Content uploaded by Daniel B Müller
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Daniel B Müller
Content may be subject to copyright.
Revue de Métallurgie
c
EDP Sciences, 2013
DOI: 10.1051/metal/2013052
www.revue-metallurgie.org
Revue de
Métallurgie
The future of mobility and its critical raw
materials
S. Ziemann1,A.Grunwald
1,L.Schebek
2,D.B.Müller
3and M. Weil1,4
1
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) Institute for Technology Assessment and Systems Analysis
(ITAS), P.O. Box 3640, 76021 Karlsruhe, Germany
e-mail: saskia.ziemann@kit.edu
2
Industrial Material Cycles, Technische Universität Darmstadt (TUD), Petersenstraße 13, Darmstadt,
Germany
3
Department of Hydraulic and Environmental Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and
Technology (NTNU), NO-7491 Trondheim, Norway
4
Helmholtz Institute Ulm for Electrochemical Energy Storage, (HIU) Albert-Einstein-Allee 11,
89081 Ulm, Germany
Key words:
Resources; raw materials; criticality
assessment; manganese; lithium;
electric vehicles; lithium-ion
batteries; material flow analysis
Received 31 January 2013
Accepted 15 February 2013
Abstract – Concerns for climate change and declining oil reserves lead to a shift of trans-
portation systems in many industrial countries. However, alternative drive concepts contain
to some extent critical raw materials. Since the availability of certain raw materials could be
decisive for the success of emerging technologies, concerns are growing about the potential
limitation of resources. This brought about a growing attention to the subjects of criticality
and resource security of raw materials by science, policy and industry. Four of the resulting
surveys are described in terms of their framing of criticality, their indicators for evaluating
criticality, and their rankings of potentially critical raw materials. Critical raw materials are
used in alternative drive concepts because of their specific properties. The focus of our work
lies on batteries for electric vehicles with special attention to lithium-ion batteries being one
of the most promising candidates for energy storage there. Lithium-ion batteries use as ma-
jor cathode materials lithium, manganese and cobalt, all of which are potential critical. A
material flow model of the global manganese cycle is developed. It could be identified that
there is a lack of relevant data for processes and flows. The lack of data impedes a compre-
hensive view and therefore no final conclusions could be drawn, which advice the need for
further research. Using manganese as an example, it could be illustrated how material flow
analysis can contribute to compiling relevant preparatory work that can subsequently serve
as a basis for a prospective support of a criticality evaluation and to inform stakeholders
and policy makers about the effectiveness of various interventions to reduce the risk or the
effects of supply chain disruptions.
Two of the big challenges for sustain-
able development are climate change
and peak-oil. The greenhouse gas
emissions from vehicles as well as declin-
ing reserves of crude oil for gasoline produc-
tion entail the need for alternative drive con-
cepts. As diesel and gasoline vehicles are not
sustainable there is a strong need for a shift
of transportation systems in the future. Al-
ternative mobility concepts such as natural
gas vehicles (NGV)1, fuel cell vehicles (FCV)
and electric vehicles (EV) have a huge po-
tential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
1Natural gas vehicles use compressed natural
gas (CNG) and liquefied natural gas (LNG) as
fuel.
of road transport significantly [1]andthey
are no longer directly dependent on oil. In-
stead they are like many new technologies
intrinsically tied to so-called critical raw ma-
terials2(see Tab. 1) that are often essential for
the functioning of high-tech products.
Although there are different alternative
transportation technologies and their suc-
cessful implementation in the future is to
some extent unproven there can be no doubt
2A raw material is labelled as critical if it is of
high importance for key and important technolo-
gies and has only few or no satisfactory substi-
tutes in its major applications, if there is a high
probability of supply disruption and if such a
supply shortage mi ght have considerable impacts
on the economy of a country [2].
Article published by EDP Sciences
S. Ziemann et al.: Revue de Métallurgie
Table 1. Alternative drive concepts and critical raw materials (data source [3]).
Technologies Cr Cu Co Pb Li Mn Ni PGM REE
Natural gas vehicle x x x x
Fuel cell vehicle (FCV) x x x
Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV)* x x x x
Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV)* x x x x x
Full electric vehicle (FEV)* x x x x
Electric motor x x
∗Different vehicle types are shown without electric motor.
Abbreviations: PGM (Platinum Group Metals), REE (Rare Earth Elements).
that critical minerals and metals respectively
will be an important component of future
mobility. Especially as there is an increased
interest for the electrification of transporta-
tion in many European countries, which is
expressed in making e.g. such national ac-
tion plans [1]:
–The Netherlands: 200 000 electric vehi-
cles in 2020.
