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Moral Judgment and Action in Preverbal Infants and Toddlers Evidence for an Innate Moral Core

June 2013
Current Directions in Psychological Science 22(3):186-193

Authors:

University of British Columbia

Although developmental psychologists traditionally explore morality from a learning and development perspective, some aspects of the human moral sense may be built-in, having evolved to sustain collective action and cooperation as required for successful group living. In this article, I review a recent body of research with infants and toddlers, demonstrating surprisingly sophisticated and flexible moral behavior and evaluation in a preverbal population whose opportunity for moral learning is limited at best. Although this work itself is in its infancy, it supports theoretical claims that human morality is a core aspect of human nature.

Choice procedure utilized with infants 4.5 months of age and older.

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Traditional!accounts:!Morality!is!learned!

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Morality!for!cooperation!

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Requirement!(1):!Moral!goodness!

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& &&

Conclusion!

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$51,/.5&"4&G(+$-&+"#$%0.;&$#,&0--$.,9&b#"+&,I.#,+,%;&,$#%;&0-&%04,D&G(+$-&0-4$-.5&

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$)(%.&+"#$%&5,-5,9&&&

Author!Notes!

=&H))#,55&/"##,51"-),-/,&."6&89&:0%,;&<$+%0-D&c,1$#.+,-.&"4&C5;/G"%"*;D&l-02,#50.;&

"4&R#0.05G&`"%(+30$D&L0%,;9G$+%0-r15;/G9(3/9/$&

KG,&$(.G"#&),/%$#,5&-"&/"-4%0/.5&"4&0-.,#,5.9&&

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.G,0#&G,%14(%&/"++,-.59&&

References!

HL-0-D&i9R9D&<$+%0-D&89:9D&c(--D&79A9&Q>[=>T9&f020-*&%,$)5&."&G$110-,55&0-&;"(-*&&

& /G0%)#,-9&-?+3'@A8'BCDEF&,XS>==9&)"06=[9=X@=^'"(#-$%91"-,9[[XS>==9&

H%,I$-),#D&a9c9&Q=S_@T9&G/$'H)+0+1.'+>'I+#20'3.,&$4,J'j,F&8,#5,;6&K#$-5$/.0"-&&

&C(3%05G,#59&&

R#"F-D&c979&Q=SS=T9&K"42%'L%)6$#,20,9&j,F&q"#L6&!/f#$F&<0%%9&&

`"5+0),5D&i9&Y&K""3;D&89&Q=SS>T9&`"*-0.02,&$)$1.$.0"-5&4"#&5"/0$%&,I/G$-*,9&B-&&

&R$#L"FD&89D&`"5+0),5D&i9&Y&K""3;D&89D&Q7)5T9&G/$'252M&$5'4)%5F'86+0"&)+%2#.''

' M,.*/+0+1.'2%5'&/$'1$%$#2&)+%'+>'*"0&"#$9&j,F&q"#L6&dI4"#)&l-02,#50.;&C#,559&

),A$$%D&b9&Q>[[VT9&-#)42&$,'2%5'-/)0+,+M/$#,F'K+9'4+#20)&.'$6+06$5J'C#0-/,."-6&&

&C#0-/,."-&l-02,#50.;&C#,559&&

c(-40,%)D&:9H9D&:(G%+,0,#D&e9H9D&d\`"--,%%D&i9D&Y&:,%%,;D&79&&Q>[==T9&&7I$+0-0-*&.G,&

&)02,#50.;&"4&1#"5"/0$%&3,G$20"#6&&G,%10-*D&5G$#0-*D&$-)&/"+4"#.0-*&0-&0-4$-/;9&

&N%>2%*.D&OD<&>>@J>?@9&

705,-3,#*D&j9D&b$3,5D&a9&H9D&Y&Z10-#$)D&K9&Q>[[VT9&C#"5"/0$%&c,2,%"1+,-.9&B-&j9&

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' M$#,+%20)&.'5$6$0+M4$%&&Q119&V?VN@=_T9&<"3"L,-D&j86&8"G-&A0%,;&Y&Z"-59'

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&."&,E($%&$-)&(-,E($%&)05.#03(.0"-5&"4&#,5"(#/,59&($6$0+M4$%&20'3*)$%*$<'

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289-298.

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Preprint

Full-text available

Nov 2024

Do young infants expect people to help one another? In two experiments (N = 72), the present study examined 5.5-month-old infants’ helping expectations as they watched two female agents’ actions. After seeing one agent try but fail to obtain an out-of-reach toy and then exit, infants expected another agent to help by moving the toy within her reach and found it unexpected when the agent did not. Importantly, if the first agent did not try to reach for the toy, signaling no need for it, infants instead found it unexpected when the other agent helped. Together, these results suggest that infants at this young age already expect people to be helpful toward others in need. These findings thus shed new light on the early development of moral cognition.

