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Moral Judgment and Action in Preverbal Infants and Toddlers Evidence for an Innate Moral Core

DOI:10.1177/0963721412470687
Authors:
J Kiley Hamlin at University of British Columbia - Vancouver
J Kiley Hamlin
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Abstract and Figures

Although developmental psychologists traditionally explore morality from a learning and development perspective, some aspects of the human moral sense may be built-in, having evolved to sustain collective action and cooperation as required for successful group living. In this article, I review a recent body of research with infants and toddlers, demonstrating surprisingly sophisticated and flexible moral behavior and evaluation in a preverbal population whose opportunity for moral learning is limited at best. Although this work itself is in its infancy, it supports theoretical claims that human morality is a core aspect of human nature.
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All content in this area was uploaded by J Kiley Hamlin on Mar 04, 2014
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Traditional!accounts:!Morality!is!learned!
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Morality!for!cooperation!
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Requirement!(1):!Moral!goodness!
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Requirement!(2):!Moral!understanding!and!evaluation!
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*"")-,55&5G"(%)&$%%"F&4"#&*"$%J1#,2,-.0-*&3,G$20"#5D&$-)&$&/"#,&+"#$%&,2$%($.0"-&
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,-"(*G&."&5(11"#.&/""1,#$.0"-&"-&$&*#$-)&5/$%,W&G"F,2,#D&$-&O,-,+;&"4&+;&,-,+;P&
+,/G$-05+&05&1#,5(+$3%;&+"#,&3,-,40/0$%6&0.&/$-&3,&$11%0,)&."&$-;"-,&FG"&05&%0L,%;&
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O,-,+;P&+,/G$-05+&+$;&(-),#%0,&.G,0#&-($-/,)&,2$%($.0"-59&&
& &&
Conclusion!
!
!B-&5(+D&#,/,-.&),2,%"1+,-.$%&#,5,$#/G&5(11"#.5&.G,&/%$0+&.G$.&$.&%,$5.&5"+,&
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-($-/,)D&$-)&.G$.&)"&-".&$11,$#&."&5.,+&4#"+&5"/0$%0]$.0"-&"#&+"#$%%;J51,/040/&
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1#,)051"50.0"-5&."&3,G$2,&F,%%D&"#&L-,,J',#L&#,$/.0"-5&."&1$#.0/(%$#&5.$.,5&"4&.G,&
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/"-505.,-.&F0.G&$)(%.5\D&0-/"#1"#$.0-*&$51,/.5&"4&+"#$%&*"")-,55D&,2$%($.0"-D&$-)&
#,.$%0$.0"-9&KG05&#,5,$#/G&5(11"#.5&.G,"#0]0-*&"-&.G,&/"J,2"%(.0"-&"4&/""1,#$.0"-&
$-)&+"#$%0.;D&$-)&5(**,5.5&.G$.&+"#$%0.;&05&$&/"#,&$51,/.&"4&G(+$-&-$.(#,9&b(.(#,&
#,5,$#/G&5G"(%)&4"/(5&"-&G"F&.G05&,$#%;J,+,#*0-*&+"#$%&/"#,&/"+30-,5&F0.G&
,I1,#0,-/,&$-)&".G,#&),2,%"1+,-.$%&+,/G$-05+5&."&/#,$.,&$&/(%.(#$%%;J51,/040/D&
$)(%.&+"#$%&5,-5,9&&&
&
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!
!
Author!Notes!
=&H))#,55&/"##,51"-),-/,&."6&89&:0%,;&<$+%0-D&c,1$#.+,-.&"4&C5;/G"%"*;D&l-02,#50.;&
"4&R#0.05G&`"%(+30$D&L0%,;9G$+%0-r15;/G9(3/9/$&
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KG,&$(.G"#&),/%$#,5&-"&/"-4%0/.5&"4&0-.,#,5.9&&
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F,%%&$5&7%0]$3,.G&c(--D&8$-0-,&f,%%,#+$-D&c$20)&K$--,-3$(+&Y&8,550/$&K#$/;&4"#&
.G,0#&G,%14(%&/"++,-.59&&
&
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References!
