Content uploaded by David Behm
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by David Behm
Content may be subject to copyright.
©Journal of Sports Science and Medicine (2012) 11, 279-285
http://www.jssm.org
Received: 11 January 2012 / Accepted: 26 February 2012 / Published (online): 01 June 2012
Effects of dynamic and static stretching within general and activity specific
warm-up protocols
Michael Samson 1, Duane C. Button 1, Anis Chaouachi 2 and David G. Behm 1
1 School of Human Kinetics and Recreation, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St John’s, Newfoundland, Canada
2 Research Unit ''Evaluation, Sport, Health'' National Center of Medicine and Science in Sports, Tunis, Tunisia
Abstract
The purpose of the study was to determine the effects of static
and dynamic stretching protocols within general and activity
specific warm-ups. Nine male and ten female subjects were
tested under four warm-up conditions including a 1) general
aerobic warm-up with static stretching, 2) general aerobic warm-
up with dynamic stretching, 3) general and specific warm-up
with static stretching and 4) general and specific warm-up with
dynamic stretching. Following all conditions, subjects were
tested for movement time (kicking movement of leg over 0.5 m
distance), countermovement jump height, sit and reach flexibil-
ity and 6 repetitions of 20 metre sprints. Results indicated that
when a sport specific warm-up was included, there was an
0.94% improvement (p = 0.0013) in 20 meter sprint time with
both the dynamic and static stretch groups. No such difference
in sprint performance between dynamic and static stretch groups
existed in the absence of the sport specific warm-up. The static
stretch condition increased sit and reach range of motion (ROM)
by 2.8% more (p = 0.0083) than the dynamic condition. These
results would support the use of static stretching within an activ-
ity specific warm-up to ensure maximal ROM along with an
enhancement in sprint performance.
Key words: Flexibility, sports performance, jumps, reaction
time.
Introduction
The evidence for stretch-induced performance decrements
(see review; Behm and Chaouachi, 2011) has led to a
paradigm shift on optimal stretching routines within a
warm-up. In view of the bulk of static stretch-induced
impairment evidence, many athletic teams and individuals
have now incorporated dynamic stretching into their
warm-up. Dynamic stretching would be expected to be
superior to static stretching due to the closer similarity to
movements that occur during subsequent exercises
(Torres et al., 2008). However the evidence is not unani-
mous. Studies implementing dynamic stretching have
reported both facilitation of power (Manoel et al., 2008),
sprint (Fletcher and Anness, 2007; Little and Williams,
2006) and jump performance (Holt and Lambourne, 2008)
as well as no adverse effect (Samuel et al., 2008; Torres et
al., 2008; Unick et al., 2005; Wong et al., 2011). Static
stretch-induced sprint performance impairments were
diminished following 6 weeks of static stretch and sprint
training (Chaouachi et al., 2008). Furthermore, 3 days of
static stretching with aerobic endurance exercises did not
adversely affect repeated sprint abilities (Wong et al.,
2011).
Much of the research would suggest that combin-
ing static and dynamic stretching may attenuate the dele-
terious effects of the static stretching within a warm-up
(Behm and Chaouachi, 2011). For example, a group of
elite athletes demonstrated no deleterious effects from
sequencing static, dynamic stretches and different intensi-
ties of stretch (eight combinations) on sprint, agility and
jump performance (Chaouachi et al., 2010). Similarly,
Gelen (2010) combined static and dynamic stretching
with a prior aerobic warm-up and found no adverse ef-
fects upon sprint time, soccer dribbling ability or soccer
penalty kick distance. Although there are discrepancies
whether dynamic stretching improves or has no effect on
performance there are no studies to our knowledge that
report dynamic stretch-induced impairments to subse-
quent performance.
Hence, why even consider including static stretch-
ing in a warm-up? Murphy et al. (2010) suggests that
there are a number of sports where improved static flexi-
bility could augment performance. A goalie in ice hockey
must abduct their legs when in a butterfly position, gym-
nasts perform a split position, wrestling, martial arts,
synchronized swimming, figure skating, are examples of
the necessity of a pronounced static range of motion.
Some dynamic stretching studies have reported similar
increases in static flexibility as static stretching (Beedle
and Mann, 2007; Herman and Smith, 2008), but other
studies have indicated that dynamic stretching is not as
effective at increasing static flexibility as static stretching
(Covert et al., 2010; O'Sullivan et al., 2009). Hence, it
could be important to include static stretching for sport
specific flexibility.