–Denmark: 500 000 full electric vehicles in
2020.
–Germany: one million electric vehicles in
2020.
Renault predicts an EU market with 2 mil-
lion full electric vehicles in 2020. How-
ever, there are concerns about potential con-
straints from essential raw materials. An
examination of their criticality is needed to
inform policy makers in industry and gov-
ernments about various measures to reduce
theriskofsupplychaindisruptions.
1 Criticality of raw materials
In recent years several studies on resource
security and critical raw materials were con-
ducted by different institutions from science,
policy and industry. A detailed analysis
shows that there are differences regarding
terminology and framing of criticality as
well as the individual indicators and rank-
ings of considered raw materials. That could
be explained by the different backgrounds
and goals of the studies.
The different terms used are for example
rare metals, scarce metals, critical minerals,
critical raw materials, potentially critical raw
materials, vulnerable raw materials, strate-
gic metals.
Four of these studies are described in
more detail here. Although these studies
used similar terms and indicators, they
employed different methods to determine
criticality.
The National Research Council (NRC) [4]
uses two main criteria named “Supply
Risk” and “Impacts of Supply Restric-
tion” to evaluate the criticality of minerals.
To analyse the supply risk, five indica-
tors influencing present and future sup-
ply were used: US-import dependency,
world reserve/production ratio, world re-
serve base/production ratio, relative impor-
tance of byproduct mining in world pri-
mary production, and relative importance
of US secondary production in overall US
consumption. For evaluating the impacts of
a supply restriction three indicators were
used: value of US consumption, percent-
age of US consumption in existing uses for
which substitution is difficult or impossible,
andimportanceofgrowthinemerginguses
(committee’s judgment). A so-called “criti-
cality matrix“ was developed to define the
degree of criticality along two axes. The hor-
izontal axis represents supply risk, the ver-
tical axis impacts of supply restriction; both
axes use a scale from 1 (low) to 4 (high). On
the basis of the above-mentioned indicators,
eleven minerals were placed into the ma-
trix (cf. Tab. 2)–highnumbersonbothaxes
means increasing criticality of minerals.
IW Consult [5] developed a so-called raw
material risk index by order of Vereinigung
der Bayerischen Wirtschaft (vbw). This in-
dex contains eight indicators, of which five
are quantitative and three qualitative. The
quantitative indicators make up 60% of the
index with the following shares: lifetime of
reserves (12.5%), political stability of pro-
ducing countries (12.5%), regional concen-
tration of world production (15%), corporate
concentration of world production (10%),
2
S. Ziemann et al.: Revue de Métallurgie
Table 2. Overview about studies of critical raw materials.
Critical Potential critical Critical Environmentally
minerals raw materials raw materials relevant ores
Elements
Copper Chromium Antimony Gallium
Gallium Cobalt Beryllium Gold
Indium Germanium Cobalt Indium
Lithium Indium Fluorite Manganese
Manganese Lithium Gallium Nickel
Niobium Molybdene Germanium Palladium
PGM Neodyme Graphite Silver
REE Niobium Indium Tin
Tantalum PGM Magnesium Titanium
Titanium Scandium Niobium Zinc
Vanadium Selenium PGM
Tung st e n R E E
Yttrium Tantalum
Tung st e n
Region USA Bavaria (Germany) EU-27 Germany
Source NRC [4]vbw[5]EUCOM[6] Wittmer et al. [7]
and price risk (10%). The qualitative criteria
sum up to 40% and comprise: importance
for emerging technologies (15%), strategic
industry policy (15%), and substitutability
(10%). The risk index can reach 25 points at
the maximum for each raw material. This
index was applied to 37 metals and miner-
als dividing them subsequently into three
different risk classes. Risk class one (high
risk, 15–25 points) includes 15 raw materials
(cf. Tab. 2).
To identify critical raw materials for
the European Union (EU), a relative con-
cept of criticality is applied: a raw ma-
terial is labelled as critical if the risk of
supply disruption and the resulting im-
pacts on the economy are higher compared
with other raw materials [6]. Based on
existing methods such as NRC [4], three
aggregated indicators are used: economic
importance, supply risk, and environmen-
tal country risk. The economic importance
corresponds to the value of products depen-
dent on a specific raw material. This was
calculated with the help of the concept of
mega-sectors and their gross value added in
relation to the gross domestic product (GDP)
of the EU27. For determining the supply
risk, four criteria were combined: concentra-
tion of worldwide production (Herfindahl-
Hirschmann-Index), stability of producing
countries (Worldwide Governance Indica-
tor), recycling rate, and potential of substi-
tution. The environmental country risk re-
flects the ecological risks of raw material
production in these countries. This indica-
tor was determined using an environmental
country index based on the Environmental
Performance Index (EPI), the regional con-
centration of raw material deposits, the re-
cycling rate, as well as the substitutability.
