The parasite fauna of ostriches, emu and rheas

Abstract

In most parts of the world ratite farming (i.e. farming of ostriches, emus and rheas) is a new fi eld of livestock production. These birds are livestock with broad utilisation of their products. Both wild and captive ostriches, emus and rheas may be infested with their own specifi c parasites as well as with external and internal parasites of other birds and animals. Eimeria spp. (protozoa), Houttuynia struthionis (cestoda) and Libyostrongylus douglassii (nematoda) belong to parasites causing the most serious economic losses in ratites in the world. As farming of these big birds is still in the beginning, many years of research and development are necessary to reach levels of medical and technological progress that is nowadays practised in poultry industry.

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45
INTRODUCTION
Ostriches (Struthio camelus), emus (Dromaius
novaehollandiae), greater (Rhea americana) and lesser rheas
(Pterocnemia pennata), are big fl ightless birds, very good
runners, scientifi cally called ratites because of the absence
of the keel of the breastbone (Deeming, 1999; Dingle and
Shanawany, 1999).
Wild ostriches are confi ned to the drier parts of Africa,
generally from south of the Sahara to Cape Province,
extending also to southern Morocco, the northern Sudan and
southern Egypt (Dingle and Shanawany, 1999). Emus can
be found in most parts of Australia, ranging from coastal
regions to high in the Snowy Mountains, and they live
in a wide variety of habitats (Del Hoyo et al., 1992). The
different subspecies of greater rheas are distributed through
Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay (Sales,
2006). They live exclusively on the open plains.
In most parts of the world ratites are quite a new fi eld of
livestock production (Němejc, 2007) and it has not yet achieved
suffi cient volume to provide meaningful data for many studies.
Ratite farming is still in its infancy compared to the poultry
industry, and many years of research and development are
needed in order to reach levels of medical and technological
development similar to those found in poultry farming today.
Preventive medicine, public health and welfare are the most
necessary issues in the future development of ratite production.
RATITE PARASITES
Both internal and external parasites affect ostriches
(Jefferey, 1996). Usually careless management, high bird
density as well as poor hygiene contribute to parasitic
infection (Chang Reissig et al., 2001). The prevalence
of internal parasites in hand-raised ostriches is low in
comparison with pasture-raised or free roaming birds.
In commercial ostrich operations, the eggs are incubated
artifi cially and the chicks are raised in segregated fl ocks.
This separates the chicks from potentially infested adult
birds, thus interrupting the life cycle of most internal
parasites (Dingle and Shanawany, 1999).
Ostriches may be infested with their own specifi c parasites
as well as with external and internal parasites of other birds,
some parasites of ruminants and raccoons (Eslami et al.,
2007).
In emus, parasites are not a common problem although
some farms found it necessary to treat for these (O’Malley,
1998).
Lesser rheas have only been raised on farms in recent
years; therefore information about parasitic diseases of
farmed lesser rhea is scant (Chang Reissig et al., 2001).
The economic impact of most of ratite parasites is still
undetermined. Further detailed analyses are needed to
determine not only the host-specifi c status of ratite parasites,
but also the risk of infection for other animals and humans
(Ponce Gordo et al., 2002).
INTERNAL PARASITES
Parasites of the digestive system (proventriculus, gizzard,
small intestine and large intestine), as well as those of
respiratory and circulatory systems infest ratites. No
parasites of the nervous system of veterinary importance
were reported in them (Taylor et al., 2007).
Review Article
Parasite Fauna of Ostriches, Emus and Rheas
Karel Nemejc1, Daniela Lukesova2
1
Faculty of Agriculture, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, Czech Republic
2
Institute of Tropics and Subtropics, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Czech Republic
Abstract
In most parts of the world ratite farming (i.e. farming of ostriches, emus and rheas) is a new fi eld of livestock production. These
birds are livestock with broad utilisation of their products. Both wild and captive ostriches, emus and rheas may be infested with
their own specifi c parasites as well as with external and internal parasites of other birds and animals. Eimeria spp. (protozoa),
Houttuynia struthionis (cestoda) and Libyostrongylus douglassii (nematoda) belong to parasites causing the most serious economic
losses in ratites in the world. As farming of these big birds is still in the beginning, many years of research and development are
necessary to reach levels of medical and technological progress that is nowadays practised in poultry industry.
