion by exploring oppression and the internalization of oppression, and afterwards move to internalized misogyny itself, charting its place within gender dynamics in general, as well as its impact on gender roles, on women’s actions towards other women, and their actions towards themselves. Using data from the World Value Survey (2017–2020), I will explore how internalized misogyny is reflected in specific sexist attitudes, how it relates to male misogyny, and which aspects of gender relations seem to come to the fore when dealing with internalized sexism. This will allow us to confront and complement the theories on internalized sexism with data on attitudes and beliefs, and develop a clearer picture of the phenomenon, as well as drawing some brief conclusions regarding practical action to mitigate gender oppression.
... The aim of menstrual health activism is to challenge the dominant medical establishment and to empower women to take control of their bodies and their health (Bobel, 2006;Morgen, 2000). In particular, activists want to promote affirmative views of menstruation within institutions such as education, the health industry, media, and families (Kissling, 2006;Fahs, 2011). Within this feminist movement and from an academic perspective, a critical consciousness about menstruation that facilitates positive views of women and their bodies, thereby empowering women, is encouraged (Bobel, 2006(Bobel, , 2008Chrisler, 2008). ...
... In fact, at an inter-group level, men have reported more negative attitudes than women about menstruation and have been more likely to believe that it is a source of danger and stigma Heard & Chrisler, 1999;Marva´n, Corte´s-Iniestra, & Gonzalez, 2005;Peranovic & Bentley, 2017;Wong et al., 2013). Moreover, several differences have been found in attitudes toward menstruation in women from different countries (Hoerster, Chrisler, & Gorman, 2003;Marva´n et al., 2005), sexual orientations (Fahs, 2011;Ussher & Perz, 2008) or social class (Jackson, 2018). ...
This research investigates social representations of menstruation. It analyses firstly how young Spanish people understand menstruation in their everyday lives. And secondly, it explores how gender and ideological factors (liberal vs. conservative; feminist vs. non-feminist) impact on the meaning of menstruation and its implications for acceptance of this process. A free association exercise elicited by the word ''menstruation'' was answered by 250 people and the content was examined by lexical analysis. The results divided social representations of menstruation into two levels: firstly, a traditionalist level that is clearly linked to a negative stigmatized discourse about menstruation; and, secondly, a progressive level where two different discourses emerge, one representing liberal men and the other representing feminist women. The results show that only the feminist conception of menstruation provides an empowered and emotionally positive representation. The concept of menstruation is concluded to emerge from various sources of information, values and social conventions that are somewhat removed from its scientific meaning. The representation of menstruation is therefore understood to be situated within a social, ideological and emotional context. Accordingly, health education campaigns should frame their discourse about menstruation within a feminist perspective as their point of departure, thereby increasing their effectiveness.
... 15,17 This latter belief is rooted in the taboo of menstruation, which is as old as humankind 8 and is still largely prevalent in most societies, perpetuated by the marketing of mainstream menstrual products, which emphasize the need for secrecy and freshness through the use of euphemisms and delicate, "feminine" imagery. [18][19][20] For such reasons, many consider sexual activity during menstrual activity as awkward, dirty, and disgusting. 13,21 Physical pain related to dysmenorrhea and discomfort related to bloating may be further deterrents to engaging in sex at this time, although the messiness of menstrual coitus also seems to play a role. ...
Across studies, the percentage of individuals reporting regularly engaging in menstrual coitus ranges between 4% and 43%. Although no clinical guideline recommends avoiding sexual activity during menstruation, according to some researchers such practice may favor both retrograde menstruation and sexually transmitted diseases, two phenomena that are thought to play a role in endometriosis’ pathogenesis. Given this background, we analyzed the existing evidence regarding the association between menstrual coitus and the prevalence of endometriosis by conducting a PubMed database search on February 15, 2024. We considered all original, full-length studies written in English. Results were conflicting. When interviewing 489 infertile women, Filer and Wu found that the frequency of surgically diagnosed endometriosis was significantly higher among those engaging in menstrual coitus (17.5% versus 10.9%; p < 0.05). In their case-control study on 555 women with (n = 185) and without (n = 370) endometriosis, Mollazadeh and co-workers confirmed an increased risk of endometriosis among those engaging in menstrual coitus compared to those who did not (OR 5.23; 95% CI 2.16–12.66). However, in Meaddough and colleagues’ retrospective case-control study on 2012 women, with (n = 1517) and without (n = 495) endometriosis, menstrual coitus was significantly less frequent in women with endometriosis compared to controls (27% versus 35%; p = 0.002). Treloar and co-workers also failed to prove such an association. The evidence available at the present moment is insufficient to confirm the hypothesis that menstrual coitus plays a role in the pathogenesis of endometriosis.
... Reading the cultural landscape, in particular the stigma of menstruation and the lack of community embracement, or at least support, girls at menarche experience first-hand the demotion in social power associated with inhabiting a 'young woman's' body at the cusp of puberty. The intensity of the negative stigma attached to menstruation (Fahs 2011;Ginsburg 1996;Roberts et al. 2002) is matched by the intensity of terror as vividly described by premenstrual girls in the year preceding menarche from 'being found' menstruating, as ten-year-old Emma describes, "It's so scary getting your period, starting it and you won't be prepared, and you don't want anyone to know, you don't know what they'll think about you. Guys probably think 'Ew'" [White, middle class, rural]. ...
In this chapter, Piran engages with girls at puberty through their narrated experiences of embodied connections to the physical and social world during menarche. Utilizing the theoretical frame of the Developmental Theory of Embodiment (Piran in Journeys of Embodiment at the Intersection of Body and Culture: The Developmental Theory of Embodiment , 2017), Piran focuses on experiences in three domains. First, she shows that girls’ temporary freedom of engagement in the physical territory alongside boys ends at menarche, compromising embodied joy, agency, and positive connection to the physical environment. Second, she examines how strongly enforced ‘femininity’-related discourses at menarche, which are further imposed by menstruation-related discourses, corset the way girls can inhabit their bodies. Third, Piran argues that menarche is a biological event that is associated with embodied demotion in social power and with disrupting relational networks. She concludes that positive embodiment at menarche depends on the availability of relational connections and norms that can counteract these adverse social experiences.
... Further, women sometimes want to share menopause experiences with their partners, but they avoid doing so because it is "a private thing" (Walter 2000, 117). Similar to what Fahs (2011) sounds about women's and partners' discomforts around having sex during menstruation, perimenopausal women have reported discomfort in talking with partners about perimenopausal signs and symptoms (Dillaway 2008). Due to a lack of information about menopause and women's reticence about sharing experiences, husbands' interactions with wives potentially cement negative meanings about menopause and encourage women to think about menopause as a collection of treatable symptoms. ...
This chapter explores the everyday experiences of women living in and passing through the stages of perimenopause and menopause, a transition that brings both physical change and identity change. Dillaway approaches this subject by examining the myriad uncertainties that women face during this transition, attributing many of them to confusion around the definitions of perimenopause and menopause; ambiguous signs and symptoms; conflicted feelings about ageing; and reflections on both previous and current motherhood and family experiences. Women think about and navigate these uncertainties in varied ways, Dillaway says, and she concludes that part of the everyday experience of this reproductive- and life-course transition is learning to live in and with uncertainty.
... Many menstrual scholars have shown how normative pressures work on menstruation. For example menstruating or behaving outside of normative assumptions of menstruality can result in stigmatization and marginalization (Crawford, Menger, and Kaufman 2014;Kowalski and Chapple 2000;Johnston-Robledo and Chrisler 2013) and feelings of disgust and shame (Lee 2009;Schooler et al. 2005;Ussher 2006;Johnston-Robledo et al. 2007;Fahs 2011;Moloney 2010;Young 2005), where for example those who bleed too much, too seldom, or those who fail to conceal their menstruation are socially sanctioned externally ("That's not normal!" "You're repulsive!"), and internally ("There's something wrong with me," "I feel unfeminine," "I'm disgusting"). ...
In this text, Persdotter advances critical menstrual studies by introducing and developing the concept of menstrunormativity as a way to understand the ways normativities around menstruation affect and discipline menstrual subjects. To do so, she works with the idea of a system of multiple and contradictory normativities that order and stratify menstruation. Persdotter makes four interlinked arguments regarding menstrunormativity: (1) normativities work in clustered, complex ways; (2) the cluster of normativities that surround menstruation produce an impossible ideal subjectivity (the imagined menstrunormate ), which follows that we are all actually menstrual monsters ; (3) normativities are continuously coproduced by everyone and everything, which means we are all, always, culpable in creating monsters; and (4) there is significant potential in embracing ourselves as both Dr. Frankenstein and as monsters, since such a viewpoint produces more opportunities for livable lives for menstruators and the menstrual countermovement alike.
