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©Journal of Sports Science and Medicine (2009) 8, 435-442
http://www.jssm.org
Received: 13 February 2009 / Accepted: 19 June 2009 / Published (online): 01 September 2009
A motivational music and video intervention improves high-intensity exercise
performance
Martin J. Barwood , Neil J.V. Weston, Richard Thelwell and Jennifer Page
Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK
Abstract
Music and video are utilised by recreational gym users to en-
hance their exercise experience. Music and video have not been
investigated for their combined ergogenic effect during high
intensity exercise. To induce fatigue, this study was performed
in warm (~26°C), moist conditions (~50%RH). Six, non-
acclimated, male participants took part in the study. Each par-
ticipant completed three 30-minute exercise bouts on a motor-
ised treadmill under three counterbalanced conditions on sepa-
rate days: control (CON), motivational music plus video inter-
vention (M), non-motivational intervention (NM). They com-
pleted a warm-up (5 km·h-1 [5 minutes], 9km·h-1 [10 minutes])
followed by a maximal effort run (15 minutes). Participants did
not receive any feedback of time elapsed, distance run or speed.
Measures: Distance covered (metres), heart rate, blood lactate
accumulation (Blac) and ratings of perceived exertion (RPE).
Participants in the M condition ran significantly further than in
the NM (M: 3524 [388]metres; NM: 3110 [561]metres; CON:
3273 [458]metres) and CON conditions, accumulated more Blac,
but did not increase their peak RPE rating (p < 0.05). The M
intervention improved tolerance of high intensity exercise in
warm conditions. It was proposed that a change in attentional
processing from internal (physical sensations) to external per-
spective (music and video) may have facilitated this improve-
ment. These findings have strong implications for improving
health, fitness and engagement in gym-based exercise programs.
Key words: Running, distraction, attention, lactate threshold.
Introduction
Music and video have separately been used to enhance
sports performance as part of preparatory routines (Szabo
et al., 1999; Templin and Vernacchia, 1995), skill acquisi-
tion (Onestak, 1997) or during the intervals between
games, halves or sequences (Bishop et al., 2007; Hall and
Erffmeyer, 1983). Considering the applied significance of
separate music and video interventions prior to and during
sports performance it is surprising that no studies have
examined the ergogenic effect of motivational music and
video interventions in combination. The applied efficacy
of combining music and video to influence sports per-
formance is appealing because, with the advancement of
communication technologies, both of these interventions
can easily be implemented at sporting venues and are
already utilised by recreational gym users to supplement
their exercise routines (Karageorghis et al., 2006a). In the
latter context it is likely that this type of intervention
could influence adherence and work intensity in an exer-
cise program culminating in health benefits as has already
been suggested with music alone (Karageorghis and
Terry, 1997).
The theoretical underpinning for the use of music
in this setting is more established than that of video (see
Bishop et al., 2007, Karageorghis et al., 2006a, Priest et
al., 2004). A greater number of studies have examined the
ergogenic effect of music, particularly prior to or during
high intensity exercise, during which, the synchronising
of physiological and motor responses during exercise with
music may be one means by which music is influential
(Brownley et al., 1995; Karageorghis, 2000; Simpson and
Karageorghis, 2006). The ergogenic effect of music on
high intensity exercise also extends to elite sports persons.
Elite runner, Heile Gebreselassie, used a high-tempo
popular music song to synchronise his strides in order to
optimise his pacing in winning a 5000m race in 2003
(Simpson and Karageorghis, 2006). Asynchronous music,
defined as not consisting of any conscious effort to syn-
chronize movements with music tempo, is also suggested
to carry this performance enhancing effect (Karageorghis,
2000).
The Brunel Music Rating Inventory-2 (BMRI-2;
Karageorghis et al, 2006a) and recently updated version
BMRI-3 (Karageorghis, 2008) have allowed researchers
to specifically identify music tracks that induce a motiva-
tional impact upon an athlete during sports performance.