&
HL-0-D&i9R9D&<$+%0-D&89:9D&c(--D&79A9&Q>[=>T9&f020-*&%,$)5&."&G$110-,55&0-&;"(-*&&
& /G0%)#,-9&-?+3'@A8'BCDEF&,XS>==9&)"06=[9=X@=^'"(#-$%91"-,9[[XS>==9&
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H%,I$-),#D&a9c9&Q=S_@T9&G/$'H)+0+1.'+>'I+#20'3.,&$4,J'j,F&8,#5,;6&K#$-5$/.0"-&&
&C(3%05G,#59&&
&
R#"F-D&c979&Q=SS=T9&K"42%'L%)6$#,20,9&j,F&q"#L6&!/f#$F&<0%%9&&
&
`"5+0),5D&i9&Y&K""3;D&89&Q=SS>T9&`"*-0.02,&$)$1.$.0"-5&4"#&5"/0$%&,I/G$-*,9&B-&&
&R$#L"FD&89D&`"5+0),5D&i9&Y&K""3;D&89D&Q7)5T9&G/$'252M&$5'4)%5F'86+0"&)+%2#.''
' M,.*/+0+1.'2%5'&/$'1$%$#2&)+%'+>'*"0&"#$9&j,F&q"#L6&dI4"#)&l-02,#50.;&C#,559&
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... It is said that our eyes reveal our thoughts, but the same can be said of any movement. Accordingly, researchers routinely use infant eye and head movements, facial expressions, reaching behaviors, and locomotion to infer what is happening in the infant's mindknowledge, emotions, morals, and goals (e.g., [1][2][3][4]). When researchers couple inferences about infant cognition with the assumption that the cognitive processes are instantiated in the cerebral cortex, they must also conclude that the infant cortex is the source of motor outflow that crystallizes cognition in movement ( Figure 1A). ...
... Can we conclude that 3-month-olds have an 'innate moral core' [3]? The answer to this question depends on whether 3-month-olds can make social evaluationspresumably dependent on cortical structuresand then use those evaluations to execute the required eye movements. ...
Protracted development of motor cortex constrains rich interpretations of infant cognition
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Cognition in preverbal human infants must be inferred from overt motor behaviors such as gaze shifts, head turns, or reaching for objects. However, infant mammals - including human infants - show protracted postnatal development of cortical motor outflow. Cortical control of eye, face, head, and limb movements is absent at birth and slowly emerges over the first postnatal year and beyond. Accordingly, the neonatal cortex in humans cannot generate the motor behaviors routinely used to support inferences about infants' cognitive abilities, and thus claims of developmental continuity between infant and adult cognition are suspect. Recognition of the protracted development of motor cortex should temper rich interpretations of infant cognition and motivate more serious consideration of the role of subcortical mechanisms in early cognitive development.
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... First, children appear primed to attribute their minds to the world around them. For example pre-school-aged children readily anthropomorphize (Lane et al., 2010) and infants ascribe intentionality to moving shapes on a screen (Gergely and Csibra, 2003;Hamlin, 2013). Additionally, some evidence suggests that prosocial motivations towards other animals are heightened in children compared to adults. ...
... From several perspectives, children's proclivities to attribute desires and goals to pet dogs during real-life, in-person interactions are unsurprising. As noted as part of the impetus for our study, children attribute goals to animated shapes and anthropomorphize animal characters (Gergely and Csibra, 2003;Hamlin, 2013). Additionally many nonhuman animals read and act upon the behavior of individuals of other species in everyday life (Bshary et al., 2006;Farine et al., 2015;Kitchen et al., 2010). ...
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Two capacities considered foundational in human cooperation are prosocial motivation and goal-reading abilities that enable helping. Children exhibit both proclivities by age 2 in interactions with other humans, but interactions with nonhuman species on whom we have been interdependent for millennia are unstudied. We tested the hypothesis that children’s goal-reading and prosocial propensities extend to other animals. We predicted children would help pet dogs access objects that dogs attempted to reach but could not reach themselves. We studied 97 children between 2 and 3 years of age living in a small mid-western US city, 44 of whom had dogs as household pets. In a quasi-naturalistic setting, we introduced children to 1 of 3 friendly pet dogs who remained within a small, porous enclosure while a treat or toy was placed outside it. Dogs reacted naturally, either showing interest in accessing the item (e.g., pawing, begging) or ignoring it. Measures of dog and child behavior during sessions were coded blindly with high reliability. Children provided dogs with out-of-reach items twice as often when dogs showed interest rather than ignored items, indicating sensitivity to the dog’s goals. Additionally, children were more generally likely to provide dogs with items if children lived with pet dogs, if dogs were more lively and engaged rather than subdued and if the item was a treat rather than a toy. These findings lend support to our hypothesis that children’s early-developing proclivities for goal-reading and prosociality extend beyond humans to other animals.