... However, interviews with actual menstruating consumers demonstrate a range of attitudes toward this act. Some-particularly Caucasian and lesbian women-view it as positive, especially pleasurable, and even rebellious (Fahs, 2020). ...
... Women with positive attitudes toward menstruation reported instead being more comfortable with their own sexuality and having a more open view of sexuality in general. 13,33 Although studies have found an association between menstruation and related topics, such as sexuality and general body image, 11,13 to our knowledge, no quantitative studies have explored the association between genital selfimage and menstrual attitudes. It is, however, reasonable to assume that genital self-image will be related to menstrual attitudes in a similar way as general body image. ...
Background
Menstruation is a central part of the everyday life of most women, and menstrual attitudes may impact health and well-being.
Objectives
This article aimed to map menstrual attitudes among adult women and examine factors associated with these attitudes, such as aspects of menarche and current menstruation, and rarely studied factors, such as genital self-image and sexual openness.
Study Design
A cross-sectional online survey.
Method
A sample of 1470 women, aged 18–50 years, were recruited through social media sites. The Menstrual Self-Evaluation Scale was used to measure three different attitudes: menstruation as natural, shameful, and bothersome. Multiple linear regression analysis was used to investigate the relationship between each attitude and factors related to menarche and current menstruation, contraceptive use, genital self-image (assessed by Female Genital Self-Image Scale), and sexual openness (Personal Comfort with Sexuality Scale). Sociodemographic variables were included into the models as covariates.
Results
Agreeing with the attitude of menstruation as something natural was predicted primarily by positive emotions at menarche, experiencing less menstrual pain, using no or nonhormonal contraception, and having a positive genital self-image. Perceiving menstruation as bothersome was predicted by a lower educational level, experiencing stronger menstrual pain, having more perimenstrual psychological symptoms, and using hormonal contraceptives. Menstruation as something shameful was chiefly predicted by lower sexual openness and a negative genital self-image.
Conclusion
Many women held attitudes about menstruation as both something natural and bothersome. Menarche and current menstruation experiences, and contraceptive method, played central roles in shaping attitudes toward menstruation as natural and bothersome. Viewing menstruation as shameful stood out from other attitudes by indicating a triad of self-objectified shame that includes menstruation, sexuality, and genital self-image. Further research into the relationships between menstruation, contraceptive use, sexuality, and body image is needed to enhance our understanding of women’s menstrual health.
... Finally, negativity surrounding women's menstruation has been studied extensively (see Bobel et al. 2020), but relatively little attention has been paid to the relationship between menstruation and sexuality. Through the analysis of qualitative interviews with 40 women, Fahs (2011) found that most women described negative reaction to menstrual sex (see also Allen and Goldberg 2009). More worryingly, there is evidence that the practice of sexual intercourse during menstruation may increase the risk for sexually transmitted pathogens (Tanfer and Aral 1996). ...
Euphemisms for menstruation and menstruation as a metaphor target have gained much attention in social cognition or communication studies. What is far less explored is the reverse mapping, that is, the use of menstruation as a metaphor source domain (to describe or reason about politics). The present study, using data from the Egyptian press and social media, aims to rectify this. This data will be approached with the literature on impoliteness in mind. As will be seen in this article, metaphorical descriptions of an opposition movement (the Muslim Brotherhood) as a menstruating woman may instill relevant negative emotions such as anger, not only among out-group members but among pro-government fanatics. As sexist insults, menstrual metaphors involve social identity face. Clearly, the menstrual taboo relates to gender (social group membership) and hence to things people often have much face invested in (i.e. to core identity claims). However, it can also instill positive emotional reactions such as laughter. It is then argued that the enjoyment of a taboo metaphor as such relies not on gender, but on ideological beliefs. One can be simultaneously a radical feminist and a pro-government activist. People, men and women, may thus accept or resist metaphors for different reasons. KEYWORDS Taboo metaphor and face aggravation; humor and menstruation; political discourse; gender and Facebook emotional reactions
... In a study carried out in the United States, men were concerned with the messiness inherent in menstrual intercourse, however additionally; they stated that carrying out this conduct becomes shameful-in particular for menstruating ladies. however, in a couple of studies conducted within the united states, women do record wanting and having sex during menstruation even though real prices of sexual interest move for the duration of this section as compared to others across the menstrual cycle [38,39]. However, some of the reasons why women do not have sex with their guys while menstruating can be due to their concerns about disgusting or discomforting male partners. ...
This study delves into the intricate realm of male perceptions of menstruation, shedding light on the evolving perspectives surrounding this natural biological phenomenon. Shifting away from the conventional notion of "boys, men, and menstruation," this research focuses on the temporal aspect, emphasizing the revelation of understanding as time progresses. This research investigated the attitudes of males towards menstruation, aiming to unearth nuanced insights that transcend customary stereotypes. The altered emphasis on timing, as opposed to gender labels, prompts an exploration of the societal progression toward inclusivity and enlightenment. By adopting a refined approach, this study aspires to promote dialogue on the topic, forging a path toward broader education and acceptance. Through a multidimensional analysis, this research examines the evolution of viewpoints over various periods, encompassing generational and cultural shifts. The central theme of timing underscores the concept that knowledge and acceptance often occur organically in sync with an individual's readiness. This resonates with the notion that understanding menstruation involves a developmental process characterized by personal growth and societal maturation. "Timing Revealed in Due Course" elucidates the multifaceted nature of male perspectives on menstruation. This study's departure from traditional labels underscores the significance of temporal progression in fostering a deeper understanding of this natural process. Recognizing that enlightenment unfolds naturally and is contingent upon individual and collective evolution, this research paves the way for a more empathetic and informed society.
... Unique findings arising from the articles focusing on facilitation of sexual pleasure as an outcome include the use of lubrication (Dodge et al., 2014), the use of sex toys during masturbation (Fahs & Swank, 2013), decreasing use of substances (e.g., poppers, alcohol; Mao et al., 2006), and use of sexual enhancement medications among older gay men to increase experiences of sexual pleasure without experiencing threats toward one's masculinity (Wallach et al., 2020). Other studies investigated SM women's experiences of sexual pleasure during menstrual sex (Fahs, 2011) and gay and bisexual men's experiences of managing their partner's and their physical pleasure in their identifications as "bottoms" (i.e., being in a receptive position during oral or anal penetration; Kiguwa, 2015;Parchem et al., 2021). One common thread throughout these articles is the subversion of heteronormative sexual scripts and how this interacts with experiencing good sex. ...
Sexual satisfaction (i.e., feeling sexually fulfilled) and sexual pleasure (i.e., positive physical and emotional experiences during sex) are predominantly studied among heterosexual, white, cisgender samples; whereas, sex research using lesbian, gay, bisexual, or queer (LGBQ+) samples has often taken a deficit-based approach (e.g., sexually transmitted infection, engagement in risky sex). By studying this population predominantly within a deficit-based approach, the risk of pathologizing them rises, especially among multiply marginalized LGBQ+ individuals. Among the studies that do employ a sex-positive lens with LGBQ+ samples, existing scholarship has not been systematically reviewed to determine the representation of plurisexual individuals (i.e., bisexual and pansexual), how these studies depict their intersecting marginalized racial and gender identities, or the inclusion of LGBQ+-specific variables (i.e., internalized homonegativity [IH], internalized binegativity [IB], identity pride [IP]). To address these questions, we conducted a 38-year (1983–2021) content analysis of literature studying sexual satisfaction and/or sexual pleasure among LGBQ+ individuals. Of 75 articles analyzed, sexual satisfaction was measured more frequently (N = 65) than sexual pleasure (N = 10). While roughly half of the articles (N = 39) included bisexual participants, on average they comprised only 10.58% of the sample. Pansexual (N = 5) or queer (N = 9) identities were significantly less represented within samples. Twelve articles included IH, one article included IB more specifically, and two articles included identity affirmation or pride. Only 12 articles included samples that were not predominately white and 11 articles included transgender or gender-expansive participants. Implications for future research among plurisexual samples will be discussed.
... They've sort of said like 'you know, if you really want we could' and I've just said 'oh you know it's not a huge....not really.' (Alec, 30 years old, video) For Alec, this shifting back onto his partner at the time is reminiscent of work that notes how women are often having to manage their potential partner(s)' disgust towards their menstruation, which can lead to an avoidance of sexual activity. 61,62 Alec articulates that his partner has made this choice, but as other research has suggested, it is likely she was managing a potential reaction of disgust and could have wanted to engage sexual activity. ...
Background
Young cisgender heterosexual men in Australia are the least likely population group to undergo testing for sexually transmissible infections (STI) and ensuring barrier method use during casual sex with cisgender women who have sex with men, with rates of STIs increasing among this group. This research examines how these men navigate sexual health conversations and practices during casual sexual encounters.