Motivational tracks are thought to include a high tempo
beat (>120bpm), a strong rhythm, and to enhance energy
and induce bodily action (Karageorghis et al., 2006b).
Further influential characteristics of music have been
suggested to include the rhythm response, musicality,
cultural impact and association with the tracks (Karageor-
ghis et al., 1999). Therefore music tracks that encompass
all of these aspects would optimise moderate intensity
exercise performance. Bishop et al (2007) have recently
extended the study of music and performance providing a
rationale for the manipulation of emotional responses to
music in junior tennis players. Here it was suggested that
the right music can be used as a tool to ‘psych up’ in
preparation for performance (arousal regulation), shift
attentional focus (association/dissociation), boost self-
efficacy and encourage psychological skills usage (e.g.
mental imagery). Presumably during high intensity exer-
cise participants would aim to be psyched up, may wish to
dissociate from unpleasant exertion induced sensations
(untrained participants only; Brownley et al., 1995), feel
confident and employ appropriate psychological coping
strategies. Clearly the use of appropriately selected music
could induce an ergogenic effect.
Research article
Music, video and running performance
436
Theoretically, the supplementation of appropri-
ately chosen music with video footage has the potential to
enhance the beneficial effect of such interventions prior to
and during sports performance. Video footage of sports-
persons demonstrating mastery could manipulate the self-
efficacy of an individual as part of a combined music and
video intervention. This suggestion has already been
supported with the use of personal motivational videos
(PMVs) in competitive tennis players following a rela-
tively short intervention period (2 weeks; Bishop and
Forzoni, 2006). Self-efficacy is an individual’s belief
about their capabilities to produce designated levels of
performance that exercise influence over events that af-
fect their lives (Bandura, 1977). In relation to Bandura’s
(1977; 1997) self-efficacy theory, video footage of com-
petent sports performance may improve the performance
accomplishment (via self-reflection on previous success-
ful performances) and vicarious experience components
that are thought to comprise this construct thereby facili-
tating emotional control. It has already been suggested
that the combination of music with video can stimulate
positive images and help recreate feelings of confidence
and memories of previous performances (Forzoni, 2006).
The additive effect of music with images is further sup-
ported by evidence of stimulation of areas of the brain
with music and images that are thought to complete emo-
tional processing (Baumgartner et al., 2006). This evi-
dence appears to suggest that music and video combined
has the potential to stimulate self-efficacy and emotional
engagement and may therefore enhance motivation during
exercise.
Watching a video also has the potential to shift at-
tentional focus from internal stimuli to external cues.
Music researchers hypothesise this effect with asynchro-
nous music whereby attention is shifted from salient
physiological cues to the external components of music
particularly the rhythm and musicality components of a
given track (Karageorghis and Terry, 1997). Rejeski’s
(1985) parallel processing model explains this facilitative
change in attentional processing. The attentional field of
an individual is thought to narrow increasingly with ele-
vations in work intensity. During low and moderate exer-
cise external musical cues can prevail thereby reducing
RPE (Borg, 1982). However, this is only hypothesised to
the case at low/moderate intensities below the anaerobic
threshold above which salient physiological cues are
thought to dominate (Boutcher and Trenske, 1990). It is
possible that increasing the strength of external cues
through combining music and video may be sufficient to
influence RPE above the anaerobic threshold. If sup-
ported, this suggestion could have implications for trained
runners who are suggested to favour internal associative
perspectives whilst performing exercise (Morgan, 1977).
Evidence has been presented for the potential er-
gogenic effect of music and video on sports performance
which, if supported could have a more powerful influence
on attentional focus than video or no intervention alone.