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... The relationship between morality and cooperation provides a fundamental perspective on the unselfish aspects of human nature [1][2][3] . From an evolutionary point of view, the ability to organize large societies through cooperation, division of labor, and reciprocal altruism (i.e., ultra-sociality) 4,5 requires a tendency to sacrifice individual interests for the sake of others' welfare 6 . ...
Moral reasoning and moral competence as predictors of cooperative behavior in a social dilemma
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Full-text available
  • Feb 2023
The level of moral development may be crucial to understand behavior when people have to choose between prioritizing individual gains or pursuing general social benefits. This study evaluated whether two different psychological constructs, moral reasoning and moral competence, are associated with cooperative behavior in the context of the prisoner's dilemma game, a two-person social dilemma where individuals choose between cooperation or defection. One hundred and eighty-nine Mexican university students completed the Defining Issues Test (DIT-2; measuring moral reasoning) and the Moral Competence Test (MCT) and played an online version of the prisoner’s dilemma game, once against each participant in a group of 6 to 10 players. Our results indicate that cooperative behavior is strongly affected by the outcomes in previous rounds: Except when both participants cooperated, the probability of cooperation with other participants in subsequent rounds decreased. Both the DIT-2 and MCT independently moderated this effect of previous experiences, particularly in the case of sucker-outcomes. Individuals with high scores on both tests were not affected when in previous rounds the other player defected while they cooperated. Our findings suggest that more sophisticated moral reasoning and moral competence promote the maintenance of cooperative behaviors despite facing adverse situations.
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... The relationship between morality and cooperation provides a fundamental perspective on the unselfish aspects of human nature [1][2][3] . From an evolutionary point of view, the ability to organize large societies through cooperation, division of labor, and reciprocal altruism (i.e., ultra-sociality) 4,5 requires a tendency to sacrifice individual interests for the sake of others' welfare 6 . ...
Moral reasoning and moral competence as predictors of cooperative behavior in a social dilemma
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Full-text available
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The level of moral development may be crucial to understand behavior when people have to choose between prioritizing individual gains or pursuing general social benefits. This study evaluated whether two different psychological constructs, moral reasoning and moral competence, are associated with cooperative behavior in the context of the prisoner's dilemma game, a two-person social dilemma where individuals choose between cooperation or defection. One hundred and eighty-nine Mexican university students completed the Defining Issues Test (DIT-2; measuring moral reasoning) and the Moral Competence Test (MCT) and played an online version of the prisoner’s dilemma game, once against each participant in a group of 6–10 players. Our results indicate that cooperative behavior is strongly affected by the outcomes in previous rounds: Except when both participants cooperated, the probability of cooperation with other participants in subsequent rounds decreased. Both the DIT-2 and MCT independently moderated this effect of previous experiences, particularly in the case of sucker-outcomes. Individuals with high scores on both tests were not affected when in previous rounds the other player defected while they cooperated. Our findings suggest that more sophisticated moral reasoning and moral competence promote the maintenance of cooperative behaviors despite facing adverse situations.
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... Strong claims have been made regarding infants being born with innate morality (e.g., Hauser, 2006a,b;Hamlin et al., 2007;Mikhail, 2007;Bloom, 2010Bloom, , 2012Graham et al., 2013;Hamlin, 2013;Margolis and Laurence, 2013;Warneken, 2016). For instance, it has been claimed that infants "have a rudimentary moral sense from the very start of life" (Bloom, 2010, p. 46), that "genes (collectively) write the first draft [of the infant's moral mind] into neural tissue" (Graham et al., 2013, p. 61), and that this first draft includes an abstract expectation of fairness (see Bian et al., 2018, p Our developmental position contrasts with these current nativist claims regarding infants' moral competence. ...