Methods
A total of 30 semi-structured interviews with young cisgender heterosexual men living in Australia during 2021 were conducted. Participants were asked questions about their dating and sexual practices, including sexual health knowledge, how they learned to have sex, and navigating sexual health conversations with partners, such as STI testing, and barrier method and hormonal contraceptive use. Findings were analysed using reflexive thematic analysis techniques.
Results
Findings note that men use various strategies of avoidance including sustaining the erotic moment, and assuming women’s responsibility. Participants also noted limited relationality, in which they highlighted individualised concerns for their own sexual health wellbeing but not that of their partners.
Conclusions
This research highlights that despite increased awareness and promotion of STI prevention and contraceptive responsibility, young cisgender heterosexual men continue to forego their responsibilities regarding their own and other’s sexual health during casual sexual encounters. Findings highlight a need to include gender transformative approaches to sexual health promotion and practice to address continuing gender inequities.
... It is bodily matter that seeps out of the body's (the system's) most precarious margins (Douglas 2002, 150), rendering it "out of place" (ibid., 44), breaking boundaries, and disturbing order just by virtue of its inherent defiance of a clear classification of inside/outside the body. However, Douglas' reasoning regarding bodily fluids, in general, and menstrual fluids, in particular, has been criticized for being overly univocal and negative, and many scholars have highlighted that menstruation can have both positive and negative connotations (see, e.g., Malmberg 1991;Bondevik and Lie 2012;Fahs 2011). However, although her emphasis is on negatives and pollution, I would argue that Douglas does account for examples of cultures with positive valuations of menstruation (e.g., 2002, 175). ...
Why is menstruation so often considered a dirty phenomenon, in both material and symbolic terms? How do ideas and realities of menstrual pollution affect the lived experience of menstruation and everyday hygiene practices? Josefin Persdotter’s study Menstrual Dirt explores how notions and materializations of pollution are enacted in different menstrual practices. It unpacks taken for granted aspects of menstrual life and reveals persistent gendered inequalities in relation to menstruation.
... . A few studies have addressed menstrual knowledge and its impact on the social and educational lives of girls and women (Chang & Chen, 2008;White, 2013). Other scholars have built on those and argued that menstrual literacy includes a wide variety of topics related to the menstrual cycle, including the role of menstruation in pregnancy, length of ovulation, menstrual cycle changes, the composition of menstrual blood, exercise and bathing during menstruation, menstrual sex, and fears of menstruation as "disease" or disability (Ali & Rizvi, 2010;Bobel, 2018;Cheng et al., 2007;Fahs, 2011). Bobel (2018) argued that menstrual literacy must move beyond merely teaching girls about menstruation and instead involve a wide variety of other stakeholders in menstrual education: family members, boys, teachers, teacher trainers, community and religious leaders, health care workers, government officials, NGOs, and product makers, as well as the media, policy advisors, and funders. ...
Accurate biological information about menstruation is crucial for menstrual health literacy. A diverse group of students (N = 125) at a large southwestern US university estimated—by pouring liquid into containers—the amount of menstrual blood produced during an average menstrual period. Only 14% could give a relatively accurate estimate, whereas 55% overestimated by at least 65 ml. Further, 7% gave extreme overestimations of one liter or more. Gender and race did not impact accurate knowledge, but queer/pansexual participants and women’s and gender studies or social justice majors were significantly more accurate. Implications for health education and recognizing heavy bleeding are explored.
... The data was collected electronically with references. [7] Sex during menstruation Sample size -40 Age group -18 to 59 ...
Menstruation is a biological, cultural as well as now a political phenomenon. In culture and traditions across the globe menstruation is surrounded by secrecy, shame, embarrassment, fear, humiliation, silence, and stigma. Apart from these variables, several studies on menstrual practices also include other variables like bothersome, prohibitions, community, presumptions and seclusion. It is easy in today’s world to forget that menstruation is all about reproductive health. The practice of menstrual taboos in adolescent girls with its implications on hygiene are widely being studied and published. Ayurveda marks menstruating female as ‘Rajaswala’ and instructs to follow certain disciplined life style in terms of diet and routine activities while menstruating. Apart from culture and contemporary science, Ayurveda science believes observance of Rajaswala paricharya must for reproductive health and for procurement of healthy offspring. Present article is a review of various research works on menstrual practices globally and review of studies on Rajaswala paricharya.
... Egoera horren aurrean hileroko osasuntsuaren aldeko aktibistek eta gai hau maila akademikoan lantzen ari diren ikertzaileek errotuta dagoen eraikuntza medikotik haratago joan eta emakumeak ahaldundu nahi dituzte beren gorputzen eta osasunaren kontrola har dezaten (Bobel, 2006;Morgen, 2000). Horretarako hezkuntza, osasun, komunikabide eta abarreko antolakuntzetan hilerokoaren irudikapen positibo bat lantzea beharrezkotzat dute gaur egun duen eraikuntza sozial negatiboa aldatzeko (Kissling, 2006;Fash, 2011). ...
Ikerlan honek «La Manada» izenez ezaguna den talde-bortxaketari buruz Twitterren eraikitako diskurtsoa aztertuko du. Horretarako, epaia plazaratutako egunaren inguruko lau asteetan #lamanada traola zuten txioen edukia analisi lexikal bidez aztertu zen. Emaitzetan diskurtso feministaren lanketa nabarmena izan zen mobilizazio sozialera deituaz, biktima babestuaz edota bortxaketaren kulturaren kontrako argudioak zabalduaz. Baina diskurtsu antifeminista ere plazaratu zen, bereziki biktimari errua egozteko eta diskurtso feministei kontra egiteko. Twitterreko diskurtsoa sexu-erasoei buruzko pentsaeraren isla izan daitekeela ondorioztatzen da, baina aldi berean baita agente aktibo ere jakintza eraldatu horren eraikuntzan.
... In the gerontological literature, DeLamater and Koepsel (2015) have argued that accounting for individual particularities provides a unique opportunity to understand the differences in the significance of sexuality in old age. The findings from this study provide some contextual evidence in response to the critical need to understand cultural and social contexts in mediating existing gaps in knowledge on sexual expression and embodied experiences in old age (Fahs, 2011). The findings from this study thus offer contextualized insights into how age-graded expectations influence how older men and women frame and react to bodily changes and sexual needs among older Yoruba people in Ibadan, Nigeria. ...
This article explores older peoples’ perceptions of menopause and sexuality in old age. The research was exploratory, consisting of 12 vignette-based focus group discussions and 18 face-to-face semistructured interviews among older Yoruba men and women (60+). Findings revealed menopause as a biopsychosocial marker of aging that provides gendered spaces for women to abstain from or suppress their sexual desires and avoid a folk pregnancy- oyun iju(folk fibroid). Older men construe menopause and sexual refusals from their wives as opportunities for extramarital relations. Thus, both older men and women have differentiated perceptions and dispositions toward menopause, which have implications for their sexual health and well-being.
... Egoera horren aurrean hileroko osasuntsuaren aldeko aktibistek eta gai hau maila akademikoan lantzen ari diren ikertzaileek errotuta dagoen eraikuntza medikotik haratago joan eta emakumeak ahaldundu nahi dituzte beren gorputzen eta osasunaren kontrola har dezaten (Bobel, 2006;Morgen, 2000). Horretarako hezkuntza, osasun, komunikabide eta abarreko antolakuntzetan hilerokoaren irudikapen positibo bat lantzea beharrezkotzat dute gaur egun duen eraikuntza sozial negatiboa aldatzeko (Kissling, 2006;Fash, 2011). ...
Ikerketa honek Euskal Herriko gazteek gizarte gisa hilerokoa emozionalki nola ulertzen duten lantzea du helburu. Hau da, hilerokoaren eraikuntza kolektiboan emozioek duten garrantzia jorratzea. Horretarako, 18-26 urte arteko 185 gazteren hilerokoaren definizio emozionala aztertu da, bai maila kualitatiboan bai eta kuantitatiboan ere. Hasteko, asoziazio askeko ariketa bat burutu da eta emaitzak analisi lexikalarekin aztertu dira. Bigarrenik, afektu positibo eta negatiboa neurtzeko PANAS eskala ere aplikatu da. Emaitza guztiak parte-hartzaileen sexuaren (emakume/gizonezko) eta ideologia feministaren (feminista/ez feminista) arabera landu dira. Emaitzek erakutsi dute oraindik estigmatizazioarekin lotutako karga emozional negatibo nabarmena sortzen duela hilerokoak gazteengan nazka, lotsa, haserre edota tristura sentimenduekin lotuta. Halere, harrotasunarekin eta bestela kokarga positibodun emozioekin lotutako eraikuntza ere aurkitu da. Hilerokoaren eraikuntza positibo hori espresuki ideologia feministari loturik dago eta emakumeak ahalduntzen ditu. Bukatzeko hilerokoa gizarte-emozio ikuspuntu honetatik lantzetik eratorritako ondorioak eta osasunaren eraikuntza positiboago baterako premisak eztabaidatu dira.