This could have implications for those who exercise
whilst watching videos and listening to music. Recent
evidence has been presented demonstrating the efficacy of
other interventions, namely psychological skills training
(PST), in dealing with significant exertion induced physi-
cal sensations in hot conditions (Barwood, Thelwell and
Tipton, 2008). The aerobically trained participants in this
study showed an 8% (1.15km) improvement in distance
covered during a 90 minute time-trial run in hot (30°C),
moist conditions (50% relative humidity; RH) by sup-
pressing their temptation to reduce their work intensity
using a range of psychological skills. The authors sug-
gested that aspects of the PST (mental imagery, positive
self-talk) may have facilitated performance by distracting
the participant from unpleasant sensations elicited by
hyperthermia). Theoretically both music and video inter-
ventions may function in part in a similar way, that is by
distracting the individual from unpleasant sensations
elicited during high intensity exercise. This has yet to be
assessed under environmentally demanding temperature
conditions in which tolerance to unpleasant sensations
from exercise and heat will force performance to deterio-
rate at a faster rate (Tucker et al., 2004). This will provide
an improved backdrop for distinguishing the effects of
music and video interventions on performance.
Given the recent research and theoretical devel-
opments the aim of this study was to examine the benefi-
cial effect that a motivational music and video interven-
tion could have on high intensity exercise performance
under moderate environmental stress. The experiment
hypothesis was that a motivational music and video inter-
vention would significantly increase distance covered
during a time-trial running task and help participants
tolerate warm (~26°C), moist ambient conditions
(~50%RH). If the content of the video portion of the in-
tervention proved important, participants in a non-
motivational video condition would complete the shortest
distance.
Methods
Participants
The study protocol was approved in advance by the insti-
tutional ethics committee and the participants gave their
written informed consent to participate. Following medi-
cal checks, six healthy male, non-acclimated volunteers
acted as participants for the experiment (mean [s.d]; Age
20 [1] yrs; height 1.81 [0.04] m; mass 77 [10] kg). Par-
ticipants were non-smokers recruited from university
rugby and football teams, completed a minimum of four
hours of physical activity a week and were familiar with
treadmill running. Each participant refrained from strenu-
ous exercise, alcohol and caffeine consumption 24 hours
prior to participating in the study. The experimental pro-
cedures were conducted in accordance with the Declara-
tion of Helsinki, as adopted at the 52nd World Medical
Association general assembly, 2000.
Experimental design
Each participant performed three 30-minute (15 minute
warm-up, 15 minute self paced) maximal effort runs on a
treadmill in a climatic chamber held at a constant tem-
perature of ~26°C and ~50% relative humidity (RH).
During each run the participant underwent one of three
experiment manipulations comprising either a control
(CON) condition, motivational (M) or non-motivational
(NM) music and video intervention. To minimise any
Barwood et al.
437
order effects, the order of interventions were delivered in
a balanced crossover design. Prior to each run the partici-
pants were instructed to exert a maximal effort. Trials
were conducted at the same time of day on separate days
for each participant to minimise any circadian effects,
with a minimum of three days between each laboratory
visit. Following the completion of the study each partici-
pant completed a Social Validation Questionnaire (SVQ)
to measure his responses to each treatment intervention
delivered.
Procedure
The participants were required to visit the laboratory on 3
occasions. On arrival each participant changed into run-
ning clothes including shorts, socks, a running vest and
trainers; the same clothing was worn in each trial. Each
participant then attached a heart rate monitor (Team Po-
lar, UK) recording data every 6 seconds, to measure work
intensity during each run. Resting blood lactate (Blac)
concentration was measured (Biosen, C-line Sport, Ger-
many) via a finger prick blood sample taken by a quali-
fied phlebotomist. The difference between pre and post
exercise Blac (∆Blac) was used as an index of aerobic or
anaerobic metabolism during the maximal effort run. To
avoid the potential distraction by measurement equipment
(Karageorghis and Terry, 1997), no further measurement
devices were attached.