The results of the individual indicators were
scaled so that the possible values lie between
zero and ten representing an increasing risk.
By means of these values, the raw materi-
als could be placed into the matrix consist-
ing of economic importance (vertical axis)
and supply risk (horizontal axis). By apply-
ing this method to the EU-27, 14 critical raw
materials were identified having both high
supply risks (>1) and high economic impor-
tance (>5) (cf. Tab. 2).
The project “Material Efficiency and Re-
source Conservation” (MaRess) analysed
environmentally relevant ores [7]using
six indicators: world reserves, world re-
serve/production ratio, annual production
volume, commodity price, regional concen-
tration of production and reserves, dissipa-
tive use, and environmental relevance. The
latter was determined on the basis of cu-
mulative raw material demand (CRD), cu-
mulative energy demand (CED) and total
material requirement (TMR). The analysis
covered 66 metals and metal groups and
identified ten environmentally relevant ores
(cf. Tab. 2).
Indicators for measuring criticality rep-
resent the current situation and do not take
into account future development. Therefore,
3
S. Ziemann et al.: Revue de Métallurgie
Fig. 1. Specific power and specific energy of different battery types [3].
they only provide a snapshot of the current
situation rather than a detailed evaluation
of the development of resource availability
in the future. A change in factors such as
raw material demand or political stability of
producing countries could easily change the
criticality of certain raw materials. Never-
theless, these studies can serve as a starting
point for a more comprehensive assessment
of potential supply risks.
Two of the studies identified manganese
as a critical mineral or environmentally rele-
vant ore respectively (cf. Tab. 2). This is due
to its importance for most of its end-use ap-
plications, especially steel, aluminium bev-
erage cans, and dry-cell batteries, for which
no satisfactory substitutes for manganese ex-
ist so far. As steelmaking is an important
driver for the US economy, the relevance of
manganese is very high just as the impact of
a supply restriction [4]. Given that mining
of manganese ores and production of man-
ganese alloys show a regional concentration,
the supply risk for manganese is considered
to be severe for all applications [4,8]. Fur-
thermore, as an alloying metal in steel, man-
ganese is dissipated to some extent since
there are no effective recycling processes. In
addition manganese has a low reserve to
production ratio (<45 years), and is highly
environmentally relevant due to its high cu-
mulative energy demand [7,9].
2 Critical raw materials
for electric vehicles
Electric vehicles, and hence batteries to
power them, play an important role in con-
cepts of future mobility. The core of elec-
tric vehicles (independent of the type – hy-
brid electric vehicle, plug-in hybrid electric
vehicle or full electric vehicle) is formed
by a rechargeable battery of differing size.
Rechargeable batteries come in different
types with different advantages and disad-
vantages for electric mobility (cf. Fig. 1).
Lithium-ion batteries are the most promis-
ing candidates for implementation in fu-
ture electric vehicles so far, mainly due
to their exceptional characteristics such as
low weight, high voltages, and high energy
densities which enables a wider driving
range. These characteristics are connected to
4
S. Ziemann et al.: Revue de Métallurgie
the unique qualities of the contained met-
als, making them rather indispensible for the
functioning. Especially the cathode materi-
als lithium, manganese and cobalt are essen-
tial for rechargeable batteries to be imple-
mented in electric vehicles [10].
Whereas the management of lithium re-
sources has been the subject of detailed in-
vestigations [11–13], little attention has been
given to manganese so far. However, two
studies about critical raw materials iden-
tified manganese as such an element (see
Sect. 2). Manganese is, among others, a vi-
tal component of lithium-ion batteries be-
cause of its good electrochemical behav-
ior. All cathode materials for lithium based
systems with an interesting energy density
use manganese, cobalt and nickel as redox-
active materials. Although manganese has a
lower energy density than nickel and cobalt,
it is a lot cheaper to manufacture; thus
there are efforts to replace cobalt with man-
ganese. Additional benefits of lithium-ion
cells with manganese based electrodes are
high specific power, high current resistance,
increased safety, and long life [14].