... Information regarding the sexual orientation of the interviewees was not collected, which could have provided a deeper insight into the participants' menstrual experiences. For example, Fahs (2011) found that lesbian and bisexual women were more likely than heterosexuals to be accepting of menstrual sex, which is a theme that was mentioned often by Newton's participants, but never in relation to sexual orientation. Newton chose to use the terms women, girls, boys, and men as opposed to menstruator(s) because, considering the nature of the research, she believed that the term menstruator may have been too "abstract" to determine and differentiate the originator of each narrative (p. ...
... In other words, women with more femininity power had negative feeling while those with masculine feeling experienced positive feelings. [20] In the late 20 th Century, many psychiatrists concluded that premenstrual fluctuations and changes as natural phenomenon. They also stated that some women experienced some issues which can be harmful if they are neglected, and they need psychological diagnosis. ...
Introduction
Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) is one of the most prevalent disorders at reproductive age and has a negative impact on emotions and performance of women. Since various factors play a role in the development of this syndrome, the present study was aimed to examine biopsychosocial etiology of PMS in the form of a narrative review.
Materials and Methods
Relevant studies were collected based on the three subjects of biological, psychological, and social etiologies during 1987–2015. First, Medical Subject Headings was used to specify the relevant keywords such as biological, psychological, social, and premenstrual syndrome which were used to search Internet databases including Google Scholar, Scopus, PubMed, PMDR, Ovid, Magiran, and Iranmedex, which led to collection of 1 book and 26 Persian and English articles.
Results
The results were classified into three sections. In the biological section, the effect and role of sex hormones and their changes in PMS were examined. In the psychological section, hypotheses on PMS and the role of psychological problems in the development of PMS were examined. In the social section, the role and social, religious, and cultural position of women and its relationship with PMS were examined.
Conclusion
To reduce negative experiences of PMS, it is recommended that girls should be provided with necessary scientific information on puberty and premenstrual health. The results showed that paying attention to the complaint on premenstrual symptoms is significant in women's comprehensive assessment, and it plays an essential role in diagnosing psychological and physical annoying diseases.
... Angela looks to other girls for support and solidarity around this shared experience, and not receiving it, she appropriates dominant negative discourses of menstruation and relegates herself to the position of the monstrous feminine (Ussher 2004). Indeed, long held stereotypes positioning black and working-class women's bodies as oversexualized, animalistic, specters of excess (see Collins 2000;Fahs 2011) may create internalized feelings of shame which compound negative perceptions of menstruation as a dirty and disgusting bodily phenomenon. This, in turn, creates another barrier robbing girls of connection at menarche, making feelings of shame and lack of control salient to them instead. ...
Much of the research on menarche and menstruation has been conducted with white, middle-class, heterosexual participants. The purpose of this study was to investigate among a group of urban, working-class participants how social identities shape girls’ construction of their preparation for menarche, emotional responses to the event, and subsequent menstrual maintenance practices. Fifteen adolescent girls (ages 11–16) participated in flexible in-depth interviews meant to explore their family and life history, their menarcheal experiences and menstrual practices, and transition to womanhood more broadly. Thematic analysis of the data revealed three significant themes highlighting how participants made sense of menstruation. Participants discussed a culture of silence around menstruation which contributed to their feeling poorly prepared for menarche; noted negative and uncontrollable emotional reactions to menstruation; and expressed embodied suffering and efforts to engage in self-policing in order to take back a perceived loss of control of their bodies. It is argued that more research taking into consideration how social identities can impact the experience of menarche is needed to create sensitive and informed education that targets the unique needs of working-class adolescents.
... Sexual orientation has also been found to play a role in the lived experience of menstruation. In a study with heterosexual, bi-sexual, and lesbian women, Fahs (2011) found that heterosexual identity, rather than heterosexual activity, was associated with more negative attitudes towards menstrual sex. Ussher and Perz (2013) found that women with PMS in heterosexual relationships experience more distress than women with PMS in lesbian relationships as the latter have their partners' understanding and support to initiate and engage in coping strategies such as self-care and being alone. ...
Through in-depth interviews with 20 Greek Cypriot women between the ages of 23 and 73 living in Cyprus, I explore and examine the multiple and diverse meanings Greek Cypriot women of different generations attribute to the embodied experience of menstruation. Analyzing womanhood and reproduction as the most common meanings attributed to menstruation, as well as the experiencing of the menstruating body as a dirty, polluting, and dangerous body, I explore the significant role that religious ideology play in women's constructions of their bodies and discuss the cultural understandings and the implications of ‘being a woman’ and ‘having a woman's body’ in the contemporary Cypriot society. The women's views of menstruation, which remain largely unchanged across generations, are illustrative of the strong cultural association between women and impurity, as well as of the ‘compulsory’ nature of heterosexuality, marriage, and motherhood. I argue that researching menstruation, and especially how women themselves experience, interpret, and negotiate their experiences, can provide significant insight into the multiple and diverse socio-cultural parameters that shape embodiment, as well as into what it means to be a woman in a particular context at a particular time.
... This domain elicits disgust when in the context of nonnormative behaviors, or as a specific form of body product disgust (e.g., Fahs, 2011). ...
Disgust is a primary emotion, but it is also understudied in general, and in psychopathology in particular. Disgust plays a potential role in the reluctance of many non-scientifically minded practitioners from adopting evidence-based methods of treatment. This article summarizes findings from psychopathology research and treatment, and highlights basic science that potentially accounts for the hesitancy for some therapists to adopt evidence-based methods. Several recommendations are provided for future research in disgust related to both psychopathology and dissemination research.
... For example, the widespread marketing and availability of ''feminine hygiene'' products implicitly communicates to women that their genitals are dirty, smelly and require specialized cleaning (e.g., Cottrell, 2006;McKee, Baquero, Anderson, Alvarez, & Karasz, 2009). Similarly, the ideal vulva (also known as the designer vagina) is depicted as largely undefined, pink, symmetrical, and hairless (i.e., similar to that of a prepubescent girl; e.g., Braun, Tricklebank, & Clarke, 2013;Fahs, 2011;McDougall, 2013;Schick et al., 2011). The prevailing orgasmic imperative positions orgasm as essential to good sex and, thus, fundamentally suggests to women that their genitals are inadequate if they do not consistently produce (multiple) orgasms (Braun & Wilkinson, 2001;Frith, 2013;Jackson & Scott, 2002). ...
Genital dissatisfaction is problematic for women in and of itself but also because it is associated with poorer sexual well-being. The current study aimed to clarify the prevalence of female genital dissatisfaction, both globally (i.e., overall) and with regards to distinct genital aspects, in a sample of women of different ages and with different relationship statuses. Participants were 209 women (ages 20 to 68 years) living primarily in the United States. Participants completed an online survey that included a background questionnaire, the 7-item Female Genital Self-Image Scale, and the 30-item Specific Genital Aspects Scale. Overall, 18% (n=37) of the women were globally dissatisfied with their genitals. Between 11% and 20% (n=22−41) of the women were dissatisfied with each categorical genital aspect (i.e., appearance, smell/taste, and function). The women were significantly less likely to be dissatisfied with their genital function than with their genital appearance. Between 2% and 69% (n=4−145) of the women were dissatisfied with each of the 30 genital aspects at the specific level. More than one quarter of the women were dissatisfied with nine (of 30) specific genital aspects and these spanned all three categories of genital self-perceptions. There were no differences in the prevalence of global or categorical genital dissatisfaction across age or relationship status. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for educators, researchers, clinicians, and journalists.
This article shows that the stigmatizing cultural view of menstruation affects the production of medical-scientific knowledge about this phenomenon and that, concomitantly, medical-scientific knowledge reinforces the taboo and cultural stigma that weighs on menstruating bodies. The roots of the idea of menstruation as an essential defining attribute of femininity and of the characterization of the feminine as inferior in natural and social terms in medical, protoscientific and Western scientific discourse are exposed. The role of feminist epistemology and menstrual activism is characterized in pointing out androcentric and sexist biases in the production of medical-scientific knowledge that reinforce and reproduce these discriminatory meanings about menstruating bodies. Reasons are offered in favor of including the concept of “active production of ignorance” to this field of analysis in order to strengthen our understanding of the epistemic mechanisms that are at play in the medical-scientific reproduction of menstrual taboo and stigma.