Most of the stretching studies conducted in the past
15 years have not included all components of the typical
warm-up. Whereas, many investigations have included an
initial general aerobic activity followed by a stretching
routine, far fewer have integrated the sport specific activi-
ties that normally follow the first two warm-up compo-
nents. A few warm-up studies have included resistance
exercises to the warm-up to potentially provide an aug-
mentation of subsequent performance. Whereas, studies
implementing weighted vests (Faigenbaum et al., 2006),
squats with 20% of body mass (Needham et al., 2009),
and resisted leg presses (Abad et al., 2011) have shown
improvements in subsequent vertical jump height and leg
press strength respectively, other studies that added resis-
tance exercises reported no augmentation of subsequent
jump performance (Turki et al., 2011). Similarly, there are
reports of improved performance with the addition of
Research article
Dynamic and static stretching with activity
280
specific dynamic warm-up activities such as jumps
(Vetter, 2007; Young and Behm, 2002) and volleyball
activities (Saez et al., 2007). Conversely, there were no
significantly greater improvements in vertical and long
jump performance with children who added jumps to the
dynamic stretching routine versus just performing dy-
namic stretches. Thus further research is necessary to
clarify whether sport specific activities within a warm-up
can either suppress the often-reported static stretch-
induced impairments or augment subsequent performance
when performed in conjunction with dynamic stretching.
The purpose of the present study was to compare
the effects of static and dynamic stretching on subsequent
performance following general and activity specific warm
ups. The experimental protocol was designed to be simi-
lar to practical warm-up that is used with actual training
conditions. It was hypothesized that the inclusion of an
activity specific component to the warm-up would im-
prove subsequent performance. A second hypothesis was
that the static stretching component would impair subse-
quent performance compared to dynamic stretching.
Methods
Subjects
Nine male (27.8 ± 8.4 years, 90.6 ± 11.1 kg, 1.79 ± 0.06
m) and 10 female (22.2 ± 3.3 years, 55.8 ± 5.2 kg, 1.65 ±
0.08 m) university students and staff volunteered for the
experiment. All participants regularly trained either aero-
bically or with resistance training and were actively in-
volved in recreational or competitive sports. Participants
represented a variety of sports including squash, hockey,
resistance training, and cross-country running. Frequency
and duration of participation ranged from 3-5 days per
week and 45-90 minutes per session. They were verbally
informed of the protocol, read and signed a consent form.
Each participant also read and signed a Physical Activity
Participation Questionnaire (PAR-Q: Canadian Society
for Exercise Physiology) to ensure their health status was
adequate for participation in the study. The Memorial
University of Newfoundland Human Investigations
Committee sanctioned the study.
Independent variables
Participants were required to complete four warm-up
conditions. The order of the conditions was randomized.
1. General warm-up with dynamic stretch: This
condition had participants run around a 200-meter track
for 5 minutes maintaining a heart rate of 70% of the indi-
vidual’s age predicted maximal heart rate. Heart rate was
monitored with a heart rate monitor (Polar A1 heart rate
monitor; Woodbury NY) secured around the participant’s
chest at the level of the ziphoid process Participants were
also informed and monitored by the investigator to ensure
a light perspiration occurred at the completion of the run
in order to ensure an increase in core temperature. The
dynamic stretching included 3 sets of 30 seconds each of
hip extension / flexion, adduction / abduction with fully
extended legs, trunk circles and passive ankle rotation. All
stretches were performed dynamically to full ROM at a
moderate speed of approximately 1 Hz (approximately 30
repetitions per set) such that there was continuous motion,
but without enough speed to force the stretch beyond
normal ROM. Participants were instructed not to exceed
their point of discomfort or a pain threshold when per-
forming ROM exercises. The rate of dynamic stretching
was monitored with a metronome.
2. General and specific warm-up with dynamic
stretch: This condition followed the same protocol as
condition 1, however there was an addition of a sport
specific warm-up, which included three-sprint specific
exercises performed in random order. These exercise
included high knee (hip flexion to approximately 90°)
skipping, high knee (hip flexion to approximately 90°)
running, and butt kick (knee flexion with the objective to
touch the buttocks with the heel) running. Each task was
performed over a 20-metre distance and repeated twice
before moving onto the next task.
3. General warm-up with static stretch: This condi-
tion followed the same guidelines for the general warm-
up as with the previously described conditions. Static
stretching exercises were implemented with no subse-
quent specific warm-up activities (running and skipping).
Following the general warm-up participants performed a
series of static stretches in randomized order including
supine partner assisted hamstring stretch (hip flexion with
extended leg), kneeling partner assisted quadriceps stretch
(front knee and hip flexed at 90°, rear knee on floor and
flexed to maximum ROM), seated partner assisted low
back stretch (hip flexion to maximum ROM with legs
partially abducted and knees slightly flexed), and standing
wall supported calf stretch with the other leg in dorsiflex-
ion. All stretches were repeated for 3 sets of 30 seconds
and held at the point of mild discomfort.