After instrumentation each participant entered a
climatic chamber The environmental conditions were
recorded each minute during the 30 minute trials by a
WBGT weather station (Grant Instruments, Cambridge,
U.K). Environmental conditions in the CON trial were
26.50 [1.20]°C and 45 [9]%, in the NM trial 26.60
[0.30]°C and 49 [4]% and the M trial 25.90 [0.70]°C and
45 [7]% RH and were not different from each other
(P>0.05). Such conditions are mild at rest but are suffi-
cient to provide a moderate thermal stimulus during high
intensity exercise producing a moderate risk of heat ill-
ness (Armstrong et al., 1996). The participant mounted a
treadmill (Powerjog GX200, Powerjog, U.K) and com-
pleted a standardised warm-up over a 15 minute period.
The warm-up comprised 5 minutes of exercise at 5 km·h-1
and a further 10 minutes at 9km·h-1 following which the
participant began his 15-minute maximal effort run. Dur-
ing this time the participant controlled his speed and did
not receive any feedback of time elapsed, distance cov-
ered or current running speed. Throughout the warm-up
and maximal effort run the treadmill incline was set to 1%
to reflect the metabolic energy demands of outdoor run-
ning (Jones and Doust, 1996). RPE (Borg, 1982) was
recorded at a minimum of 2-minute intervals; the fre-
quency of RPE measurement was limited to minimise any
temporal cues to the participant. Every effort was made
by the experimental team to eliminate temporal cues from
the immediate environment around the participant to
avoid anticipatory changes in work intensity toward the
end of the run. No verbal encouragement was given at any
stage. Following the cessation of the run the participant
slowed the treadmill to walking speed for 3 minutes and
exited the climatic chamber. A post exercise sample of
blood was drawn from the fingertip after 4 minutes for
blood lactate analysis. Participants were allowed to con-
sume normal tap water (19°C) ad libitum during each
trial. The distance covered in each trial was noted and
used as a performance indicator. In two of the three trials
the participants received the M video and music interven-
tion or NM video intervention projected (Sony SVGA,
VPL-DS100, Japan) onto the wall of the climatic chamber
~2 metres in front of the participant and through two
audio speakers (Goodmans 40W speakers, U.K) mounted
adjacent and above (1.80m), and below (0.40m) and be-
hind the treadmill respectively. The M and NM interven-
tions were controlled by a laptop computer (Toshiba Te-
cra M5, Japan) and were reproduced in each trial at the
same intensity (Goodmans MS 355, U.K) as measured by
a handheld sound level meter (Lutron SL-4001, Lutron
Electronic Enterpise Co, Taiwan); volume was 75db adja-
cent to the ear of the participant; >75db is classified as
loud music according to Karageorghis and Terry, 1997).
Development of Materials
Motivational Intervention
The music was selected by the experimenters on the basis
of tempo (e.g. Pendulum, ‘Slam’ 139 bpm), potential
affective content (e.g. Survivor, ‘Eye of the Tiger’
109bpm) or the inclusion of inspirational lyrics (e.g.
Lock, Stock and Barrel ‘Rise above it’). To avoid previ-
ous research criticisms for the arbitrary selection of music
in experiments using music interventions (Karageorghis
and Terry, 1997), participants rated the music portion of
the M intervention using the Brunel Music Rating Inven-
tory-3 (Karageorghis, 2008); this was undertaken follow-
ing completion of the study. Within the BMRI-3, the
motivational properties of each piece of music are rated
on a 7-point scale whereby the sum of the ratings indicate
the extent of the motivational properties (highly motiva-
tional rating 36-42; moderately motivating 24-35; <24
low/oudeterous). The warm-up section of the M interven-
tion was rated as 27 [4] (0-15 minutes) and the self-paced
exercise section of the M intervention was rated 36 [3]
(15-30 minutes). It has previously been noted that the
term ‘motivational music’ may oversimplify the effects
that music can have on exercise performance because of
the lack of distinction between the affective components
that music may include (Karageorghis et al., 2006a). Con-
sidering the exercise type (high intensity) high tempo
music (> 120 to 140bpm) was selected for the study with
tracks consistent with Gaston (1951) and Karageorghis et
al.’s (1999) suggestions of motivational music.