Grande parte dos estudos sobre emoções dão mais atenção ao medo e raiva. A literatura sobre o nojo, embora tímida, tem aumentado, contudo, em sua grande maioria, em países de língua inglesa. No Brasil ainda são raras as publicações sobre esta emoção. Assim, a presente pesquisa tem como objetivo realizar uma Revisão Sistemática em conjunto com a estatística descritiva sobre o nojo de forma a apresentar a situação os estudos sobre esta emoção em língua inglesa, mais especificamente, na base de dados da PubMed da Biblioteca Nacional de Medicina dos Estados Unidos. A partir dos 32 textos selecionados pode-se observar que a maioria dos estudos se concentram na neurociência comportamental e cognitiva e na relação desta emoção com fobias. Esta emoção está vinculada a muitos transtornos mentais e a falta de compreensão sobre o nojo pode se tornar uma barreira à intervenção terapêutica, tanto para psicopatologias quanto para comportamentos preconceituosos.
This study aimed to investigate menstrual symptoms and their impact on everyday life and well-being among postmenarchal adolescents. Menstrual disorders are a common presentation in primary care. Heavy menstrual bleeding is the most common concern, and is often treated by medical and surgical means despite lack of pathology. Menstruation is a natural phenomenon for women during their reproductive years. Our aim was to describe women’s experiences of menstruation across the lifespan. Qualitative interviews, with a narrative approach, were conducted with 12 women between 18 and 48 years of age in Sweden. Using thematic analysis, we found menstruation to be a complex phenomenon that binds women together. It is perceived as an intimate and private matter, which makes women want to conceal the occurrence of menstrual bleeding. Over time, menstruation becomes a natural part of women’s lives and gender identity. Health professionals play a central role supporting women to deal with menstruation.
Introduction
This study aimed to determine the views and experiences of women of reproductive age regarding their sexuality and sexual life during their menstrual period.
Methods
A qualitative, interpretive, phenomenological design was used. The study sample consisted of 16 women of reproductive age (18–49), who volunteered to participate and came to gynecology outpatient clinic appointments at a research hospital in Istanbul, Turkey. Data were collected online through in-depth individual interviews.
Results
The research was composed of six themes: “symptoms of the menstruation period,” “duration and severity of symptoms during menstruation,” “effect of the menstrual period on sexual life,” “sexual desire during the menstrual period,” “opinions about sexual life during menstruation,” and “spouses’ opinions about sexual life during menstruation.”
Conclusions
The women in the study noted that they experienced physiological and psychological symptoms during their menstrual period. Although some of the women stated that they do not have changes in sexual desire during this period, most of them think that they should not engage in sexual intercourse due to the symptoms they experience during their menstrual period, religious beliefs, and sociocultural values.
Policy Implications
Nurses should counsel couples about the possible advantages and disadvantages of sexual intercourse during menstruation without displaying a judgmental attitude.
This article, based on a set of 71 interviews conducted in France between 2014 and 2017, examines the basis of contemporary scripts for ‘good’ heterosex and reciprocal pleasure. It shows that, paradoxically, the male discourse on the pre-eminence of female orgasm falls within a persistently gendered order in which male desire prevails. It finds that non-penetrative genital practices continue to be stigmatized and are in general only practiced in conjunction with penile-vaginal intercourse. Interviews show that when people adopt what are still considered ‘inferior’ scripts it is usually as a result of external constraints. This article adds to our knowledge of changes in contemporary heterosexual practices over time but also what remains unchanged, while shedding light on current dynamics in gender relations.
Este capítulo discute no contexto da feminização da velhice a violência contra mulheres, considerando os desafios e possibilidades de enfrentamento a partir de uma abordagem interseccional.
São apresentadas três frentes de enfrentamento da violência contra pessoas idosas.
É vital garantir serviços de saúde mental voltados para mulheres idosas e incluí-las em programas de prevenção da violência de gênero.
Este capítulo discute no contexto da feminização da velhice a violência contra mulheres, considerando os desafios e possibilidades de enfrentamento a partir de uma abordagem interseccional.
São apresentadas três frentes de enfrentamento da violência contra pessoas idosas.
É vital garantir serviços de saúde mental voltados para mulheres idosas e incluí-las em programas de prevenção da violência de gênero.
Esse capítulo apresenta as violências relatadas por mulheres negras idosas. O enfrentamento das demandas do envelhecer sendo uma mulher e negra, a exemplo das apresentadas neste estudo relativas à violência no âmbito conjugal, a sobrecarga com as atividades domésticas e criação de filhos sem apoio e as péssimas situações trabalhistas, precisam ser contempladas nas ações das diferentes formas de atuação na Psicologia.
Nesse capítulo é relatada uma prática de intervenção realizada por alunas de um curso de Psicologia sobre o tema da pobreza menstrual junto a mulheres assistidas em uma organização de defesa dos direitos das mulheres, em Maceió, Alagoas.
In this chapter I explore the question of what kind of methods can support a more embodied pedagogy. I draw on interviews with students from a psychology of women course to understand how a class assignment to draw a vulva, as a visual and experience-based method, elicited an embodied, affective, and relational engagement and surfaced diverse forms of knowledge not traditionally legitimated in the classroom. I begin by situating silence and shame, reviewing the literature on women’s embodiment and exploring how the vulva assignment initiated the co-production of an ‘epistemology of ignorance.’ I then trace the sociorelational circuits of embodied knowledges that appeared in the narratives of the women I interviewed, as they completed the assignment, in their relational histories of learning about vulvas, and in the ways women spoke about discovering new relational selves. I examine the ways in which the assignment opened up possibilities for sociopolitical development and supported a more embodied pedagogy.KeywordsEmbodimentVulvaSocial psychology of the bodyTeaching psychology of womenThe Listening GuideSociopolitical development
Reports of menstrual-related symptoms vary greatly among individuals, suggesting that individual differences may influence symptom reports. The menstrual reactivity hypothesis describes how the personality trait anxiety sensitivity may heighten women’s negative perceptions of symptoms that accompany menstruation. Similarly, trait body shame may increase negative focus on menstrual-related symptoms, thus increasing menstrual-related symptom reports. Moreover, this relationship may be explained by distress about bodily changes. These ideas were tested cross-sectionally in undergraduate women (N = 126). Trait body shame predicted increased menstrual-related symptoms regardless of menstrual cycle phase, and distress about bodily changes mediated this relationship. Findings support the extension of the menstrual reactivity hypothesis to include trait body shame.
Background
There is growing recognition of the importance of menstruation in achieving health, education, and gender equality for all. New policies in high income countries (HICs) have responded to anecdotal evidence that many struggle to meet their menstrual health needs. Qualitative research has explored lived experiences of menstruating in HICs and can contribute to designing intervention approaches. To inform the growing policy attention to support people who menstruate, here we review and synthesise the existing research.Methods and findingsPrimary, qualitative studies capturing experiences of menstruation in HICs were eligible for inclusion. Systematic database and hand searching identified 11485 records. Following screening and quality appraisal using the EPPI-Centre checklist, 104 studies (120 publications) detailing the menstrual experiences of over 3800 individuals across sixteen countries were included. We used the integrated model of menstrual experiences developed from studies in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) as a starting framework and deductively and inductively identified antecedents contributing to menstrual experiences; menstrual experiences themselves and impacts of menstrual experiences. Included studies described consistent themes and relationships that fit well with the LMIC integrated model, with modifications to themes and model pathways identified through our analysis. The socio-cultural context heavily shaped menstrual experiences, manifesting in strict behavioural expectations to conceal menstruation and limiting the provision of menstrual materials. Resource limitations contributed to negative experiences, where dissatisfaction with menstrual practices and management environments were expressed along with feelings of disgust if participants felt they failed to manage their menstruation in a discrete, hygienic way. Physical menstrual factors such as pain were commonly associated with negative experiences, with mixed experiences of healthcare reported. Across studies participants described negative impacts of their menstrual experience including increased mental burden and detrimental impacts on participation and personal relationships. Positive experiences were more rarely reported, although relationships between cis-women were sometimes strengthened by shared experiences of menstrual bleeding. Included studies reflected a broad range of disciplines and epistemologies. Many aimed to understand the constructed meanings of menstruation, but few were explicitly designed to inform policy or practice. Few studies focused on socioeconomically disadvantaged groups relevant to new policy efforts.Conclusions
We developed an integrated model of menstrual experience in HICs which can be used to inform research, policy and practice decisions by emphasising the pathways through which positive and negative menstrual experiences manifest.Review protocol registrationThe review protocol registration is PROSPERO: CRD42019157618.
br/>Objectives: Despite evidence that menstrual bleeding is a risk factor for sexually transmissible infections, few studies have assessed the prevalence of, and reasons for, condom use during menses. The objectives of the present study were to examine: 1) the prevalence of condom use during menses; 2) if condom use during menses varies depending on age and gender inequality of country of residence; and 3) whether age and gender inequality of country of residence interact with reasons for using, and not using, condoms during menses.