General and specific warm-up with static stretch:
This condition followed the general warm-up outlined in
all 3 previous conditions followed by the specific warm-
up used in condition 2 and the static stretching from con-
dition 3.
Performance tests
The order of testing began with movement time (MT)
followed by countermovement jump (CMJ), sit and reach
flexibility and concluded with repeated sprints. These
tests were not conducted in a randomized order as the MT
could be affected by the possible potentiating effects of
the CMJ or possible fatiguing effects of the repeated
sprints. Furthermore, the CMJ height could be affected by
the possibility of fatigue associated with the repeated
sprints. Hence a consistent order of testing was felt to be
more reliable than a randomized order in this experiment.
Testing was conducted prior to the warm-up conditions
and commenced 3 minutes following the interventions
(post-warm-up).
MT was measured with a contact mat and a light
gate apparatus. The subject was to activate the timer by
touching their foot to the contact mat and then immedi-
ately flex the hip with maximal acceleration in a kicking
motion through a light gate set at 0.5 meters from the mat.
This test was utilized to simulate the forward stride during
the sprint action. Data was collected using the Innerva-
tions © Kinematic Measurement System, (v. 2004.2.0) on
Samson et al.
281
a laptop computer. This process was repeated 3 times
with the fastest movement time used for analysis.
CMJ jump height was measured using a contact
mat, which calculated flight time. Data was collected
using the Innervations © Kinematic Measurement Sys-
tem, (v. 2004.2.0) on a laptop computer. Participants
were instructed to jump as high as they could immediately
following a semi-squat counter movement. During the
countermovement, participants used their preferred tech-
nique, allowing them to swing the arms. None of the
participants during the descent phase brought their thighs
lower than parallel to the floor. During the jump phase,
the arms were allowed to full extend above the head
(Behm et al., 2004; Kean et al., 2006; Power et al., 2004).
This process was repeated 2 times with the highest jump
used for analysis.
Using a sit and reach testing device (Acuflex 1,
Novel products Inc., USA), participants sat with leg
straight (extended) and feet flat against the sit and reach
device. They exhaled and stretched forward as far as
possible with one hand over the other and finger tips in
line and held the end point for 2 seconds. This process
was repeated 2 times with the greatest ROM used for
analysis. This is the protocol prescribed by the Canadian
Society for Exercise Physiology (CSEP) to determine
flexibility and used in other studies from this laboratory
(Behm et al., 2006; Power et al., 2004).
For the repeated 20m sprints, participants ran six
20 metre sprints with 30s recovery between each sprint.
Participants started one stride behind the contact mat.
Sprint time over the 20 meters was measured from the
contact with the switch mat until passing through the light
gate apparatus at 20 metres. Only one series of 6 sprints
was performed due to the possibility of fatigue. Data was
collected using the Innervations © Kinematic Measure-
ment System, (v. 2004.2.0) on a laptop computer.
Statistical analysis
A 2 way repeated measures ANOVA (4x2) with factors
being conditions (dynamic stretch with prior general
warm-up, static stretch with prior general warm-up, dy-
namic stretch with general and specific warm-up, and
static stretch with general and specific warm-up) and time
(pre- and post-warm-up) was performed to determine if
significant differences existed between the warm-up con-
ditions. (GB Stat Dynamic Microsystems, Silver Springs
Maryland USA). An alpha level of p < 0.05 was consid-
ered statistically significant. If significant difference were
detected, a Tukeys –Kramer post-hoc procedure was used
to identify the significant main effects and interactions.
All data are reported as means and standard deviations.
Between test reliability was analyzed by comparing the
pre-test measures of the four interventions, with an intra-
class correlation coefficient (ICC) at a 95% confidence
interval. Effect sizes (ES = mean change / standard devia-
tion of the sample scores) were also calculated and re-
ported. Cohen applied qualitative descriptors for the
effect sizes with ratios of <0.41, 0.41-0.7, and >0.7 indi-
cating small, moderate and large changes respectively.
Results
All measures exhibited excellent reliability with ICC of
0.96, 0.92, 0.90, 0.87 for the MT, sit and reach test, CMJ
and repeated sprints respectively. There were no signifi-
cant main effects or interactions involving the experimen-
tal conditions for MT and CMJ height.
Sit and reach
There was a significant main effect for conditions (p =
0.0083; f = 24.81, ES = 0.33) with both static stretch
conditions providing an average 2.8% greater sit and
reach score than two conditions involving dynamic stretch
(Figure 1).
Figure 1. Figure illustrates a significant (p = 0.0083) main
interaction for condition. Columns and bars represent
means and SD respectively. Arrows indicate the significantly
greater sit and reach scores for the general (GenStat) and
specific (SpecStat) static stretch conditions versus the dy-
namic stretching conditions. The acronyms are defines as follows:
GenStat: general warm-up with static stretching, SpecStat: general and
specific warm-up with static stretching, Gen Dyn: general warm-up with
dynamic stretching, SpecDyn: general and specific warm-up with dy-
namic stretching.