Keywords: ratite farming; endoparasites; ectoparasites; coprology; treatment; Struthio camelus; Dromaius novaehollandiae; Rhea
americana; Pterocnemia pennata.
AGRICULTURA TROPICA ET SUBTROPICA VOL. 45 (1) 2012
DOI: 10.2478/v10295-012-0007-6 AGRICULTURA TROPICA ET SUBTROPICA, 45/1, 45-50, 2012
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AGRICULTURA TROPICA ET SUBTROPICA VOL. 45 (1) 2012
46
Most of the parasites are of minor economic importance;
however, some of them have been recognized as causing
serious losses (Dingle and Shanawany, 1999).
Protozoa
A number of intestinal protozoans, including Hexamita,
Giardia, Trichomonas, Cryptosporidium (Deeming, 1999;
Chang Reissig et al., 2001; Cooper, 2005), and Toxoplasma,
have been isolated from ostrich chicks. Often, they cause
serious diarrhoea in ratites. Metronidazole at 10 mg/kg,
orally, should be administered as a treatment (Jurajda, 2002;
Cooper, 2005).
There are at least two Cryptosporidium species infecting
ostriches. Cryptosporidia complete their biological cycle on
the surface of epithelial cells of the digestive and respiratory
system of birds, mammals and reptiles (Ponce Gordo et al.,
2002; Santos et al., 2007). In ostriches, unidentifi ed species
of Cryptosporidium spp., have been shown to infect the
bursa, the rectum and the pancreas of ostrich chicks and
they are considered to cause prolapse of the penis in young
ostrich males. They have been diagnosed in ostriches in
South Africa as well as in ostriches imported to Canada.
The infection is diagnosed histopathologically on section
of the affected organs or by identifi cation of oocysts in
faecal samples (Deeming, 1999; Jurajda, 2002). Functional
intestinal microfl ora is considered the best defence against
cryptosporidia (Jurajda, 2002).
Coccidiosis is common in emu chicks (Jurajda, 2002).
No cases of coccidiosis in farmed ostriches have ever been
confi rmed. According to Deeming (1999) no outbreaks of
coccidiosis in farmed ostriches have been documented
although an Isospora struthionis has been described from
an ostrich in a Russian zoo. Chang Reissig et al. (2001)
observed Eimeria spp. oocysts in faecal samples of lesser
rheas.
Infected birds generally exhibit loss of appetite, weakness,
ruffl ed feathers, their droppings may contain blood.
Symptoms are usually minimal in ostriches and infection
can only be properly diagnosed by post-mortem examination
(Dingle and Shanawany, 1999).
Regular use of anti-coccidial drugs is the best
treatment. Increased dietary levels of vitamin K as well
as sulphonamides and vitamin A supplements make the
recovery faster if outbreaks occur. Ammonia fumigation of
buildings appears to be an effective control of coccidiosis
(Dingle and Shanawany, 1999).
The fl agellate Histomonas meleagridis (blackhead) is
a parasite of turkeys and other gallinaceous birds causing
infl ammation of caeca and liver. It may infect ostriches in
close contact with such birds and cause a similar disease
(Deeming, 1999; Jurajda, 2002). Histomoniasis infection
can be controlled with furazolidone and treated with
metronidazole and by the periodic examination of the faeces
(Jefferey, 1996).
A Trichomonas (a fl agellate) infection can be acquired
by ostriches via contact with pigeons and doves. It causes
pseudomembraneous lesions in the upper digestive tract
(Deeming, 1999; Jurajda, 2002).
Flagellate infections are treated by individual dosing
with dimetridazole (50 mg/kg body mass) (Deeming, 1999;
Jurajda, 2002) and prevented by strict separation of ostriches
from poultry, pigeons and wild birds (Deeming, 1999).