Methods: A sample of 25,955 individuals from 146 countries, all reporting penile-vaginal intercourse in the past 3 months, was used. Condom use during menses over the previous three months, whether this varied by age and level of gender inequality in countries, and reasons for using and not using condoms during menses were assessed via a web-based questionnaire.
Results: Age and gender inequality of country of residence were significant predictors of condom use during menses, with those in the younger, high gender equality group significantly the most likely, and those in the older, low gender equality group, the least likely to use condoms during bleeding. The three most reported reasons were: “for contraception,” “I use condoms even when I don’t have my period,” and “protecting your partner from your blood.” Reported reasons for using and not using condoms during menses showed significant associations with age and with level of gender inequality.
Conclusion: Findings highlight that globally, STI/HIV education programs need to promote consistent condom use across the menstrual cycle.<br/
Because negative views of menstruation are ubiquitous throughout the world, women’s distinctly positive and negative experiences with menstruation are rarely distinguished from each other. Semi-structured interviews with 20 women from a diverse (race, class, sexual orientation) community sample in a large Southwestern U.S. city were analyzed from a social constructionist perspective in order to examine women’s positive and negative experiences with menstruation. Three themes in women’s positive menstrual experiences were identified: (1) Evidence of not being pregnant; (2) Body as normal/intuitive; (3) Menstruation as tolerable. Four themes in women’s negative menstrual experiences were identified: (1) Fear of heavy bleeding; (2) Embarrassment about bleeding through; (3) Physical pain; and (4) Menstruation as always bad. Most women could not elicit a single positive anecdote about menstruation, but their descriptions of negative aspects of menstruation included abundant details about feeling negatively evaluated by others, particularly men. Implications for how physical symptoms of menstruation often mask negative emotions about menstruation are discussed, along with ways that women can embrace “menstrual crankiness” alongside higher positive framings of menstruation.
This editorial piece introduces a special issue on the feminist politics of shame. It locates the special issue in the larger framework of scholarship on feminist approaches to shame and specifically feminist psychological emphases, and contextualises the foregrounding of the productive possibilities of shame for feminist social justice projects. The introductory piece overviews the contributions to the special issue through a thematic lens.
Because menstruation has a long history of rendering the menstruating body shameful, taboo, silent, and even pathological, menstrual activists have combatted this in numerous ways: by helping women to feel more open and accepting toward their menstrual cycles and by focusing on changing institutions that either promote harmful products or encourage women to see their menstrual cycles as a source of mental illness, psychological distress, or physical pain. Menstrual activists also promote anti-consumerism via alternative menstrual products, critiques of commercials and advertising about menstrual products, and by encouraging collective resistance to the corporate interests connected to menstrual management.
In this article, we draw from a body of research in the last 20 years, our own included, to suggest a framework for thinking about how attitudes toward and experience with menstruation contribute to girls' and women's notions of what it means to be female, to be a woman. Building on the current relational framing of psychotherapy, that a cli-ent's conception of herself is tied to her efforts to connect with others, we argue that negative attitudes toward menstruation can cause females to be "disconnected" from one another. Taking a life span perspective, we discuss how adolescent girls receive mixed messages about menstruation , how college women reflect negative attitudes about menstruation, Margaret L. Stubbss is an independent scholar who is currently Research Associate at the University of Pittsburgh School of Nursing. She is studying the impact of acupuncture on hot flashes with Dr. Susan Cohen. Daryl Costos, a personality psychologist , is a lecturer in the Department of Psychology at Boston University where she teaches courses in psychology of women and research methods.
In this article, we draw from a body of research in the last 20 years, our own included, to suggest a framework for thinking about how attitudes toward and experience with menstruation contribute to girls' and women's notions of whatitmeans to be female, to be awoman. Building on the current relational framing of psychotherapy, that a client's conception of herself is tied to her efforts to connect with others, we argue that negative attitudes toward menstruation can cause females to be “disconnected” from one another. Taking a life span perspective, we discuss how adolescent girls receive mixed messages about menstruation, how college women reflect negative attitudes about menstruation, and how adult women's differing experiences with menstruation can lead to disconnection between women. Specifically, we find that negative attitudes toward menstruation can result in mother-daughter disconnection and put women at odds with one another with regard to how to manage menstrual distress, PMS, and menopause. We suggest that a biopsychosocial exploration of menstruation in feminist therapy is warranted and that mental health professionals can benefit from using such a framework as they seek to understand the presenting difficulties of female clients.
In a culture obsessed with women's attractiveness and beauty, media messages abound telling us our corporeal bodies are unacceptable as they are. Women's bodies need sanitizing, deodorizing, exfoliating, and denuding. Perhaps more than any other bodily function, menstruation must be kept “under wraps” in a sexually objectifying culture. In this article, we argue that girls' and women's feelings of acceptance for their bodily functions and physical embodiment are antithetical to “self-objectification,” wherein individuals internalize an outsider's standard of physical appearance. We further argue that objectification theory can inform a feminist framework for therapists to use to help clients cope with a particular kind of self-loathing-disgust and shame about their physical selves, including their menstrual periods, in a culture that values impossibly idealized feminine embodiment.
In this article, the authors describe how they used a hybrid process of inductive and deductive thematic analysis to interpret raw data in a doctoral study on the role of performance feedback in the self-assessment of nursing practice. The methodological approach integrated data-driven codes with theory-driven ones based on the tenets of social phenomenology. The authors present a detailed exemplar of the staged process of data coding and identification of themes. This process demonstrates how analysis of the raw data from interview transcripts and organizational documents progressed toward the identification of overarching themes that captured the phenomenon of performance feedback as described by participants in the study.
Educational booklets published by manufacturers of menstrual hygiene products have been used to teach several generations of girls about menstruation. The ubiquity and importance of the booklets make them potentially important contributors to attitudes toward menstruation. The content of 28 booklets that were produced commercially between 1932 and 1997 was analyzed for this study. The quality of the information presented in the booklets was examined to determine whether the later booklets contained more information that was both accurate and positive than did the earlier booklets. The later booklets were less likely than the earlier booklets to portray menstruation as a hygiene crisis but equally likely to promote secrecy. They also were more likely to depict ethnic diversity in their illustrations and less likely to make assumptions about the composition of girls’families. Adolescents’knowledge could be increased through the presentation of educational materials that are accurate, balanced, and developmentally appropriate.
This study explored how psychosocial and cultural factors influenced expectations of menarche among 476 Chinese premenarcheal teenage girls. Results showed that participants’ expectations of menarche were largely negative and heavily influenced by cultural beliefs about menstruation. Findings of hierarchical regression analyses revealed that positive emotional expectations of menarche were best predicted by perceptions of menstruation as a natural event, possession of positive self-concept, and rejection of indigenous negative menstrual attitudes. Negative emotional expectations of menarche were best predicted by perceptions of menstruation as a negative event, by inadequate preparation for menarche, by endorsement of indigenous negative menstrual attitudes, and by older age.
Dans le cadre de la hierarchie sociale aux Etats-Unis, prenant en compte les facteurs de classe, d'ethnicite, de race, et de sexe, etude des relations entre femmes blanches ou de couleur et homme blancs, et de l'impact de ces relations sur le mouvement feministe blanc et de couleur
Stake, Roades, Rose, Ellis, and West (1994) reported that women's studies classes led to more feminist activism and greater personal course-related changes than nonwomen's studies classes. The present study tested the durability of the positive changes observed in women studies students 9 months following the last week of class. Comparisons between students who participated at follow-up (26.3%) and students who did not participate indicated that the follow-up participants were representative of all students who completed the courses. In the follow-up sample, class impact reported in the last week of class was sustained at follow-up. Women's studies students continued to report substantial changes in their interactions with others and willingness to adopt new roles and behaviors. Ratings of positive effects were significantly higher than ratings of negative effects (p < .0001). Students' responses indicated they were using their women's studies learning as a framework for understanding their experiences and making lifestyle changes.
Thematic analysis is a poorly demarcated, rarely acknowledged, yet widely used qualitative analytic method within psychology. In this paper, we argue that it offers an accessible and theoretically flexible approach to analysing qualitative data. We outline what thematic analysis is, locating it in relation to other qualitative analytic methods that search for themes or patterns, and in relation to different epistemological and ontological positions. We then provide clear guidelines to those wanting to start thematic analysis, or conduct it in a more deliberate and rigorous way, and consider potential pitfalls in conducting thematic analysis. Finally, we outline the disadvantages and advantages of thematic analysis. We conclude by advocating thematic analysis as a useful and flexible method for qualitative research in and beyond psychology.
We assessed the effect of sexual orientation on body image and attitudes toward eating and weight using data collected from lesbians and heterosexual women in three US cities. Data were analyzed using ordinary least squares regression controlling for a number of demographic characteristics. Findings indicate that while lesbian sexual orientation is predictive of positive body image and fewer negative attitudes toward eating and weight, the effects are modest. Body mass index (BMI), frequency of exercise, race, and self-image were the strongest predictors of body image; BMI, race, and city of residence were the strongest predictors of attitudes toward eating and weight. The authors conclude that while belonging to a lesbian subculture may provide some protection against the societal imperative toward thinness, it likely does not counter the larger societal preference that women be thin.