Sprint time
There were significant main effects for condition, and
sprint factors. A main effect for condition (p = 0.0013; f =
37.84, ES = 0.36) indicated that the warm-ups involving a
specific warm-up component resulted in a 0.94% im-
provement in sprint time versus the warm-ups involving
only a general warm-up (Figure 2). A main effect for
sprint time (p = 0.007; f = 20.34, ES = 0.13) showed a
fatigue effect with the fifth sprint being 1.2% significantly
slower than the second sprint (Table1).
Table 1. Mean (±SD) sprint times collapsed over gender.
Sprint Males and Females combined averages
1 3.40 (.35)
2 3.39 (.36) *
3 3.40 (.38)
4 3.42 (.37)
5 3.44 (.38) *
6 3.41 (.36)
* indicate a significant (p = 0.007) difference between the
second and fifth sprint.
Discussion
The most important findings of the present study were
that the addition of an activity specific warm-up enhanced
sprint performance and that the static stretching protocol
resulted in a greater sit and reach score than dynamic
stretching.
Dynamic and static stretching with activity
282
Figure 2. Figure illustrates a significant (p = 0.0013) main
effect for condition. Column and bars represent mean and
SD respectively. Arrows indicate a significantly decreased
sprint time between a general and specific warm-up with
static stretching versus a general and specific warm-up with
dynamic stretching. The acronyms are defined as follows: GenStat:
general warm-up with static stretching, SpecStat: general and specific
warm-up with static stretching, Gen Dyn: general warm-up with dy-
namic stretching, SpecDyn: general and specific warm-up with dynamic
stretching.
In accordance with the first hypothesis, whether the
activity specific warm-up protocol was implemented with
static or dynamic stretching, there was a significant im-
provement in sprint time. A similar intervention was used
by Rosenbaum et al. (1995) who reported a decreased
time to peak force with a tendon tap of the triceps surae
following static stretching and treadmill running warm-up
and an increased time to peak force when measured after
static stretching alone. It seems that the addition of a
specific warm-up helped to minimize or negate the per-
formance decrements of static stretching alone. Skof and
Strojnik (2007) found that the addition of sprinting and
bounding to a warm-up consisting of slow running and
stretching resulted in an increase in muscle activation
when compared to slow running and stretching alone.
Young and Behm (2002) conducted a study involving a
variety of warm-ups including a general aerobic warm-up
(4 minute run), static stretching alone, general warm-up
and static stretch, and a full warm-up with a general
warm-up (4 min run), static stretch and practice CMJ.
Generally the warm-ups that involved static stretching
resulted in the lowest scores whereas the general warm-up
or general warm-up, static stretch and specific warm-up
(CMJ) condition produced the highest explosive force
scores. Hence, similar to the present study, specific warm-
up activities enhanced performance and minimized the
expected static stretch deficits.
The lack of static stretching-induced decrements
may also be related to the duration of stretching. Behm
and Chaouachi (2011) in an extensive review identified
that a duration of greater than 90s of static stretching was
a common duration in the literature where static stretching
generally produced impairments. Although the literature
was not unanimous, a greater proportion of studies that
utilized static stretching for less than 90s did not exhibit
subsequent performance impairments. A similar conclu-
sion was published in a review by Kay and Blazevich
(2012) who indicated that the detrimental effects of static
stretching are mainly attributed to static stretch durations
of 60s or greater. The 3 sets of 30s stretches held to the
point of mild discomfort used in the present study may
not have elicited substantial detrimental effects when
combined with general and specific warm-up activities.
The improved sprint performance following the
addition of the activity specific warm up may be attrib-
uted to a variety of physiological factors. The additional
warm up time may have led to a further increase in mus-
cle temperature, nerve conduction velocity, and muscle
enzymatic cycling, along with a decrease in muscle vis-
cosity (Bishop, 2003). Also, as indicated by Behm and
Chaouachi (2011) and Turki et al. (2011) post activation
potentiation (PAP) may be induced even with lower in-
tensity dynamic movements. Turki et al. (2011) reported
that performing 1- 2 sets of active dynamic stretches in a
warm-up enhanced 20-m sprint performance, which they
attributed to PAP. PAP is suggested to increase cross
bridge cycling via increased myosin phosphorylation of
the regulatory light chains (Tillin and Bishop, 2009).
There may also be neural potentiation resulting in a de-
crease of fast twitch motor unit thresholds resulting in an
increase in motor unit recruitment and firing frequency
(Layec et al., 2009). The increased firing frequency would
be related to an increase rate of force development (Miller
et al., 1981).