Balantidium struthionis is a ciliate and a common
inhabitant of ostrich intestines, probably capable of becoming
somewhat pathogenic under favourable conditions. Its cysts
could also be mistaken for coccidial oocysts (Deeming,
1999; Jurajda, 2002). The same is pronounced in case of
Blastocystis sp. (Jurajda, 2002).
Under favourable circumstances, ostriches are susceptible
to infections with avian species of Plasmodium spp., a
parasite of the circulatory system, transmitted by mosquitoes
(Deeming, 1999; Jurajda, 2002; Cooper, 2005).
Leucocytozoon struthionis, a parasite of the circulatory
system, is transmitted by arthropods (blackfl ies) and
commonly infects ostrich chicks in South Africa - mostly
without causing clinical disease (Deeming, 1999; Cooper,
2005; Taylor et al., 2007). Treatment and control has not
been reported yet (Taylor et al., 2007).
Cestoda
The tapeworm (Houttuynia struthionis) belongs to a genus
of tapeworms in the family Davaineidae. It is a parasite of
the small intestine, and the exclusive and major endoparasite
of the ostrich and rhea. Houttuynia causes unthriftiness and
diarrhoea mainly in chicks (Blood et al., 2007; Jurajda,
2002). Frequent occurrence of this tapeworm is in chicks
and pasture-raised ostriches in South Africa (Dingle and
Shanawany, 1999; Jurajda, 2002).
The tapeworm has also been spread to Europe with
ostriches imported from Africa and it was diagnosed
sporadically in the USA, too (Jurajda, 2002; Cooper, 2005).
They are long, large, fl at, segmented, white worms of
about 50 to 100 cm in length and deprive the bird of food
(Deeming, 1999; Dingle and Shanawany, 1999).
The life cycle and intermediate host of this tapeworm
is unknown (Deeming, 1999; Jurajda, 2002; Taylor et al.,
2007).
Ostrich chicks are the most susceptible and show signs of
infestation very slowly: gradual loss of condition, lethargy
and anaemia, loss of appetite, sometimes accompanied by
mild diarrhoea (Dingle and Shanawany, 1999; Taylor et al.,
2007).
Diagnosis is made by observing mature tapeworm
segments looking like white grains of rice in the faeces,
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AGRICULTURA TROPICA ET SUBTROPICA VOL. 45 (1) 2012
47
by observing eggs in faeces and by fl otation laboratory
techniques (Dingle and Shanawany, 1999; Cooper, 2005).
Treatment is fenbendazole (i.e. Panacur 2.5%), the dosage
15 mg/kg, orally, for 5 days (Jurajda, 2002), fenbendazole
(Panacur 2.5%) at the dose of 25 mg/kg after Dingle
and Shanawany (1999) or with resorantel (130 mg/kg),
niclosamide (100 mg/kg per orally), praziquantel (7.5 mg/
kg) orally (Deeming, 1999; Dingle and Shanawany, 1999;
Cooper, 2005; Taylor et al., 2007) or oxfendazole 5 mg/kg
orally (Jurajda, 2002; Cooper, 2005).
In Argentina, the anoplocephalid cestode Monoecocestus
rheiphilus was identifi ed in Rhea americana (Uhart et al.,
2006).
Nematoda
The wireworm (stomach worm) - Libyostrongylus
douglassii, a parasite of the digestive system causing
libyostrongylosis (gastric verminosis, “rotten stomach”), is
the economically most signifi cant gastrointestinal parasite
of ostriches, causing serious losses. It belongs to a genus
of nematodes in the family Trichostrongylidae (Yaman and
Durgut, 2005; Blood et al., 2007; Taylor et al., 2007).
Wireworms are very small, round, wire-like, yellowish
red worms of about 3 mm long, males being 4-6 mm and
females 5-6 mm long (Taylor et al., 2007).
Mature worms and late larval stages live in the crypts of
the glandular portion of the proventriculus and gizzard wall
(Deeming, 1999).
The life cycle of this parasite is typically strongyle (Taylor
et al., 2007). The parasite may be spread with infective
larvae on the pasture, by the spread of dung containing
parasite eggs, on footwear or on vehicle tires (Thompson
and Mason, 2006).