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Acta Psychol Sin

Cognitive Representations of Social Relationships and their Developmental Origins

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Oct 2024
BEHAV BRAIN SCI

Ashley J Thomas

In the human mind, what is a social relationship, and what are the developmental origins of this representation? I consider findings from infant psychology and propose that our representations of social relationships are intuitive theories built on core knowledge. I propose three central components of this intuitive theory. The purpose of the first component is to recognize whether a relationship exists, the purpose of the second is to characterize the relationship by categorizing it into a model and to compute its strength (i.e., intensity, pull, or thickness), and the purpose of the third is to understand how to change relationships through explicit or implicit communication. I propose that infants possess core knowledge on which this intuitive theory is built. This paper focuses on the second component and considers evidence that infants characterize relationships. Following Relational Models Theory (A. P. Fiske, 1992, 2004) I propose that from infancy humans recognize relationships that belong to three models: communal sharing (where people are ‘one’), authority ranking (where people are ranked), and equality matching (where people are separate, but evenly balanced). I further propose that humans, and potentially infants, recognize a relationship's strength which can be thought of as a continuous representation of obligations (the extent to which certain actions are expected), and commitment (the likelihood that people will continue the relationship). These representations and the assumption that others share them allow us to form, maintain, and change social relationships throughout our lives by informing how we interpret and evaluate the actions of others and plan our own.

An Associative-Learning Account of How Infants Learn About Causal Action in Animates and Inanimates: A Critical Reexamination of Four Classic Studies

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Sep 2024

Deon T. Benton

Considerable research shows that causal perception emerges between 6 and 10 months of age. Yet, because this research tends to use artificial stimuli, it is unanswered how or through what mechanisms of change human infants learn about the causal properties of real-world categories such as animate entities and inanimate objects. One answer to this question is that this knowledge is innate (i.e., unlearned, evolutionarily ancient, and possibly present at birth) and underpinned by core knowledge and core cognition. An alternative perspective that is tested here through computer simulations is that infants acquire this knowledge via domain-general associative learning. This article demonstrates that associative learning alone—as instantiated in an artificial neural network—is sufficient to explain the data presented in four classic infancy studies: Spelke et al. (1995), Saxe et al. (2005), Saxe et al. (2007), and Markson and Spelke (2006). This work not only advances theoretical perspectives within developmental psychology but also has implications for the design of artificial intelligence systems inspired by human cognitive development.

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Aug 2024

Theorists have argued that morality builds on several core modular foundations. When do different moral foundations emerge in life? Prior work has explored the conceptual development of different aspects of morality in childhood. Here, we offer an alternative approach to investigate the developmental emergence of moral foundations through the lexicon, namely the words used to talk about moral foundations. We develop a large-scale longitudinal analysis of the linguistic mentions of five moral foundations (in both virtuous and vicious forms) in naturalistic speech between English-speaking children with ages ranging from 1 to 6 and their caretakers. Using computational methods, we collect a dataset of 1,371 human-annotated moral utterances and automatically annotate around one million utterances in child-caretaker conversations. We discover that in childhood, words for expressing the individualizing moral foundations (i.e. Care/Harm, Fairness/Cheating) tend to emerge earlier and more frequently than words for expressing the binding moral foundations (i.e. Authority/Subversion, Loyalty/Betrayal, Purity/Degradation), and words for Care/Harm are expressed substantially more often than the other foundations. We find significant differences between children and caretakers in how often they talk about Fairness, Cheating, and Degradation. Furthermore, we show that the information embedded in childhood speech allows computational models to predict moral judgment of novel scenarios beyond the scope of child-caretaker conversations. Our work provides a large-scale documentation of the moral foundational lexicon in early linguistic communication in English and forges a new link between moral language development and computational studies of morality.

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CHILD DEV

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This study examined how a firstborn child’s empathy interacts with maternal emotional availability (EA) to predict later positive sibling relationships. The study included 108 families expecting a second child who also had a 10- to 45-month-old firstborn child (M = 24.6 months, SD = 7.42; 58 girls). Before the second-born child arrived, the firstborn child’s empathic abilities were measured, and a mother–child play interaction was videotaped and coded for maternal EA. At 16–18 months postpartum, mothers completed questionnaires assessing the quality of the sibling relationship. Maternal EA moderated the link between the firstborn’s cognitive and emotional empathy and the quality of the sibling relationship. Higher levels of emotional and cognitive empathy predicted better sibling relationships for children whose mothers were more emotionally available. Implications for early interventions are discussed.