3 Material flow analysis
of manganese
3.1 Material flow analysis
of metal cycles
Metal cycles describe the entire life cycle
of metals comprising their production, use
and disposal. They are dominated by anthro-
pogenic activities throughout the metal’s
lifetime [15].
Material flow analysis (MFA) is a scien-
tific method for the systematic assessment
of material flows and stocks within a sys-
temdefinedinspaceandtime[16]. Thus,
MFA is a suitable analytical tool to charac-
terize the quantity of material stocks and
flows throughout metal cycles and to ob-
tain insight into important driving forces of
demand and basic conditions of supply in
global raw material cycles at present.
3.2 Manganese
Manganese is predominantly used in the
production of steel and cast iron. It is a vital
Ukraine
140 mio t
South Africa
120 mio t
Brazil
110 mio t
Australia
93 mio t
India
56 mio t
Gabon
52 mio t
China
44 mio t
Mexico
4 mio t
Fig. 2. Distribution of manganese reserves (data
source [18]).
alloying and refining element that improves
the strength of steel. It is also deployed as a
deoxidizing and desulphurizing agent dur-
ing the steelmaking process. Other impor-
tant uses of manganese are the battery sector
(e.g. dry cell batteries) and non-steel alloys.
In addition, there are nonmetallic uses of
manganese such as animal feed, fertilizers,
chemicals, colorants and pigments [17].
Manganese production is highly concen-
trated, with three countries being respon-
sible for nearly 60% of global production:
China, Australia, and South Africa. Man-
ganese reserves3total 619 000 000 tons and
show a similar regional concentration, with
a share of nearly 60% being distributed in
the three countries of Ukraine, South Africa
and Brazil (see Fig. 2). Manganese resources3
are concentrated even more, as South Africa
accounts for about 75% of the world’s iden-
tified manganese resources [18].
So far, there is no practical substitute
for manganese in steel production; its char-
acteristics make manganese indispensible
for achieving steel qualities used in a wide
3Resources are defined as a concentration or
occurrence of material of economic interest in
or on the earth’s crust in such form, quality,
and quantity that there are reasonable prospects
for economic extraction. Reserves can be de-
termined as that part of a mineral resource
which is economically mineable with existing
technologies [20].
5
S. Ziemann et al.: Revue de Métallurgie
Manganese Ore
Production
Ores
Use
Cans
Transportation
Cookware
Batteries
Chemicals
Fertilizers
Waste Management
0.324
0.324
Environment
manganese flows in million tons (Mt) of M n content per year
Construction
7.766
?
assumptions
10.800
0.862 Transportation
Manufacture
Other Uses
?
?
?
dissipative applications
4.832
SiMn
0.324
EMM
0.324
EMD
1.522 (slags)
Animal food
3.797
FeMn
Steel Industry
Foundry/Welding
Specialty Steel
Al-al loys
Cu-alloys
Machinery
Mn-Oxides
Mn-Sulphate
K-Permanganate
Mn-Phosphate
?EAF slags
? scrap steel ??
Fig. 3. Material flow model of manganese (2009) (Abbreviations: Silicomanganese (SiMn), Ferro-
manganese (FeMn ), Electrolytic Manganese Metal (EMM), Electrolytic Manganese Dioxide (EMD),
Electric Arc Furnace (EAF)) (datasource [17,20]).
variety of applications. Since steel produc-
tion is crucial for most industrial countries,
the impacts of a supply shortage of man-
ganese could be significant. The dependency
on primary manganese sources is aggra-
vated by the fact that manganese recycling
is very low: scrap recovery specifically for
manganese is insignificant, and manganese
within steel scrap that is recycled to steel-
making is largely lost because of its removal
in the decarburization step of steelmaking,
andneedstobeaddedback[19].
3.3 Modelling the global manganese
cycle
We analysed the global manganese cycle in-
cluding all relevant production, manufac-
ture, use, recycling and waste management
routes. Figure 3reflects preliminary results
of this material flow model (Fig. 3).
Data for global manganese consumption
by end use were not available. The figures
for the model were therefore calculated from
production data of USGS [18]andtransfer
coefficients for sector split and yield losses
provided Gandhi [21].