It could be argued that an approximately 1% statis-
tically significant improvement in sprint time is not clini-
cally meaningful. An effect size calculation for this meas-
ure produced a ratio of 0.36, which is described as a small
but not trivial magnitude of change (Rhea, 2004).
Whereas an approximate 1% change in sprint time might
be inconsequential for a recreational athlete, it could
prove to be very consequential to an elite athlete.
Significant differences were not found during for
the CMJ test. This is consistent with results from other
similar studies (Knudson et al. 2001, Power et al. 2004,
Unick et al. 2005) While others (Bradley et al., 2007)
noted a decrease in vertical jump performance following a
static stretching condition there was a less significant
decrease in performance following ballistic stretching.
Perrier et al. (2011) found that dynamic stretch yielded
significantly (p=0.004) greater CMJ results than static
stretching, although static stretching was not significantly
different from the no stretch protocol. The warm-up pro-
tocols in the present study had no effect on CMJ perform-
ance, however it should be noted that a static stretch only
(no general warm-up) group was not used in the present
study. This lack of change in CMJ height with the specific
warm-up activities may be due to a change in jump strat-
egy as the musculotendonous unit (MTU) becomes more
compliant (McNeal et al., 2010). Power et al. (2004)
concluded that a more compliant MTU might be more
beneficial when higher forces are involved. The Power et
al. study did not report any CMJ impairment following
static stretching but did report an increase in contact time
(i.e. change in jump strategy). Conversely, Holt and Lam-
bourne (2008) observed a decrease in vertical jump per-
formance when static stretch was used following a general
warm-up. Similarly Needham et al. (2009) observed
superior sprint and jump performance when dynamic
stretching was used but a decrement with static stretching.
The Needham et al. study however used 10 minutes of
static stretching whereas the current study used 3 repeti-
Samson et al.
283
tions of 30s. This significant time difference may account
for the difference in performance results.
When static stretching was implemented within the
testing conditions, sit and reach scores exceeded scores
attained by conditions using dynamic stretching. The
warm-up protocols (general versus general and specific)
implemented in the present study had no additional effects
on sit and reach results. The superiority of static stretch-
ing for increasing static ROM concurs with a number of
other studies (Bandy and Irion, 1994, Power et al., 2004,
Beedle and Mann, 2007, O'Sullivan et al., 2009, Covert et
al., 2010). Alternatively other studies (Amiri-Khorasani et
al., 2011, Perrier et al., 2011, Samukawa et al., 2011)
have indicated that dynamic stretching can produce equal
or greater results in dynamic and static ROM tests. Per-
rier et al. (2011) compared the effects of static and dy-
namic stretching on sit and reach flexibility and unlike the
present study found no difference in sit and reach score
between static and dynamic treatments. Static stretching
is known to increase muscle compliance to stretch as well
as decrease muscle stiffness and viscosity (Behm and
Chaouachi 2011). Magnusson et al. (1996) indicated that
increased flexibility could be primarily attributed to an
increase in stretching tolerance. Neural effects may also
play a role as Avela (1999) reported a decreased H-reflex
contributing to subsequent muscle relaxation due to de-
creased reflex activity. Although the precise mechanisms
underlying the superiority of static stretching for ROM
increases in the present study cannot be verified, the simi-
larity of the static stretch intervention and sit and reach
testing procedure may play a significant role. Following
the concept of mode or testing specificity (Behm and
Sale, 1993), the static stretching protocol in the present
study more closely resembled the sit and reach test than
the dynamic stretching exercises.
Conclusion
Overall the present study has demonstrated that the use of
an activity specific warm-up may be useful to enhance
sprint performance even with the inclusion of static
stretching. Interestingly the study has also shown that
static stretching had superior results for improving static
sit and reach ROM. Such results would support the use of
relatively short duration (90s) static stretching within an
activity specific warm-up to ensure maximal ROM in
conjunction with enhanced sprint performance.
References
Abad, C.C., Prado, M.L., Ugrinowitsch, C., Tricoli, V. and Barroso, R.
(2011) Combination of general and specific warm-ups improves
leg-press one repetition maximum compared with specific
warm-up in trained individuals. Journal of Strength and
Conditioning Research 25, 2242-2245.
Amiri-Khorasani, M., Abu Osman, N.A. and Yusof, A. (2011) Acute
effect of static and dynamic stretching on hip dynamic range of
motion during instep kicking in professional soccer players.
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 25, 1647-1652.
Avela, J., KyrîlÑinen, H. and Komi, P.V. (1999) Altered reflex
sensitivity after repeated and prolonged passive muscle
stretching. Journal of Applied Physiology 86, 1283-1291.