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Explaining how children first become active prosocial and then later moral agents requires, we argue, beginning with action and interaction with others. We take a process-relational perspective and draw on developmental systems theory in arguing that infants cannot be born knowing about prosociality or morality or anything else. Instead, they are born with emerging abilities to act and react. Their biological embodiment links them to their environment and creates the social environment in which they develop. A clear distinction between biological and social levels cannot be made in the context of ongoing development because they are thoroughly interwoven in a bidirectional system in which they mutually create each other. We focus on infants’ emerging ability to interact and develop within a human developmental system, and prosociality and morality emerge at the level of interaction. Caring is a constitutive aspect of the forms of experience in which infants are embedded in the process of becoming persons. Infants are immersed in a world of mutual responsiveness within caring relationships that are infused with concern, interest, and enjoyment. In such a developmental system, infants become persons when they are treated as persons.
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... intention in their evaluations but less so than older children's judgments that closely resembled adults (Nobes et al., 2017). Although, our paradigm required verbal communication from the children to communicate their evaluations, there has been an increasingly number of studies researching intention using nonverbal responses, suggesting that children younger than 4 years could be sensitive to intention in their evaluations of others (Behne et al., 2005;Hamlin, 2013;Kuhlmeier et al., 2003). When manipulating the simplicity of the task, Margoni and Surian (2020) found that 3-year-olds were successful in expressing intent-based judgment. ...
Children's moral reasoning about self- versus other-benefiting public health measures
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The COVID-19 pandemic has introduced novel public health measures such as masking and social distancing. In adults, framing these behaviors as benefiting others versus the self has been shown to affect people's perceptions of public health measures and willingness to comply. Here we asked whether self- versus other-oriented frames of novel public health measures influence children's endorsement and moral reasoning. Children aged 5 to 10 years viewed hypothetical dilemmas of aliens in which we manipulated the frame (other-oriented or self-oriented) of the prevention behavior and the severity (high or low) of the potential harm. Across two studies (Study 1: N = 48; Study 2: N = 61), results showed that across ages framing the behaviors as other-oriented, but not self-oriented, yielded more positive ratings of individuals who followed the public health measures and more negative ratings of those who did not. Across both frames, children generally endorsed these public health measures when the severity was high. Children used more moralizing concepts in other-oriented frames and were more critical of intentional transgressions over accidental transgressions, demonstrating further evidence that other-oriented frames induce moral reasoning. We discuss the theoretical and practical implications of these framing effects for sociomoral reasoning and action.
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... In fact, several studies have shown the importance of similarity in very young children's initial liking of others. For example, 9-to 14-month-old children prefer puppets who treat similar others well and dissimilar others poorly (Hamlin, 2013). Preferences for similar others show conceptual similarity to the loyalty foundation of MFT and perhaps offer some tangential evidence for why prosocial media targeting inclusion of dissimilar others in play, while a vital aspect of preschool-directed media curricula, has received limited empirical support among 4-to 6-year-old children (e.g., Mares & Acosta, 2010). ...
The development and validation of a measure of moral intuition salience for children and adolescents: The Moral Intuitions and Development Scale
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In this article, we create and validate a measure of moral intuition salience developmentally appropriate for use among children and adolescents. This measure allows researchers to apply moral foundations theory and the model of intuitive morality and exemplars to child and adolescent moral development and media use, an important addition to the literature, as to date, this theory and its measurement have generally only been used among college-aged and adult participants. Following five pilot tests (total N = 713) that demonstrated face, concurrent, and predictive validity of our measure among young adults, we present validation data from 8- to 17-year-olds (N = 577), demonstrating the developmental nature of these moral intuitions and linking them with media use. This measure can be used to understand how children’s moral intuition salience relates to their media and content choices, as well as how media relates to the moral intuitions most salient to the child.
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Narrative Media’s Emphasis on Distinct Moral Intuitions Alters Early Adolescents’ Judgments
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Logic from the model of intuitive morality and exemplars (MIME) suggests that narrative media emphasizing moral intuitions can increase the salience of those intuitions in audiences. To date, support for this logic has been limited to adults. Across two studies, the present research tested MIME predictions in early adolescents (ages 10–14). The salience of care, fairness, loyalty, and authority intuitions was manipulated in a pilot study with verbal prompts ( N = 87) and in the main study with a comic book ( N = 107). In both studies, intuition salience was measured after induction. The pilot study demonstrated that exposure to verbal prompts emphasizing care, fairness, and loyalty increased the salience of their respective intuitions. The main study showed that exposure to comic books emphasizing all four separate intuitions increased salience of their respective intuitions in early adolescents. Results are discussed in terms of relevance for the MIME and understanding narrative media’s influence on children’s moral judgments.