This article elaborates an intimate justice framework to help guide research on sexual satisfaction. Using a critical historiography approach, I examine the etiology and development of the psychological construct of “satisfaction” over the last century and argue that social and political antecedents to satisfaction ratings are an essential and under-theorized aspect of research in this field. By examining what are considered to be the most influential definitions in life satisfaction research, I identify conceptual gaps, oversights, and disagreements that characterize this body of work, and specifically its theoretical treatment of inequity. Moving to the intimate domain, I argue that the field of sexual satisfaction must include theories and methods that systematically consider the role of social and sexual stigmas as antecedents to sexual satisfaction ratings. In the conclusion, building from existing social justice theories, I propose an intimate justice framework as a means to guide research that can highlight issues of entitlement and deservingness in sexual satisfaction research. This is particularly important as sexual satisfaction is increasingly used as an indicator of individual and relational well-being; however, this construct is presently limited and inadequately measured for women and men who experience limited sexual rights in the socio-political domain because of their gender and/or sexual minority status.
Beauty Secrets explores the links between appearance, gender and sexuality; it empowers women to share the secrets of their relationship to imposed standards of beauty showing how woman are constantly required to "pass" by wrapping their "unacceptable" and "undisguised" selves in layers of conformity to acceptable beauty standards. Beauty Secret looks at beauty and ugliness, racism and beauty standards, the role of class and economics in shaping images of beauty, and the lessons learned from gender outlaws. Included in the book are interviews with and photographs of women who share their own "beauty secrets."
Revisits and updates the centrality of the social construction of sexuality, especially in the age of Viagra, FSD (female sexual dysfunction) and the media saturation of sex. Leonore Tiefer is one of the foremost sexologists working in the United States today; she is a well-known and respected scholar who writes engagingly and humorously about a wide array of topics in sexuality to appeal to both students and general readers. Revised and updated with new pieces on the medicalization of sex, FSD (female sexual dysfunction) and the politics of sex, as well as classic pieces found in the original edition, such as “Am I Normal?: The Question of Sex.”
Many believe in the existence of a class of symptoms experienced prior to menses labelled as Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder (PMDD), however, the research findings on PMDD have been tenuous. In this paper, the validity and utility of the PMDD diagnosis is called into question and it is argued that PMDD is a socially constructed diagnosis rather than a psychiatric disorder. The distinction between physiological experiences and pathology is investigated in addition to the implications of a PMDD diagnosis for patients, clinicians, researchers and pharmaceutical companies. Finally, the paper explores the relation between PMDD and sexuality offering an additional voice in the developing discourse on the medicalization of women 's experiences of sexuality.
In a culture obsessed with women's attractiveness and beauty, media messages abound telling us our corporeal bodies are unacceptable as they are. Women's bodies need sanitizing, deodorizing, exfoliating, and denuding. Perhaps more than any other bodily function, menstruation must be kept "under wraps" in a sexually objectifying culture. In this article, we argue that girls' and women's feelings of acceptance for their bodily functions and physical embodiment are antithetical to "self-objectification," wherein individuals internalize an outsider's standard of physical appearance. We further argue that objectification theory can inform a feminist framework for therapists to use to help clients cope with a particular kind of self-loathing-disgust and shame about their physical selves, including their menstrual periods, in a culture that values impossibly idealized feminine embodiment.
Examinations of participant characteristics suggest that particular people volunteer to take part in social science research, and women have been found to be more likely to volunteer than men. However, within sex research it seems that this cooperation diminishes, and women are more likely to refuse to participate ( particularly if a study seems personal or invasive). Evidently, this affects the reliability and validity of research and could lead to women's sexual health care decisions based on unrepresentative sampling. Given the need to include women in sex research, this article examines reasons for refusal and suggests improvements in research methods.
In Black Sexual Politics, one of America's most influential writers on race and gender explores how images of Black sexuality have been used to maintain the color line and how they threaten to spread a new brand of racism around the world today.
New Blood offers a fresh interdisciplinary look at feminism-in-flux. For over three decades, menstrual activists have questioned the safety and necessity of feminine care products while contesting menstruation as a deeply entrenched taboo. Chris Bobel shows how a little-known yet enduring force in the feminist health, environmental, and consumer rights movements lays bare tensions between second- and third-wave feminisms and reveals a complicated story of continuity and change within the women's movement. Through her critical ethnographic lens, Bobel focuses on debates central to feminist thought (including the utility of the category "gender") and challenges to building an inclusive feminist movement. Filled with personal narratives, playful visuals, and original humor, New Blood reveals middle-aged progressives communing in Red Tents, urban punks and artists "culture jamming" commercial menstrual products in their zines and sketch comedy, queer anarchists practicing DIY health care, African American health educators espousing "holistic womb health," and hopeful mothers refusing to pass on the shame to their pubescent daughters. With verve and conviction, Bobel illuminates today's feminism-on-the-ground-indisputably vibrant, contentious, and ever-dynamic.
ABSTRACT Body dissatisfaction in lesbians is a subject which has traditionally been ignored in the psychological literature on body image and eating disorders. Early feminist theorists and researchers argued that body dissatisfaction in women developed as a way of dealing with the oppression and misogyny they are faced with on a daily basis. However, these theories failed to take issues of race, class, and sexual orientation into account, thereby excluding the experiences of a diversity of women. This article focuses specifically on the lesbian experience and explores how cultural messages about thinness, femininity, and heterosexuality shape lesbians' feelings about their sexuality and about their bodies. Through the inevitable process of internalizing homophobia and fat hatred, both of which are institutionalized ways of keeping heterosexuality and female oppression in place, lesbians may begin to believe that there is something inherently wrong with them and with their bodies. This article explores how the impact of racism, classism, sexism, and homophobia on women may provide a more comprehensive understanding of the cultural forces behind women's dissatisfaction with their bodies.
The current investigation examined the relationship between masturbation and body image among 96 women seeking services at a local family planning clinic in a mid-southern U.S. city. Participants completed a questionnaire that assessed body image and masturbatory practices. Ethnic differences were found with European American women reporting greater masturbation frequencies and higher rates of body dissatisfaction than African American women. Among European American women, there was a positive relationship between women's sexual self-pleasuring and positive body image. For African American participants, body image was not related to masturbation practice or frequency.
The purpose of this study was to assess howwomen's perceptions of themselves and their bodies varyby race/ethnicity and class. One hundred and fourteenfemale students (45 African-American, 69 Caucasian) from two Connecticut community colleges weresurveyed. We predicted that African-American women willreport higher levels of self-esteem and a more positivebody image than Caucasian women. These predictions were supported. Also as predicted,African-American women report possessing more masculinetraits and that men of their race tend less to preferthin, small figured women. Controlling for these“protective factors” substantially reduces therelationship between race/ethnicity and self-concept.African-American women's racial identity and exposure tothe dominant culture did not relate to self-conceptmeasures.
Aviva Briefel examines the ways in which the horror film's gendering of the monster's pain affects audience identification. Male monsters in these films are associated with acts of masochism that allow for a comfortable spectatorial distance. In contrast, female monsters precede their sadistic rampages with moments of menstruation, which claustrophobically draw their audiences to them.
A volunteer community sample of 159 primarily (77%) African American battered women were interviewed about forced sex by their partner (or ex-partner). Almost half (45.9%) of the sample had been sexually assaulted as well as physically abused. Except for ethnicity, there were no demographic differences between those who were forced into sex and those who were not, and there was no difference in history of child sexual abuse. However, those who were sexually assaulted had higher scores on negative health symptoms, gynecological symptoms, and risk factors for homicide even when controlling for physical abuse and demographic variables. The number of sexual assaults (childhood, rape, and intimate partner) was significantly correlated with depression and body image.
We aimed to further investigate the “hairlessness” norm that is the common practice of body hair removal among women. A sample of 198 undergraduate students (91 men, 107 women) completed questionnaires asking about attitudes toward women's body hair and the reasons women remove this hair, as well as a measure of disgust sensitivity. It was found that the vast majority (98%) of female participants regularly remove their leg and/or underarm hair, most frequently by shaving, and attribute this to femininity and attractiveness reasons. However, the attributions that they and men made for other women were much more socially normative in nature. For the sample as a whole, negative attitudes toward body hair were related to disgust sensitivity. It was concluded that body hair on women, but not on men, has become an elicitor of disgust and its removal correspondingly normative.