Bandy, W.D. and Irion, J.M. (1994) The effect of time on the static
stretch of the hamstrings muscles. Physical Therapy 74, 845-
850.
Beedle, B.B. and Mann, C.L. (2007) A comparison of two warm-ups on
joint range of motion. Journal of Strength and Conditioning
Research 21, 776-779.
Behm, D.G., Bambury, A., Cahill, F. and Power, K. (2004) Effect of
acute static stretching on force, balance, reaction time, and
movement time. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise
36, 1397-1402.
Behm, D.G., Bradbury, E.E., Haynes, A.T., Hodder, J.N., Leonard, A.M.
and Paddock, N.R. (2006) Flexibility is not related to stretch-
induced deficits in force or power. Journal of Sports Science
and Medicine 5, 33-42.
Behm, D.G., Button, D.C. and Butt, J.C. (2001) Factors affecting force
loss with prolonged stretching. Canadian Journal of Applied
Physiology 26, 261-272.
Behm, D.G. and Chaouachi, A. (2011) A review of the acute effects of
static and dynamic stretching on performance. European
Journal of Applied Physiology 111, 2633-2651.
Behm, D.G. and Sale, D.G. (1993) Velocity specificity of resistance
training. Sports Medicine 15, 374-388.
Bishop, D. (2003) Warm up I: potential mechanisms and the effects of
passive warm up on exercise performance. Sports Medicine 33,
439-454.
Bradley, P.S., Olsen, P.D. and Portas, M.D. (2007) The effect of static,
ballistic, and proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation
stretching on vertical jump performance 176. Journal of
Strength and Conditioning Research 21, 223-226.
Chaouachi, A., Castagna, C., Chtara, M., Brughelli, M., Turki, O., Galy,
O., Chamari, K. and Behm, D.G. (2010) Effect of warm-ups in-
volving static or dynamic stretching on agility, sprinting, and
jumping performance in trained individuals. Journal of Strength
and Conditioning Research 24(8), 2001-2011.
Chaouachi, A., Chamari, K., Wong, P., Castagna, C., Chaouachi, M.,
Moussa-Chamari, I. and Behm, D.G.(2008) Stretch and sprint
training reduces stretch-induced sprint performance deficits in
13- to 15-year-old youth. European Journal of Applied Physi-
ology 104(3), 515-522.
Cornwell, A., Nelson, A. and Sidaway, B. (2002) Acute effects of
stretching on the neuromechanical properties of the triceps surae
muscle complex. European Journal of Applied Physiology 86,
428-434.
Costa, P.B., Graves, B.S., Whitehurst, M. and Jacobs, P.L. (2009) The
acute effects of different durations of static stretching on
dynamic balance performance. Journal of Strength and
Conditioning Research 23, 141-147.
Covert, C.A., Alexander, M.P., Petronis, J.J. and Davis, D.S. (2010)
Comparison of Ballistic and Static Stretching on Hamstring
Muscle Length Using an Equal Stretching Dose. Journal of
Strength and Conditioning Research 24, 3008-3014.
Cramer, J.T., Housh, T.J., Johnson, G.O., Miller, J.M., Coburn, J.W. and
Beck, T.W. (2004) Acute effects of static stretching on peak
torque in women. Journal of Strength and Conditioning
Research 18, 236-241.
Deschenes, M.R. and Kraemer, W.J. (2002) Performance and
physiologic adaptations to resistance training. American Journal
of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation 81, S3-16.
Faigenbaum, A.D., McFarland, J.E., Schwerdtman, J.A., Ratamess,
N.A., Kang, J. and Hoffman, J.R. (2006) Dynamic warm-up
protocols, with and without a weighted vest, and fitness
performance in high school female athletes. Journal of Athletic
Training 41, 357-363.
Fletcher, I.M. and Anness, R. (2007) The acute effects of combined
static and dynamic stretch protocols on fifty-meter sprint
performance in track-and-field athletes. Journal of Strength and
Conditioning Research 21, 784-787.
Fowles, J.R., Sale, D.G. and MacDougall, J.D. (2000) Reduced strength
after passive stretch of the human plantar flexors. Journal of
Applied Physiology 89, 1179-1188.
Gelen, E. (2010)Acute effects of different warm-up methods on sprint,
slalom dribbling, and penalty kick performance in soccer play-
ers. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 24(4), 950-
956.
Guissard, N., Duchateau, J. and Hainaut, K. (2001) Mechanisms of
decreased motoneurone excitation during passive muscle
stretching. Experimental Brain Research 137, 163-169.
Gursoy, R. (2010) Sex differences in relations of muscle power, lung
function, and reaction time in athletes. Perceptual and Motor
Dynamic and static stretching with activity
284
Skills 110, 714-720.