Manganese ore production accounted for
10.8 million metric tons of “Mn content” in
the year 2009 [18]. The major share of man-
ganese ore, namely 94%, is converted into
manganese alloys, whereas the remaining
6% are used for making electrolytic man-
ganese products such as electrolytic man-
ganese metals (EMM) and electrolytic man-
ganese dioxides (EMD). While EMM and
EMD production has high yields, the pro-
duction of 8.629 Mt of ferromanganese and
silicomanganese has yield losses of about
15%, resulting in 1.522 Mt of slag. In man-
ufacture 90% of manganese alloys are con-
sumed in steel production, leaving only a
small part of 10% for foundry and weld-
ing. EMM with a Mn-content of 0.324 Mt
goes into specialty steel, aluminium alloys,
and copper alloys, of which aluminium al-
loys can be recycled. EMD is used for batter-
ies, chemicals, fertilizers, and animal food,
representing also a share of 0.324 Mt of
manganese.
At the moment manganese consumption
through batteries is marginal. This might be
subject to change due to the implementa-
tion of electric mobility in the future. For
this purpose it was tried to make a first
rough estimate. Given that 2 million full
electric vehicles in Europe in 2020 are pre-
dicted (cf. Sect. 1) we calculated: 50% of these
FEV will be equipped with NMC-batteries
6
S. Ziemann et al.: Revue de Métallurgie
(LiNiMnCoO2) or LMO-batteries (LiMn2O4)
owing a manganese content in cathode ma-
terials of 1/3 or higher [10,22]. Taking into ac-
count a material requirement of 23.7 kg Mn
per 20 kWh battery needed for every FEV
([23], own calculations) this would result in
a manganese demand of 0.024 Mt from EV
batteries. That means, also on a global level,
the manganese requirement for batteries in
the future might be at least one order of mag-
nitude lower than for steel production.
Although scrap steel, which often in-
cludes manganese, is recycled in large
amounts, manganese metal is neither re-
covered in the steel, nor is it recovered as
metal at present (cf. Sect. 3.2). Aluminium-
manganese alloys used for beverage cans
are the sole manganese application that can
be recycled [24]. In addition there are re-
search activities to recover manganese from
slags [25]. Dissipative applications are fertil-
izers, animal food, colorants and pigments.
The model is still incomplete and the data
often have significant uncertainties. Never-
theless, the first preliminary results allow for
drawing some first conclusions.
3.4 Conclusion and outlook
The material flow model in its current state
accounts for a fraction of the whole metal cy-
cle and thus enables to some extent a better
understanding of extraction and consump-
tionofresourcesaswellasofreleasesinto
the environment.
At the moment manganese is handled
lavishly in its major applications since there
are no effective recycling processes for most
products. This means that practically no sec-
ondary metal can be used and that primary
metal is always needed for manufacturing
new products. Hence, there are virtually no
possibilities for saving primary manganese
resources at present. However, as global
steel production is expected to increase fur-
ther and the battery sector to gain more
importance in the next years, the critical-
ity of manganese may grow over the com-
ing decades. It will depend on the relative
price development of other technical inter-
esting materials like cobalt, if manganese
will possess a high attractiveness in battery
cell production. Current manganese use for
batteries is 2–3 orders of magnitude smaller
than for steel applications and might not
reach also in the future comparable dimen-
sions. Changes in global manganese de-
mand over the coming years will therefore
be largely determined by the development
of steel demand, while the consequences
of a supply disruption would likely hurt
the battery production significantly. Over
the longer term, however, manganese de-
mand for batteries has a potential to reach a
higher share in global manganese consump-
tion. The slag from steel recycling might be a
potentially large source of manganese. Even
if research approaches to recover manganese
from slags exist this is still in the devel-
opment stage at the moment. For a closer
examination of a possible manganese prob-
lem a deeper understanding of the respec-
tive global raw material cycle is needed.This
requires sufficient and detailed data as well
as further dynamic modelling in the use sec-
tor being important to gain insight into the
probable future development.
References
[1] ENT (ERA-NET Transport), Electric Road
Tr ansport Policies in Europe til l 2015, oppor-
tunities, experiences and recommendations,
Cologne, 2011
[2] S. Ziemann, B. Simon, M. Weil, Electric
mobility and its critical raw materials,
Proceedings 13th Ulm E lectrochemical Talks
(UECT) 3-5 July, Ulm, 2012
[3] IEA (International Energy Agency), Energy
Techn o l o g y Tra n s i t i o n s f o r I n d u s t r y :
Strategies for the next industrial revolution.