Young ostrich chicks are particularly susceptible to this
parasite (Dingle and Shanawany, 1999). They grow poorly,
are anaemic and death losses may be heavy (Blood et al.,
2007). Heavy infestation can produce impaction of the
proventriculus and may lead to a high mortality rate (Dingle
and Shanawany, 1999).
Diagnosis is based on fi nding wireworms in the
proventriculus or fi nding trichostrongyloid-type eggs in the
faeces of the host (Deeming, 1999; Dingle and Shanawany,
1999; Jurajda, 2002). There can be up to 3 million parasite
eggs passed per bird per day (Thompson and Mason, 2006).
Treatment is by ivermectin at 0.2 mg/kg orally (0.3 mg/kg
subcutaneously), fenbendazole (Panacur 2.5%) at 15 mg/kg
orally, or levamisole 30 mg/kg per orally (Deeming, 1999;
Dingle and Shanawany, 1999; Jurajda, 2002; Taylor et al.,
2007).
As prevention, levamisole is administered monthly to
chicks, four times a year to adult birds (Jurajda, 2002).
Wireworms are distributed in Africa, North America and
Europe (Taylor et al., 2007).
Appropriate hygiene and husbandry measures, including
removal of faeces aimed at limiting pasture contamination
help limit exposure to dangerous levels of infective larvae
(Taylor et al., 2007).
Two additional species of Libyostrongylus have been
described, namely L. magnus in Ukraine found in ostriches
originating from Ethiopia, and L. dentatus in the USA, found
in ostriches originating from Tanzania (Huchzermeyer,
2002). Their pathogenicity needs further investigation
(Eslami et al., 2007).
Trichostrongylus tenuis has been detected in caeca of
the emu, causing mucous haemorrhagic diarrhoea (Jurajda,
2002). This trichostrongylid nematode is widespread in
North America, Asia and Europe. Game birds, chickens,
ducks, geese, turkeys and emus are hosts of this parasite
(Taylor et al., 2007).
Codiostomum is a genus of parasitic nematodes of the
family Strongylidae. Codiostomum struthionis is a slightly
larger roundworm (Deeming, 1999). It is found in the large
intestine and caeca of the ostrich and it interferes with water
absorption (Dingle and Shanawany, 1999; Jurajda, 2002;
Blood et al., 2007; Ederli et al., 2008). It is distributed in
Africa (Taylor et al., 2007).
Codiostomum is about 1-1.5 cm long and white (Dingle
and Shanawany, 1999; Taylor et al., 2007). These nematodes
feed on the caecal mucus (Ederli et al., 2008). They are
exclusive to ostriches (Dingle and Shanawany, 1999). The
nematode life cycle has not yet been determined but it is
believed to be simple and direct (Taylor et al., 2007; Ederli
et al., 2008).
Heavy infestations are likely to be dangerous (Jurajda,
2002; Blood et al., 2007).
Treatment and control are the same as for Libyostrongylus
spp. (Taylor et al., 2007).
There were identifi ed ova of gastrointestinal nematodes
of the genus Capillaria in greater rheas’ faeces (Uhart et al.,
2006). Eggs of Capillaria sp. were found also in lesser rheas
(Chang Reissig et al., 2001).
Other nematodes related to ostriches are Struthiofi laria
megalocephala that affect body cavity of an ostrich, and
Paronchocerca struthionis, a fi lariad nematode, a parasite
of the respiratory system recovered from the lungs of an
ostrich in West Africa. Dicheilonema spicularum is a fi lariad
nematode parasiting in the subperitoneal connective tissue.
It is up to 2.1 m long, having 2.5 cm in diameter (Jurajda,
2002).
Heterakis dispar, a nematode common in poultry, was
recorded in the alimentary canals of ostriches on a farm in
Iran (Eslami et al., 2007). It was the fi rst report on H. dispar
in ostriches. Another nematode with clinical signifi cance is
Baylisascaris, which is transmitted to ostriches in the USA
by skunks or raccoons through faecal material in which the
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AGRICULTURA TROPICA ET SUBTROPICA VOL. 45 (1) 2012
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eggs remain viable in the soil for years. It is a neurotropic
parasite that causes CNS lesions and signs. Restricting
exposure to raccoon and skunk faeces is the best prevention
(Cooper, 2005).