Handrakis, J.P., Southard, V.N., Abreu, J.M., Aloisa, M., Doyen, M.R.,
Echevarria, L.M., Hwang, H., Samuels, C., Venegas, S.A. and
Douris, P.C. (2010) Static Stretching Does Not Impair
Performance in Active Middle-Aged Adults. Journal of
Strength and Conditioning Research 24, 825-830.
Herman, S.L. and Smith, D.T. (2008) Four-week dynamic stretching
warm-up intervention elicits longer-term performance benefits.
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 22(4), 1286-
1297.
Holt, B.W. and Lambourne, K. (2008) The impact of different warm-up
protocols on vertical jump performance in male collegiate
athletes. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 22,
226-229.
Ingraham, S.J. (2003) The role of flexibility in injury prevention and
athletic performance: have we stretched the truth? Minnesota
Medicine 86, 58-61.
Kay, A.D. and Blazevich, A.J. (2012) Effect of Acute Static Stretch on
Maximal Muscle Performance: A Systematic Review. Medicine
and Science in Sports and Exercise 44(1), 154-164.
Kean, C.O., Behm, D.G. and Young, W.B. (2006) Fixed foot balance
training increases rectus femoris activation during landing and
jump height in recreationally active women. Journal of Sports
Science and Medicine 5, 138-148.
Knudson, D., Bennett, K., Corn, R., leick, D. and Smith, C. (2001)
Acute effects of stretching are not evident in the kinematics of
the vertical jump. Journal of Strength and Conditioning
Research 15, 98-101.
Kokkonen, J., Nelson, A.G. and Cornwell, A. (1998) Acute muscle
stretching inhibits maximal strength performance. Research
Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 69, 411-415.
Layec, G., Bringard, A., Le Fur, Y., Vilmen, C., Micallef, J.P., Perrey,
S., Cozzone, P.J. and Bendahan, D. (2009) Effects of a prior
high-intensity knee-extension exercise on muscle recruitment
and energy cost: a combined local and global investigation in
humans. Experimental Physiology 94, 704-719.
Little, T. and Williams, A.G. (2006) Effects of Differential Stretching
Protocols During Warm-Ups on High-Speed Motor Capacities
In Professional Soccer Players. 37. Journal of Strength and
Conditioning Research 20, 203-207.
Magnusson, S.P., Simonsen, E.B., Aagaard, P. and Kjaer, M. (1996)
Biomechanical responses to repeated stretches in human
hamstring muscle in vivo. The American Journal of Sports
Medicine 24, 622-627.
Manoel, M.E., Harris-Love, M.O., Danoff, J.V. and Miller, T.A. (2008)
Acute effects of static, dynamic, and proprioceptive
neuromuscular facilitation stretching on muscle power in
women. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 22,
1528-1534.
McNeal, J.R., Sands, W.A. and Stone, M.H. (2010) Effects of fatigue on
kinetic and kinematic variables during a 60-second repeated
jumps test. International Journal of Sports Physiology and
Performance 5, 218-229.
Miller, R.G., Mirka, A. and Maxfield, M. (1981) Rate of tension
development in isometric contractions of a human hand muscle.
Experimental Neurology 73, 267-285.
Moore, M.A. and Hutton, R.S. (1980) Electromyographic investigation
of muscle stretching techniques. Medicine and Science in Sports
and Exercise 12, 322-329.
Murphy, J.R., Di Santo, M.C., Alkanani, T. and Behm, D.G. (2010)
Aerobic activity before and following short-duration static
stretching improves range of motion and performance vs. a
traditional warm-up. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and
Metabolism 35, 679-690.
Needham, R.A., Morse, C.I. and Degens, H. (2009) The acute effect of
different warm-up protocols on anaerobic performance in elite
youth soccer players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning
Research 23, 2614-2620.
O'Sullivan, K., Murray, E. and Sainsbury, D. (2009) The effect of warm-
up, static stretching and dynamic stretching on hamstring
flexibility in previously injured subjects. BMC
MusculoskeletDisord 10, 37-42.
Perrier, E.T., Pavol, M.J. and Hoffman, M.A. (2011) The acute effects
of a warm-up including static or dynamic stretching on
countermovement jump height, reaction time, and flexibility.
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 25, 1925-1931.
Power, K., Behm, D., Cahill, F., Carroll, M. and Young, W. (2004) An
acute bout of static stretching: effects on force and jumping
performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 36,
1389-1396.
Rhea, M.R. (2004) Determining the magnitude of treatment effects in
strength trainig research through the use of effect size. Journal
of Strength and Conditioning Research 18(4), 918-920.
Rosenbaum, D. and Hennig, E. (1995) The influence of stretching and
warm-up exercises on achilles tendon reflex activity. Journal of
Sport Sciences 13, 481-490.