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ANNU REV PSYCHOL

Moral learning and decision-making are crucial throughout our lives, from infancy to old age. Emerging evidence suggests that there are important differences in learning and deciding in moral situations, and these are underpinned by co-occurring changes in the use of model-based values and theory of mind. Here, we review the decision neuroscience literature on moral choices and moral learning considering four key concepts. We show how in the earliest years, a sense of self/other distinction is foundational. Sensitivity to intention versus outcome is crucial for several moral concepts and is most similar in our earliest and oldest years. Across all ages, basic shifts in the influence of theory of mind and model-free and model-based learning support moral decision-making. Moving forward, a computational approach to key concepts of morality can help provide a mechanistic account and generate new hypotheses to test across the whole lifespan.

Emotion Understanding as Third-Person Appraisals: Integrating Appraisal Theories With Developmental Theories of Emotion

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Emotion understanding goes beyond recognizing emotional displays—it also involves reasoning about how people’s emotions are affected by their subjective evaluations of what they experienced. Inspired by work in adults on cognitive appraisal theories of emotion, we propose a framework that can guide systematic investigations of how an adult-like, sophisticated understanding of emotion develops from infancy to adulthood. We integrate basic concepts of appraisal theories with developmental theories of emotion understanding and suggest that over development, young children construct an intuitive, theory-like understanding of other people’s emotions that is structurally similar to appraisal theories. That is, children are increasingly able to evaluate other people’s situations from those people’s perspectives along various appraisal dimensions and use such third-person appraisals to understand those people’s emotional responses to events. This “third-person-appraisal” framework can not only incorporate existing empirical findings but can also identify gaps in the literature, providing a guiding framework for systematically investigating the development of emotion understanding.

Socialization Processes

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Apr 2021

Joan E. Grusec

The case for social evaluation in infants. Response to Scarf, D., Imuta, K., Colombo, M., & Hayne, H. (2012). Social evaluation or simple association? Simple association may explain moral reasoning in infants

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Cognitive Adaptations for Social Exchange

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Anthropologists have long recognized that cultural evolution critically depends on the transmission and generation of information. However, between the selection pressures of evolution and the actual behaviour of individuals, scientists have suspected that other processes are at work. With the advent of what has come to be known as the cognitive revolution, psychologists are now exploring the evolved problem-solving and information-processing mechanisms that allow humans to absorb and generate culture. The purpose of this book is to introduce the newly crystallizing field of evolutionary psychology, which supplied the necessary connection between the underlying evolutionary biology and the complex and irreducible social phenomena studied by anthropologists, sociologists, economists, and historians.

Handbook of Moral Development

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Jun 2022

Primates and Philosophers: How Morality Evolved

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Dec 2006

FransHG de Waal

Why We Cooperate

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Michael Tomasello

DISTRESS CRYING IN NEONATES - SPECIES AND PEER SPECIFICITY

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Elements of Moral Cognition: Rawls' Linguistic Analogy and the Cognitive Science of Moral and Legal Judgment

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John Mikhail

Is the science of moral cognition usefully modeled on aspects of Universal Grammar? Are human beings born with an innate “moral grammar” that causes them to analyze human action in terms of its moral structure, with just as little awareness as they analyze human speech in terms of its grammatical structure? Questions like these have been at the forefront of moral psychology ever since John Mikhail revived them in his infl uential work on the linguistic analogy and its implications for jurisprudence and moral theory. In this seminal book, Mikhail offers a careful and sustained analysis of the moral grammar hypothesis, showing how some of John Rawls’ original ideas about the linguistic analogy, together with famous thought experiments like the trolley problem, can be used to improve our understanding of moral and legal judgment. The book will be of interest to philosophers, cognitive scientists, legal scholars, and other researchers in the interdisciplinary fi eld of moral psychology.

A New Look at Children's Prosocial Motivation

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Jan 2013

Young children routinely behave prosocially, but what is their motivation for doing so? Here, we review three studies which show that young children (1) are intrinsically motivated rather than motivated by extrinsic rewards; (2) are more inclined to help those for whom they feel sympathy; and (3) are not so much motivated to provide help themselves as to see the person helped (as can be seen in changes of their sympathetic arousal, as measured by pupil dilation, in different circumstances). Young children's prosocial behavior is thus intrinsically motivated by a concern for others' welfare, which has its evolutionary roots in a concern for the well-being of those with whom one is interdependent.

Prosocial development. In N. Eisenberg, W. Damon, & R. M. Lerner (Eds.),: Vol 3, Social, emotional, and personality development

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