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Understanding preferences in infancy
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A preference is defined as a dispositional state that helps explain why a person chooses one option over another. Preference understanding is a significant part of interpreting and predicting others' behavior, which can also help to guide social encounters, for instance, to initiate interactions and even form relationships based on shared preferences. Cognitive developmental research in the past several decades has revealed that infants have relatively sophisticated understandings about others' preferences, as part of investigations into how young children make sense of others' behavior in terms of mental states such as intentions, dispositions including preferences, and epistemic states. In recent years, research on early psychological knowledge expands to including infant understanding of social situations. As such, infants are also found to use their preference understandings in their social life. They treat favorably others who share their own preferences, and they prefer prosocial and similar others (e.g., those who speak their language). In reviewing these results, we point out future directions for research and conclude with further suggestions and recommendations. This article is categorized under: Cognitive Biology > Cognitive Development Psychology > Development and Aging Infant understanding of preferences.
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Elements of Moral Cognition: Rawls' Linguistic Analogy and the Cognitive Science of Moral and Legal Judgment
Article
  • Sep 2011
Is the science of moral cognition usefully modeled on aspects of Universal Grammar? Are human beings born with an innate “moral grammar” that causes them to analyze human action in terms of its moral structure, with just as little awareness as they analyze human speech in terms of its grammatical structure? Questions like these have been at the forefront of moral psychology ever since John Mikhail revived them in his infl uential work on the linguistic analogy and its implications for jurisprudence and moral theory. In this seminal book, Mikhail offers a careful and sustained analysis of the moral grammar hypothesis, showing how some of John Rawls’ original ideas about the linguistic analogy, together with famous thought experiments like the trolley problem, can be used to improve our understanding of moral and legal judgment. The book will be of interest to philosophers, cognitive scientists, legal scholars, and other researchers in the interdisciplinary fi eld of moral psychology.
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A New Look at Children's Prosocial Motivation
Article
  • Jan 2013
Young children routinely behave prosocially, but what is their motivation for doing so? Here, we review three studies which show that young children (1) are intrinsically motivated rather than motivated by extrinsic rewards; (2) are more inclined to help those for whom they feel sympathy; and (3) are not so much motivated to provide help themselves as to see the person helped (as can be seen in changes of their sympathetic arousal, as measured by pupil dilation, in different circumstances). Young children's prosocial behavior is thus intrinsically motivated by a concern for others' welfare, which has its evolutionary roots in a concern for the well-being of those with whom one is interdependent.
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A New Look at Children's Prosocial Motivation
Article
Young children routinely behave prosocially, but what is their motivation for doing so? Here, we review three studies which show that young children (1) are intrinsically motivated rather than motivated by extrinsic rewards; (2) are more inclined to help those for whom they feel sympathy; and (3) are not so much motivated to provide help themselves as to see the person helped (as can be seen in changes of their sympathetic arousal, as measured by pupil dilation, in different circumstances). Young children’s prosocial behavior is thus intrinsically motivated by a concern for others’ welfare, which has its evolutionary roots in a concern for the well-being of those with whom one is interdependent.
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Infants Attribute Value± to the Goal-Directed Actions of Self-propelled Objects
Article
  • Nov 1997
Motion is a fundamental source of information for basic human interpretations; it is basic to the fundamental concept of causality and, the present model argues, equally basic to the fundamental concept of intentionality. The model is based on two main assumptions: When an infant perceives an object (1) moving spontaneously and (2) displaying goaldirected action, it will interpret the object as intentional and assign to it the unique properties of the psychological domain. The key property tested was: Do infants attribute value to interactions between intentional objects using criteria specified by the model? We showed infants (average age 52 weeks) computer-generated animations of spontaneously moving “balls,” using looking time in a standard habituation/dishabituation paradigm. In two positive interactions, one ball either “caressed” another, or “helped” it achieve its goal; whereas in two negative interactions, one ball either “hit“ another, or “prevented” it from achieving its goal. In keeping with predictions of the model, when transferred to a negative condition, infants who had been habituated on a positive condition showed greater dishabituation than those habituated on a negative condition. The results could not be easily explained by the similarity relations among the animations depicting the interactions. The results suggest that well before the age when the child can ascribe mental states or has a “theory of mind,” it recognizes the goals of self-propelled objects and attributes value to the interactions between them.
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