Deletrocephalus dimidiatus is a strongylid nematode
parasite of the small intestine of greater and lesser rheas.
The life cycle is thought to be direct, with birds ingesting
infective larvae whilst foraging. There is little information
on the pathogenesis and treatment of this parasitosis in
rheas. The parasite is widespread in South America, North
America and Europe (Taylor et al., 2007).
Haemorrhagic tracheitis is caused by Syngamus trachea
in trachea of emus. Syngamus trachea is transmitted by
ingestion of its intermediate host with infectious larvae or
eggs from the ground. The defi nitive hosts are gallinaceous
and singing birds. Affected birds shake their heads and
symptoms of dyspnoea are present (Jurajda, 2002). This
parasite of chickens, turkeys, game birds, and various wild
birds is worldwide distributed (Taylor et al., 2007).
Treatment is by ivermectin (0.2 mg/kg of body mass),
fenbendazole or mebendazole. Preventive measures are the
same as in poultry (Jurajda, 2002).
Cyathostoma variegatum affects trachea and bronchi of ducks
and emus. It is a strongylid nematode 0.4-3 cm long. Females are
larger than males. It has been reported to cause severe respiratory
diseases in young emus in Australia. A number of hosts may be
involved in transmission. Ivermectin is likely to be effective as
for treatment and control (Taylor et al., 2007).
The following species have been diagnosed in rheas in
South America: Sicarius uncinipenis (Spiruria uncinipenis)
is a parasite of the digestive system of rheas. Proventriculus
of the birds is infested by these nematodes that measure 15-
20 mm (males) and 16-26 mm (females). Spiruria zschokkei
(Vaznema zschokkei) is another nematode found in rheas.
Proventriculus and gizzard of rheas can be infected by
Odontospiruria cetiopenis. Paradeletrocephalus minor is a
strongylid parasite infecting small intestine of greater and
lesser rheas (Taylor et al., 2007).
Trematoda
Philophthalmus gralli (eye fl uke) can infest ostrich as well
as several other birds. It requires specifi c freshwater snails
as intermediate hosts. It affects the eye and inhabits the
conjunctival sac, leading to conjunctivitis and lacrimation.
It is extremely small, no longer than 2-3 mm (Dingle and
Shanawany, 1999; Cooper, 2005). It is reported to cause
severe eye irritation and discharge in captive ostriches in
Florida (Kocan and Crawford, 2007).
Fascioliasis caused by Fasciola hepatica (liver fl uke) is
a zoonotic parasitic disease that occurs worldwide causing
important economic losses to sheep and cattle in commercial
herds. The infection also occurs in horses, pigs, deer, alpacas,
rabbits, kangaroos, wombats, possums, emus and humans. It
was also recorded in farmed and wild greater rheas in Brazil.
The intermediate hosts of F. hepatica are freshwater snails
of the genus Lymnaea (Soares et al., 2007).
EXTERNAL PARASITES
Several species of ectoparasites affect ratites of all
ages, both ratite specifi c and non-specifi c parasite species
(Jurajda, 2002).
Birds infested with ectoparasites generally exhibit irritation
and react by scratching. Lice and mites can be found by
examining the skin and feathers, especially around the vent,
legs, wings and neck. Night-time examination of birds may
detect parasites that feed at night, but specifi c identifi cation
of the parasite requires microscopic examination (Dingle
and Shanawany, 1999).
Biting lice (feather lice, ostrich lice), Struthiolipeurus
struthionis cause skin and feather damage in ostriches.
The lice and eggs can be seen in feathers close to the skin
(Jefferey, 1996; Jurajda, 2002; Cooper, 2005; Yaman and
Durgut, 2005; Taylor et al., 2007). They are narrow-bodied
lice with large heads (Taylor et al., 2007), not sucking blood
but feeding on feathers. It is diffi cult to spot them as they
can easily vanish under feathers. Struthiolipeurus eggs are
deposited on feather barbs on both sides along the shaft
(Deeming, 1999).