Controls were also implemented to account for po-
tential differences in the influence of the music portion of
the intervention between different age groups (participant
ages: 20 [1]), gender (male participants) and socio-
cultural background (Caucasians raised in the UK)
(Karageorghis et al, 2006a; Priest et al., 2004). Lastly,
although the music was of high tempo in nature it was not
designed to be synchronised with strides whilst partici-
pants were running. Asynchronous music has previously
been identified as background music similar to that pre-
sent in most gymnasia (Karageorghis et al., 2006b).
In order to stimulate the vicarious experience
component of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997) the video and
picture portions of the M intervention included pictures
Music, video and running performance
438
and videos of influential World and British sporting feats
that the participants were likely to have seen in the media
previously. (e.g. Kelly Holmes’ 2004 Olympic 1500m
and 800m gold-medal winning races; Sir Steve
Redgrave’s coxless fours 2000 Olympic gold medal win).
The videos included moving pictures of further inspira-
tional sporting moments including England’s 2003 Rugby
Union World cup winning drop goal (Jonny Wilkinson)
and Michael Owen’s 2001 FIFA World Cup qualifying
hat-trick versus Germany.
Non-Motivational Intervention
The NM intervention consisted of 30 minutes of public
speaking from a recent political trial in the USA. The
footage included verbal communication of evidence from
the prosecution, defence interspersed with passages of
speech from a judge. At no point did this footage include
motivational slogans or any music or synchronous activ-
ity. This intervention did not include any of the compo-
nents that have previously been noted to have an er-
gogenic effect during exercise, therefore the term non-
motivational was used. The NM footage was selected on
this basis.
Control condition
Participants in the control condition completed their
warm-up and maximal effort run undergoing the same
physiological and psychological measurements but did
not watch or listen to any video or music whilst running.
Social validation questionnaire (SVQ)
To improve external validity, following completion of the
study each participant was informed of the distance they
covered in each trial and completed an SVQ asking for a
rating on a 7 point Likert scale (1 – not at all impor-
tant/significant/satisfied/useful to 7 extremely impor-
tant/significant/satisfied/useful) whether they rated an
improvement in performance as important to them,
whether they rated this improvement as significant, how
satisfied they were with the intervention programme and
whether the intervention proved useful. Consistent with
the recommendations of Tenenbaum et al. (2004), the
participants were invited to provide any subjective com-
ments on the perceived influences of the interventions
received.
Data analysis
The following variables were analysed: Distance covered
in each trial (m) and ∆Blac, from each maximal effort run.
Data sets were analysed for differences between trial
using a Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA)
with repeated measures; significant effects were detected
using a post-hoc pairwise comparisons test with Bon-
ferroni adjustment for multiple comparisons. Statistical
findings are reported with their observed power (β) where
the chance of type II error is equal to 1- β. Where appro-
priate data sets were adjusted using a Greenhouse-Geisser
adjustment. For all statistical tests α level was set at 0.05.
Results
Performance indicators
Data are presented as mean [SD] where appropriate. Dis-
tances covered for each participant are presented in Figure
1. MANOVA indicated a significant difference between
the CON, NM and M conditions (F = 3.68, p =0.023, β =
0.77). The univariate statistic (F(2,10) = 11.29, p = 0.003, β
= 0.96) indicated that participants ran significantly fur-
ther in one trial with the post-hoc analysis showing that
participants covered a greater distance in the M condition
than both the NM (p = 0.049) and the CON (p = 0.019)
condition. There were no differences between the CON
and NM condition in distance covered (p > 0.05). On
average the participants ran 415 m (13%) and 251 m (8%)
further in the M than NM and CON respectively.