Paris, 2009
[4] NRC (National Research Council of the
National Academies), Minerals, Critical
Minerals, and the U S Economy. Washington,
DC, The National Academies Press, 2007
[5] Vbw (Vereinigung der Bayerischen
Wirtschaft e.V.), Rohstoffsituation in
Bayern: Keine Zukunft ohne Rohstoffe:
Strategien und Handlungsoptionen, Köln,
Bericht der IW Consult GmbH, 2009 [in
German]
[6] EC (European Commission), Critical raw
materials for the EU: report of the Ad-hoc
Working Group on defining critical raw ma-
terials, Brussels, 2010
[7] D. Wittmer, M. Scharp, S. Bringezu,
M. Ritthoff,M.Erren,C.Lauwigi,J.
Giegrich, Umweltrelevante metallische
Rohstoffe, In: Metallische Rohstoffe,
7
S. Ziemann et al.: Revue de Métallurgie
weltweite Wiedergewinnung von PGM
und Materialien für Infrastrukturen.
Abschlussbericht des Arbeitspakts
2 des Projekts Materialeffizienz und
Ressourcenschonung (MaRess). Wuppertal:
Wuppertal Institut für Klima, Umwelt,
Energie, 2011 [in German]
[8] USGS, Manganese. In: 2009 Minerals
Yearbook. Reston, United States Geological
Survey, 2011
[9] USGS, Mineral Commodity Summaries
2012, Reston: United States Geological
Survey, 2012
[10] B. Ketterer, U. Karl, D. Möst, S. Ulrich,
Lithium-Ion Batteries: State of the Art and
Application Potential in Hybrid-, Plug-
In Hybrid- and Electric Vehicles, FZKA
7503. Karlsruhe, Wissenschaftliche Berichte
Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe, 2009
[11] S. Ziemann, M. Weil, L. Schebek, Conserv.
Recycling 63 (2012) 26-34
[12] G. Angerer, F. Marscheider-Weidemann,
M. Wendl, M. Wietschel, Lithium
für Zukunftstechnologien: Nachfrage
und Angebot unter besonderer
Berücksichtigung der Elektromobilität,
Karlsruhe, Fraunhofer ISI, 2009 [in German]
[13] A. Yaksic, E. Tilton, Resour. Policy 34 (2009)
185-94
[14] I. Buchmann, Battery University, Cadex
Electronics Inc.; 2012 (Available from:
http://batteryuniversity.com, Internet, cited
10.04.12)
[15] J. Cao, T. Graedel, R. Lifset, Metal cycle,
Encyclopedia of Earth, Cutler, edited
by J. Cleveland, Washington, D.C.,
Environmental Information Coalition,
National Council for Science and the
Environment; first published in the
Encyclopedia of Earth May 20, 2007
[Available from: http://www.eoearth.org/
article/Metal_cycle, Internet, cited 30.03.12]
[16] P.H. Brunner, H. Rechberger, Practical hand-
book of material flow analysis, Boca Raton,
Fla: Lewis, 2004
[17] T. Vulcan, Manganese, An unsung hero,
Hard Assets Investor, 2009 [Available
from: http://www.hardassetsinvestor.com,
Internet, cited 18.04.12]
[18] USGS, Mineral Commodity Summaries
2011, Reston: United States Geological
Survey, 2011
[19] USGS, Flow Studies for recycling metal
commodities in the United States, Circular
1196–A–M. Reston: United States Geol ogical
Survey, 2004
[20] CRIRSCO (Committee for Mineral Reserves
International Reporting Standards),
International Reporting Template for
the public reporting of Exploration Results,
Mineral Resources and Mineral Reserves,
2006
[21] A. Gandhi, Manganese, Ideas 1st
Information Services Pvt. Ltd., 2010
[Available from: http://www.ideasfirst.in,
Internet, cited 02.04.12]
[22] S. Martinet, Batteries for electric and hybrid
vehicles, State of the art. Lille: IEEE VPPC,
2010
[23] D.A. Notter, M. Gauch, R. Widmer, P. Wager,
A. Stamp, R. Zah, H.-J. Althaus, Environ. Sci.
Techn o l . 44 (2010) 6550-6556
[24] IMnI (International Manganese Institute),
About Mn Applications, 2012 [Available
from: http://www.manganese.org, Internet,
cited 18.04.12]
[25] Y.-S. Jeong, K. Matsubae-Yokoyama, T.
Nagasaka, Recovery of Manganese and
Phosphorus from Dephosphorization Slag
with Wet Magnetic Separation. Graduate
School of Environmental Studies, Tohoku
University, Sendai 980-8579, Japan, 2009
8