Treatment is 5% carbaryl dust at 14-day intervals (Jefferey,
1996).
A variety of other lice may also be found on ostrich
including Struthiolipeurus nandu and Struthiolipeurus
stresemanni (Yaman and Durgut, 2005; Taylor et al., 2007).
Meinertzhageniella lata and Meinertzhageniella schubarti
are lice that have been reported in rheas, Dahlemhornia
asymmetrica is an emu louse (Taylor et al., 2007).
The feather (quill, shaft) mites Gabucinia bicaudata
(Pterolichus bicaudatus) of ostriches live in the vein in the
ventral groove of the feather shaft and feed on blood and
gelatinous contents of feather sheath. They can be visualized
as small, reddish, dust-like, elongated particles in the feather
vein (Jefferey, 1996; Deeming, 1999; Jurajda, 2002; Cooper,
2005; Cooper and El Doumani, 2006;Taylor et al., 2007).
They are about 0.5 μm long (Taylor et al., 2007).
As ostriches moult continuously, there are always
immature feathers for them to feed on, although when their
population grows out of control they also attack the skin
causing scabies-like damage (Deeming, 1999).
Treatment for quill mites is ivermectin at 0.2 mg/kg at
30-day intervals (Jefferey, 1996; Cooper, 2005; Cooper and
El Doumani, 2006). Also G. sculpturata is common in the
ostrich (Taylor et al., 2007).
Struthiobosca struthionis fl ies from one animal to another
and irritates its host by sucking blood (Jurajda, 2002).
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AGRICULTURA TROPICA ET SUBTROPICA VOL. 45 (1) 2012
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A number of ticks of various species (e.g. Hyalomma and
Ambylomma spp.) affect ostriches, their main signifi cance
being disease vectors (Jefferey, 1996; Deeming, 1999). In
addition, the long mouth parts of the tick cause extensive
damage to the skin when they tunnel through the skin.
High infestation is associated with areas of high rainfall
and dense vegetation (Dingle and Shanawany, 1999;
Cooper, 2005). A preferred site of attachment is under the
chin (Deeming, 1999).
Species of the family of Cullicoides may act as a risk
factor in ratite industry as well. Biting insects are notorious
for irritating ostriches causing stress when they attack in
large numbers. They may also be vectors of Plasmodium
struthionis and Leucocytozoon struthionis and mechanical
transmitters of fowl pox virus or fi lariosis (Deeming, 1999;
Mushi et al., 1999).
In general, infestations by lice, mites, fl ies and ticks are
treated by regular and thorough spraying with synthetic
pyrethroids or by dosing or injecting with ivermectin.
Preparations containing lindane should not be used as this is
highly toxic to ostriches (Deeming, 1999).
The signifi cance of ticks, lice and mites should not be as
serious as in the south of Africa (Jurajda, 2002).
CONCLUSIONS
There is still very little known and written about both
internal and external parasites and veterinary care in
ostriches, emus and rheas. As ratite farming is quite a new
fi eld of animal production on a world-wide scale and only
few studies have been focused on these - for a prosperous
farm - important questions, more attention should be paid
to veterinary problems and health management of these
exotic birds. Due to the lack of information in ratite industry,
current and future breeders as well as veterinarians should
familiarize with basic aspects of ratite production.
Up to now the most endoparasite species are known in
ostriches, the same is in case of external parasite species of
ratites. The vast majority of informative materials on ratites
comes from other than European countries. Most scientifi c
publications and articles all over the world are devoted to
ostriches. Very few materials are focused on aspects of emu,
greater rhea and lesser rhea health care and related problems.
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Received for publication: June 2, 2011
Accepted for publication: January 16, 2012
Corresponding author:
Karel Nemejc
University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice
Department of Veterinary Disciplines and Quality of Products
Faculty of Agriculture
Studentská 13
370 05 České Budějovice
Czech Republic
e-mail: nemejckarel@seznam.cz
Telephone: +420 224 386 023
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