Figure 1. Individual and mean distance covered (m) during each 15 minute maximal effort run in participants 1-6.
Barwood et al.
439
Table 1. Blac accumulation, heart rate and RPEpeak in the CON, NM and M conditions.
∆Blac (mmol·L-1) Mean HR (bt·min-1) RPEpeak
Participant CON NM M‡ CON NM M CON NM M
1 11.34 7.67 8.66 181 182 170 19 18 19
2 1.50 4.36 8.62 197 192 190 19 19 19
3 3.85 1.55 6.91 168 160 177 16 12 19
4 7.96 5.43 6.81 188 182 192 20 19 19
5 3.01 1.81 5.28 180 170 185 17 19 18
6 3.70 -.09 8.42 171 161 183 17 19 16
Mean 5.23 3.46 7.45 181 174 183 18 18 18
† denotes M> CON and NM condition, ‡ denotes M>NM only.
Indicators of exercise intensity
Indicators of exercise intensity are presented in Table 1.
Univariate analysis indicated differences in Blac accumu-
lation between trials (F(2,10) = 5.33, p = 0.026, β = 0.70).
Post-hoc analysis indicated Blac accumulated to a signifi-
cantly greater extent (p = 0.05) in the M compared to the
NM condition. There were no further differences between
the other conditions (p > 0.05). On average, participants
produced an additional 4 mmol·L-1 of Blac in the M condi-
tion. Mean heart rate during maximal effort running is
displayed in Figure 2. Four of the six participants dis-
played elevated heart rates in the M compared to the NM
condition. Heart rate during treadmill running had a ten-
dency to be higher throughout the maximal effort run in
the M condition (Figure 2). RPE peak was similar during
each of the experimental manipulations and averaged 18
in each condition.
Social validation data, rated on a 7-point Likert
scale, indicated that the participants rated the improve-
ments in performance during the M intervention as impor-
tant (6 [0]), rated their improvement in performance as
significant (6 [1]), were satisfied with the intervention (6
[1]) and found the intervention useful (6 [2]).
Discussion
This study examined the effect a motivational music and
video intervention on high intensity exercise performance
in warm conditions. It was hypothesised that, since the
combination of music and video included more external
stimuli to induce a dissociative attentional strategy and
increase tolerance, that these interventions combined
would increase distance covered during a 15 minute
treadmill maximal effort run trial. The first hypothesis
was supported. The video content clearly played a role in
determining participants’ effort as they covered the least
distance in the NM conditions in which stimulating cues
were minimised. We also suggested that the magnitude
and number of external distractions caused by the combi-
nation of music with video would lead to a lowered RPE
rating despite running further. This is partially supported
by the unchanged RPE, having run 13% further, in the
motivational music and video intervention. In the NM
condition RPE was also not different raising the possibil-
ity of a change in perception.
Previous studies using only music as an interven-
tion have indicated that music is most efficacious during
low and moderate work intensities or in untrained partici-
pants (Boutcher and Trenske, 1990; Brownley et al.,
1995). The current study demonstrated that music with
video extended the beneficial effects of audiovisual inter-
ventions to include high intensity exercise. Participants
receiving the M intervention worked at a higher heart rate
and accumulated more Blac post-exercise. Boutcher and
Figure 2. Mean heart rate during each 15 minute maximal effort run in participants (n = 6).
Music, video and running performance
440
Trenske (1990) suggested that the physiological cues at
high exercise intensities (~170bpm), similar to those ob-
served in our study (~180 to 190bpm), were too strong for
their participants to ignore thereby restoring RPE to the
levels observed in a control condition. The current study
provides some tentative support for a change in percep-
tion and consequent benefit to exercise performance when
many stimulating distractions were present in the exercise
environment.
Rejeski’s (1985) parallel information processing
theory has consistently been used to interpret the er-
gogenic influence of music on performance at a range of
intensities (e.g. Simpson and Karageorghis, 2006; Carr et
al., 2006; Tenenbaum et al., 2004). This model could also
provide insight into the findings of the current study.