An inductive qualitative approach was employed to explore women’s experiences of their body and mood during pregnancy and the postpartum. In‐depth interviews were conducted with 20 perinatal women (n at late pregnancy=10; n in the early postpartum period=10). While most of the sample reported adapting positively to body changes experienced during pregnancy, the postpartum period was often associated with body dissatisfaction. Women reported several events unique to pregnancy which helped them cope positively with bodily changes (e.g. increased perceived body functionality, new sense of meaning in life thus placing well‐being of developing foetus above body aesthetics, perceptual experiences such as feeling baby kick, increased sense of social connectedness due to pregnancy body shape, and positive social commentary); however, these events no longer protected against body dissatisfaction post‐birth. While women reported mood lability throughout the perinatal period, the postpartum was also a time of increased positive affect for most women, and overall most women did not associate body changes with their mood. Clinical implications of these findings included the need for education about normal postpartum body changes and their timing, and the development of more accurate measures of perinatal body image.
This article attempts a sociological analysis of social understandings of menstrual pain and ‘premenstrual tension’ within white British culture. Drawing on interviews with men and an examination of medical textbooks, it focuses on men's views of menstrual problems, setting individual men's accounts alongside some medical views. The concept of a menstrual etiquette is proposed as an appropriate term for mainstream British culture's treatment of menstruation. A distinction between the public and the private sphere is found within men's talk, and this is used to structure the material presented here. A feminist perspective informs this research, and the way in which menstrual problems are dealt with is seen as closely linked with the way in which men's domination over women is maintained.
Why does housework remain ''women's work''? Some scholars argue that economic dependency compels wives to exchange unpaid labor for a share of the husband's income. Others claim that wives perform housework-and husbands avoid it-to enact symbolically their femininity or masculinity. This article examines both perspectives and finds that among wives the link between housework and the transfer of earnings in marriage complies with rules of economic exchange. However, the more a husband relies on his wife for economic support, the less housework he does. It appears that by doing less housework, economically dependent husbands also ''do gender.''
A nearly universal stereotype holds that men are driven by their sexual impulses or drives while women rarely feel desire. This paper will consider the reported differences in sexual desire between men and women and the biological and social considerations fueling these differences. The effect of menstruation, gestation and lactation on female sexual desire will be briefly reviewed as well as the influence of estrogens and androgens on sexual drive. The suggestion will be made that, while differences in sexual drive and its behavioral expressions certainly exist, these gender differences may be narrowing as women gain political, social, economic and reproductive freedom. Finally, it will be argued that these differences may be precisely what makes sex interesting and meaningful and more than the simple release of biological tension.
Recent advances in neuroscience provide compelling evidence of the significance of our embodiment for our psychic life, and the extent to which subjectivity is both a social and a psychological phenomenon. In thinking about the experiential sense of living in an explicitly female body, I suggest that the connotations of disgust with which menstruation is associated cannot fail to affect women's core sense of identity and subjectivity. As gendered blood, to no small degree separating and defining women, the way that it is consciously and unconsciously represented contributes to the way that difference is experienced by every female. We cannot fail, in part, to become what we are attributed to be.In this paper I have tried to think about the ways in which psychoanalysis appears to mirror a cultural avoidance, which in part it helps to promote, whereby menstruation represents the concealed nature of female sexuality, in contrast to which the phallus continually signifies itself. When acknowledged at all, menstruation is seen as a loss, an incontinence, or an absence (of babies) – a symbol of waste and a break in productivity. I have considered ways in which, and reasons why, images of blood and women can be seen as a sign pointing to a reality against which other variables are measured. Within this paradigm I have attempted to consider ways in which menstruation can be considered to be a metaphor for women's symbolic and real absence, marginalization, fragile status, inarticulacy and misrepresentation.
The impetus for this book grew out of the editor's dissatisfaction with approaches to sex therapy that overemphasize the technical aspects of sexual functioning and thus fail to appreciate the interpersonal relationships in which sexual problems arise. A central thesis of this book is that clinicians need to be aware of how sexuality is always a "product" of a complex set of power relations. The book provides up-to-date coverage of the theoretical and research literature in the field of sex therapy, while the contributors provide challenges to reductive, biomedical explanations of clients' sexual intimacy-related concerns, and they offer many practical, insightful, and helpful suggestions. The book is relevant to sex therapists, but it would also be a valuable resource for counselors and faculty teaching graduate-level courses in sexuality. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Using Afrocentric theory and standpoint theory, this article examines the effect of the White standard of beauty upon African American women. By shedding light on the salience of the effects of beauty, body image, and hair, this article questions societal definitions of beauty. Adherence to the Euro American beauty standard has had, and continues to have, devastating effects upon African American women. In addition, this standard pits African American women against the dominant cultural standard of beauty. A call to challenge the hegemonic White standard of beauty through Black beauty liberation is offered.
Written as an intriguing and accessible textbook for courses on gender, sociology, and sexuality, Sexualities in Context presents a broad overview of the socio-cultural elements of sexualities. The summary of the contexts of sex and sexual behaviors/identities is both intelligent and readable. With helpful anecdotes and examples of the social construction of sex and gender roles, students are empowered to think outside their comfort zones and encouraged to explore the topic of sex in a new context. With eminently readable language and useful pedagogical features like end-of-chapter questions, suggested projects, and suggested further readings, Sexualities in Context is the ideal textbook to help students recognize sex as not only a personal issue, but a socially constructed issue as well.
This article discusses narratives created during interviews with 23 older women (aged 61-90) about their experiences of sex and intimate relationships in later life. For analytic purposes, the paper understands narratives to be neither pre-existing nor a simple reflection of experience, but to be made moment-by-moment in the interaction between parties drawing on available cultural resources. Attention to the interactional situation in which the narrative is produced helps to explain the ways in which speakers perpetuate or resist dominant cultural storylines. Older women's accounts of sexual relationships provide a particularly rich site for this analysis because a dominant cultural storyline of `asexual older people' is often evident in popular culture. This storyline provides an important cultural resource which older women who are talking about sex can both draw on and resist in order to produce their own accounts. This article uses a discourse analytic approach to discuss some of the moments in which speakers explicitly produce counter-narratives. These moments are visible to the analyst by the participants' own orientations to telling a counter-narrative. The article also considers parts of the accounts which the analyst identifies as counter-narratives, although the speakers do not orient to this. The analyst's own position is thus implicated in the analysis and is reflexively considered.
A review of the literature on girls' and women's experiences of menarche and menstruation revealed many negative representations, both in traditional and feminist research and theorizing, though a few studies have highlighted positive aspects. Qualitative research has begun to show how experience is constructed and, to develop this further, the aim of this article is to examine how girls construct meaning around menarche and menstruation in social interactions and specific contexts. Analysis is informed by a reflexive feminist constructionist approach. Data from nine girls, aged between 12 and 15, who participated in two focus group discussions are analysed alongside existing literature. It is theorized that developing and changing, context specific, socio‐cultural representations and practices construct meanings in relation to menstruation. In common with other feminist literature, menarche and menstruation were largely constructed as embarrassing, shameful and something to be hidden, specifically within the school context. Menstruation was also constructed as illness. The production and perpetuation of gender‐related difference narratives was also evident. Implications for individuals, as well as for the subjugation of girls and women, are discussed, and it is argued that current negative representations of, and practices in relation to, menarche and menstruation need to be challenged.
Research on masturbation has indicated that, contrary to traditional beliefs, masturbation has been found to be a common sexual behavior and linked to indicators of sexual health. While there are no general indicators of ill health associated with masturbation, it can be powerfully negative or positive for many individuals. As an example, it is widely used in sex therapy as a means of improving the sexual health of the individual and/or relationship. Promoting masturbation as a means of a public health strategy for sexual health is highly controversial; however, there are arguments and evidence that suggest that this may be an important part of any public health approach to improving sexual health. There is a need for more research on the impact of masturbation on self-esteem, body image, sexual functioning and sexual satisfaction and methods for using masturbation to promote sexual health. There is also a need for more of a theoretical approach to the formation of hypotheses to be tested.
Objective
We examined affective and cognitive components of body image related to physical appearance, weight, and health among 120 university men and women of three racial/ethnic groups: African American, European American, and Latino/a American.Method
Participants completed a Background Information Sheet, the Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire (MBSRQ), the Body-Esteem Scale (BES) with additional items, and the Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding (BIDR). We tested for effects of race/ethnicity and gender on the body image measures while controlling for age, body size, social desirability, and socioeconomic status (SES).ResultsAfrican Americans reported greatest body satisfaction and least overestimation of weight. Latino/a Americans were equal to or higher than European Americans on all indices. Gender differences occurred on global body image, weight concerns, fitness, and health. There were no Gender × Race/Ethnicity interactions.DiscussionThis pattern of racial/ethnic and gender differences shows a need for exploring a wider range of culturally relevant body image dimensions. © 2000 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Int J Eat Disord 27: 310–316, 2000.