Saez, S.d.V., Gonzalez-Badillo, J.J. and Izquierdo, M. (2007) Optimal
warm-up stimuli of muscle activation to enhance short and long-
term acute jumping performance. European Journal of Applied
Physiology and Occupational Physiology 100, 393-401.
Samuel, M.N., Holcomb, W.R., Guadagnoli, M.A., Rubley, M.D. and
Wallmann, H. (2008) Acute effects of static and ballistic
stretching on measures of strength and power. Journal of
Strength and Conditioning Research 22, 1422-1428.
Samukawa, M., Hattori, M., Sugama, N. and Takeda, N. (2011) The
effects of dynamic stretching on plantar flexor muscle-tendon
tissue properties. Manual therapy 16, 618-622.
Skof, B. and Strojnik, V. (2007) The effect of two warm-up protocols on
some biomechanical parameters of the neuromuscular system of
middle distance runners. Journal of Strength and Conditioning
Research 21, 394-399.
Terzis, G., Spengos, K., Karampatsos, G., Manta, P. and Georgiadis, G.
(2009) Acute effect of drop jumping on throwing performance.
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 23, 2592-2597.
Tillin, N.A. and Bishop, D. (2009) Factors modulating post-activation
potentiation and its effect on performance of subsequent
explosive activities. Sports Medicine 39, 147-166.
Torres, E.M., Kraemer, W.J., Vingren, J.L., Volek, J.S., Hatfield, D.L.,
Spiering, B.A., Ho, J.Y., Fragala, M.S., Thomas, G.A.,
Anderson, J.M., Hakkinen, K. and Maresh, C.M. (2008) Effects
of stretching on upper body muscular performance. Journal of
Strength and Conditioning Research 22, 1279-1285.
Turki, O., Chaouachi, A., Drinkwater, E.J., Chtara, M., Chamari, K.,
Amri, M. and Behm, D.G. (2011) Ten minutes of dynamic
stretching is sufficient to potentiate vertical jump performance
characteristics. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
25, 2453-2463.
Unick, J., Kieffer, H.S., Cheesman, W. and Feeney, A. (2005) The acute
effects of static and ballistic stretching on vertical jump
performance in trained women 41. Journal of Strength and
Conditioning Research 19, 206-212.
Wong, P.L., Lau, P.W., Mao de, W., Wu, Y.Y., Behm, D.G. and
Wisløff, U. (2011) Three days of static stretching within a
warm-up does not affect repeated-sprint ability in youth soccer
players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 25(3),
838-845.
Vetter, R.E. (2007) Effects of six warm-up protocols on sprint and jump
performance. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
21, 819-823.
Young, W. and Behm, D. (2002) Should static stretching be used during
a warm-up for strength and power activities? Strength and
Conditioning Journal 24, 33-37.
Young, W. and Elliott, S. (2001) Acute effects on static stretching,
proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation stretching, and
maximum voluntary contractions on explosive force production
and jumping performance. Research Quarterly for Exercise and
Sport 72, 273-279.
Zuniga, J., Housh, T.J., Mielke, M., Hendrix, C.R., Camic, C.L.,
Johnson, G.O., Housh, D.J. and Schmidt, R.J. (2011) Gender
comparisons of anthropometric characteristics of young sprint
swimmers. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 25,
103-108.
Samson et al.
285
Key points
• Activity specific warm-up may improve sprint per-
formance.
• Static stretching was more effective than dynamic
stretching for increasing static range of motion.
• There was no effect of the warm-up protocols on
countermovement jump height or movement time.
AUTHORS BIOGRAPHY
Michael SAMSON
Employment
Fitness consultant
Degree
MSc
Research interests
Resistance training and sport physiology
applications
David G. BEHM
Employment
Associate Dean for Graduate Studies and
Research for the School of Human Kinetics
and Recreation at Memorial University of
Newfoundland.
Degree
PhD
Research interests
Stretching, warm-ups, resistance training and
other related topics.
E-mail: dbehm@mun.ca
Duane BUTTON
Employment
Assistant Professor at the School of Human
Kinetics and Recreation, Memorial Univer-
sity of Newfoundland.
Degree
PhD
Research interests
Human and animal models in basic and
applied neuromuscular physiology.
E-mail: ? (optional)
Anis CHAOUACHI
Employment
A Scientific Expert within the Department of
Scientific Follow-up in the National Centre
of Medicine and Science in Sport Tunis,
Tunisia.
Degree
PhD
Research interests
Elite athletes’ training.
E-mail: ? (optional)
David G. Behm, PhD
School of Human Kinetics and Recreation, Memorial University
of Newfoundland, St John’s, Newfoundland, Canada, A1C 5S7