Rejeski (1985) suggests that both physiological and psy-
chological afferent inputs are processed preconsciously
and in parallel. During high intensity exercise, the band-
width for attentional processing narrows and only the
most salient cues are processed which are often, because
of their overwhelming strength, physiological in nature
(e.g. high heart rate, respiratory rate and raised Blac). The
inclusion of video may have provided some competition
for preconscious processing. In untrained runners this
could have a beneficial impact on exercise intensity and
adherence to exercise programmes potentially constituting
a health benefit. However, this could ultimately be dam-
aging for trained participants who favour an internal at-
tentional perspective, particularly during high intensity
exercise, because such cues carry important details of
pacing strategy for training or competition (Morgan,
1977). Music and video may force trained participants to
miss important pacing cues . The cohort of participants in
the current study were physically active but were not
trained runners per se. Further studies using trained run-
ners would elucidate the relationship between training
status and music and video interventions.
Conversely, the NM intervention may have in-
duced fewer stimulating distractions culminating in the
poorest maximal effort performance but interestingly it
did not differ in RPE rating. The subjective comments
made following the NM trial suggest that the exercise
intensity was perceived as harder because of the boredom
experienced. This emphasises the specificity of the con-
tent of the motivational music and video intervention in
the current study. Where possible the appropriate research
tools were used to create the music in the M intervention
(BMRI-2; Karageorghis et al, 2006a; BMRI-3; Karageor-
ghis, 2008) and an equivalent tool to develop the video
interventions may have proved useful. Some tentative
suggestions have been made in developing this personal
motivational videos (Forzoni, 2006), although these sug-
gestions have not been assessed empirically.
Indeed, the combination of music with video may
have functioned in other ways to facilitate high intensity
exercise performance. Rendi et al. (2008) suggested that
high-tempo music may only facilitate arousal during high
intensity exercise performance with no change in atten-
tional processing. Rendi et al. also reported unchanged
RPE ratings during rowing exercise but linked the facilita-
tive effect of music to a greater stroke frequency aug-
mented by elevations in arousal. As already noted, music
in combination with images stimulates many brain struc-
tures involved in emotional processing (Baumgartner et
al., 2006) and it appears feasible that the M intervention
facilitated arousal in the this manner. Some support for
this suggestion can be found in the post-trial comments
made in the current study where some participants felt
that they “wanted to run faster in the warm-up because of
the music and video” in the M condition whereas they
“wanted to slow the speed down because the trial felt
harder” in the NM condition. Interestingly, heart rate
appeared higher at the start of exercise (Figure 2) in the M
condition despite completing the same warm-up as in
other conditions suggesting some impact upon arousal.
Risk-taking images (e.g. climbing, surfing, parachuting)
have also been noted to carry an affective component (at
rest) and may also have contributed to the elevated heart
rate in the M condition (Gomez et al., 2005). Conversely
heart rate was lowest prior to the start of the maximal
effort run in the NM condition (Figure 2).
We can only assume that the video portion of the
M intervention boosted self-efficacy and future studies
should measure this possibility. It was proposed that vi-
carious experience and performance accomplishment may
be augmented by watching video footage including mas-
tery of skill in elite and sub-elite sports persons. This
could be further enhanced by the creation of personal
motivational videos which can be tailored to carry infor-
mation specific to the performer providing behavioural
reinforcement, augmenting psychological skills usage and
optimising the emotive response prior to or during exer-
cise (Forzoni, 2006). This represents an important future
direction for research in this area as a study using PMVs
in this setting will help develop a rationale for the use of
effective tools for sport psychology practitioners.
This study presents a number of interesting further
questions to be answered with subsequent studies. It is
difficult to separate out specifically how the video inter-
vention improved performance and some measure of the
participant reactions to the treatment interventions, over
and above the SVQ used here, would clarify this issue.
Similarly, further treatment conditions including only
music and only video would help to separate the additive
effect that these interventions combined may have but
these have been studied in part elsewhere (e.g. Bishop and
Forzoni, 2006; Brownley et al., 1995). The findings of the
current study provide a strong rationale to test this hy-
pothesis. This study does provide some ecological valid-
ity for the appeal of video and music in combination as an
ergogenic aid to exercise of short duration. Testing these
beneficial effects over longer duration may also prove
interesting as there may be a greater number physiological
inputs that comprise fatigue and compete for attentional
processing over longer exercise of greater duration, par-
ticularly in warm conditions (Tucker et al., 2004; Davis
and Bailey, 1997; Nybo and Nielsen, 2001). In relation to
ecological validity, the conditions of the study may be
similar to those experienced in non-air-conditioned car-
diovascular exercise suites of recreational gyms. Likewise
the intervention itself was highly rated according to the
SVQ in participants similar to those who may comprise a
Barwood et al.
441
population of gym users. The SVQ showed that the par-
ticipants in the current study were highly motivated, rated
their improvements as significant, were satisfied with the
intervention thereby indicating they would use this kind
of intervention in future.
Conclusion
In conclusion, this study showed that a combined music
and video intervention has a beneficial effect on exercise
of high intensity in conditions that may induce premature
fatigue. Video and music may primarily be of use to non-
competitive, recreational gym users who are more likely
to select dissociative attentional strategies to elongate or
tolerate a high intensity exercise workload. Future studies
should assess the efficacy of this intervention in trained
runners. In order to establish suitably motivating video
components to such interventions, research tools, similar
to the BMRI-3 (Karageorghis, 2008) should be developed
to aid practitioners and researchers in subsequent studies.
Acknowledgment
The authors would like to acknowledge the contributions of Mr Matthew
Panton, Mr Daniel Isaac, Mr Daniel Burns and Mr Phil Cable for their
assistance in the data collection process. The authors would also like to
acknowledge the participants for their reliability and forbearance and
our technicians for their help in setting up the laboratory.
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Music, video and running performance
442
Key points
• The study examined the ergogenic effect of a moti-
vational (M) video and music intervention on high-
intensity exercise performance in comparison to a
non-motivational (NM) condition and a control
(CON).
• Participants in the M condition ran significantly further
than in the NM (M: 3524 [388]metres; NM: 3110
[561]metres; CON: 3273 [458]metres) and CON condi-
tions, accumulated more Blac, but did not increase their
peak RPE rating (p < 0.05).
• It was proposed that a change in attentional processing
from internal (physical sensations) to external perspective
(music and video) may have facilitated this improvement.
• These findings have strong implications for improving
health, fitness and engagement in gym-based exercise
programs.
AUTHORS BIOGRAPHY
Martin BARWOOD
Employment
Senior Lecturer, Department of Sport and
Exercise Science, University of Ports-
mouth
Degree
BSc, PhD
Research interest
Human and applied physiology.
E-mail: martin.barwood@port.ac.uk
Neil WESTON
Employment
Principal lecturer Department of Sport and
Exercise Science, University of Ports-
mouth
Degree
BSc, PhD
Research interest
Sport and exercise psychology.
E-mail: neil.weston@port.ac.uk
Richard THELWELL
Employment
Principal lecturer Department of Sport and
Exercise Science, University of Ports-
mouth
Degree
BSc, PhD
Research interest
Sport and exercise psychology.
E-mail: richard.thelwell@port.ac.uk
Jennifer PAGE
Employment
Senior lecturer Department of Sport and
Exercise Science, University of Ports-
mouth
Degree
BSc, MSc
Research interest
Sport and exercise psychology.
E-mail: jenny.page@port.ac.uk
Martin J. Barwood
Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Ports-
mouth, Portsmouth, UK
