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Can secondary information inform about population trends of carnivores in Borneo?
Abstract
Effective methods for estimating occurrence and abundance of carnivores are limited and
often expensive in labour or equipment. Conducting interviews about wildlife species, including carnivores,
is a common tool used in Borneo and throughout Southeast Asia to investigate species distribution and
understand their conservation status. Such surveys are appealing because of perceived savings in time
and equipment; however, biases in amount of available information, miscommunications about species of
interest, and species misidentifi cation can result in errors of unknown magnitude, rendering results of at
least some surveys suspect. Hence, it becomes diffi cult to disentangle accurate from inaccurate information.
Studies are needed to investigate the variation in effectiveness of interview surveys. Also better guidance
is needed to clarify under which conditions secondary surveys can be used with confi dence, and for which
particular audience. Until the factors that bias results are identifi ed and, where possible, accounted for, the
main use of secondary surveys for carnivores and other diffi cult to identify or rarely encountered species
will be to help develop a dialogue between people that reside or work in conservation project areas and
the investigators working on such projects. Secondary surveys may also serve as a tool to help identify
hypotheses to be addressed in studies with strong experimental designs.
... Does not require constant monitoring ( Tidemann and Woodside 1978) Bulky and not easy to transport ( Tidemann and Woodside 1978) High ( Tidemann and Woodside 1978) Camera traps Medium to large-bodied mammals ( Bernard et al. 2013) Effective in detecting species rarely recorded from live traps or direct observations (e.g., Hose's civet, Diplogale hosei; Bernard et al. 2013) May under-represent species with specific habitats and unable to distinguish closely related species (e.g., muntjac and mouse-deers; Bernard et al. 2013) High ( Sanderson and Trolle 2005) Indirect signs Medium to large-bodied ground dwelling mammals ( Catling et al. 1997) Effective in detecting species inhabiting open areas (e.g., otters and ungulates; Catling et al. 1997) Imprecise in species identification ( Davison et al. 2006;Mumma et al. 2014); Accuracy and precision are dependent on field conditions and expertise of identifiers ( Silveira et al. 2003) Low ( Garden et al. 2007) Interviews Medium to large-bodied mammals ( Mohd-Azlan et al. 2013) No equipment required and can provide important collateral data ( Mohd-Azlan et al. 2013) Less reliable due to varying survey design and bias produced by respondents such as different recalling ability of respondents for different periods of time ( Meijaard et al. 2011) (e.g., most villagers interviewed could not recall how many tigers have been killed due to livestock depredation by tigers; Sharma et al. 2005) Low ( Mohd-Azlan et al. 2013) Direct observations Medium to large-bodied mammals that are readily observable ( Gese 2001) ...
... Does not require constant monitoring ( Tidemann and Woodside 1978) Bulky and not easy to transport ( Tidemann and Woodside 1978) High ( Tidemann and Woodside 1978) Camera traps Medium to large-bodied mammals ( Bernard et al. 2013) Effective in detecting species rarely recorded from live traps or direct observations (e.g., Hose's civet, Diplogale hosei; Bernard et al. 2013) May under-represent species with specific habitats and unable to distinguish closely related species (e.g., muntjac and mouse-deers; Bernard et al. 2013) High ( Sanderson and Trolle 2005) Indirect signs Medium to large-bodied ground dwelling mammals ( Catling et al. 1997) Effective in detecting species inhabiting open areas (e.g., otters and ungulates; Catling et al. 1997) Imprecise in species identification ( Davison et al. 2006;Mumma et al. 2014); Accuracy and precision are dependent on field conditions and expertise of identifiers ( Silveira et al. 2003) Low ( Garden et al. 2007) Interviews Medium to large-bodied mammals ( Mohd-Azlan et al. 2013) No equipment required and can provide important collateral data ( Mohd-Azlan et al. 2013) Less reliable due to varying survey design and bias produced by respondents such as different recalling ability of respondents for different periods of time ( Meijaard et al. 2011) (e.g., most villagers interviewed could not recall how many tigers have been killed due to livestock depredation by tigers; Sharma et al. 2005) Low ( Mohd-Azlan et al. 2013) Direct observations Medium to large-bodied mammals that are readily observable ( Gese 2001) ...
... Does not require constant monitoring ( Tidemann and Woodside 1978) Bulky and not easy to transport ( Tidemann and Woodside 1978) High ( Tidemann and Woodside 1978) Camera traps Medium to large-bodied mammals ( Bernard et al. 2013) Effective in detecting species rarely recorded from live traps or direct observations (e.g., Hose's civet, Diplogale hosei; Bernard et al. 2013) May under-represent species with specific habitats and unable to distinguish closely related species (e.g., muntjac and mouse-deers; Bernard et al. 2013) High ( Sanderson and Trolle 2005) Indirect signs Medium to large-bodied ground dwelling mammals ( Catling et al. 1997) Effective in detecting species inhabiting open areas (e.g., otters and ungulates; Catling et al. 1997) Imprecise in species identification ( Davison et al. 2006;Mumma et al. 2014); Accuracy and precision are dependent on field conditions and expertise of identifiers ( Silveira et al. 2003) Low ( Garden et al. 2007) Interviews Medium to large-bodied mammals ( Mohd-Azlan et al. 2013) No equipment required and can provide important collateral data ( Mohd-Azlan et al. 2013) Less reliable due to varying survey design and bias produced by respondents such as different recalling ability of respondents for different periods of time ( Meijaard et al. 2011) (e.g., most villagers interviewed could not recall how many tigers have been killed due to livestock depredation by tigers; Sharma et al. 2005) Low ( Mohd-Azlan et al. 2013) Direct observations Medium to large-bodied mammals that are readily observable ( Gese 2001) ...
Mammal diversity assessments based on DNA derived from invertebrates have been suggested as alternatives to assessments based on traditional methods; however, no study has field-tested both approaches simultaneously. In Peninsular Malaysia, we calibrated the performance of mammal DNA derived from blowflies (Diptera: Calliphoridae) against traditional methods used to detect species. We first compared five methods (cage trapping, mist netting, hair trapping, scat collection, and blowfly-derived DNA) in a forest reserve with no recent reports of megafauna. Blowfly-derived DNA and mist netting detected the joint highest number of species (n=6). Only one species was detected by multiple methods. Compared to the other methods, blowfly-derived DNA detected both volant and non-volant species. In another forest reserve, rich in megafauna, we calibrated blowfly-derived DNA against camera traps. Blowfly-derived DNA detected more species (n=11) than camera traps (n=9), with only one species detected by both methods. The rarefaction curve indicated that blowfly-derived DNA would continue to detect more species with greater sampling effort. With further calibration, blowfly-derived DNA may join the list of traditional field methods. Areas for further investigation include blowfly feeding and dispersal biology, primer biases, and the assembly of a comprehensive and taxonomically-consistent DNA barcode reference library.
... A thorough understanding of local folk taxonomy and vernacular nomenclature is critical when conducting interview surveys and interpreting the results (Wilkie and Saridan 1999;Baird 2006;Das and Gupta 2015). This aspect often proves challenging owing to linguistic and cultural barriers, and because vernacular names are generally inconsistent between regions, ethnic groups, and even individuals within the same community (Wilkie and Saridan 1999;Mohd-Azlan et al. 2013). Additionally, local folk taxonomies can be under-or over-differentiated, whereby multiple scientifically recognized taxa are grouped together as a single folk species (underdifferentiated) or conversely, a single scientifically recognized species is classified as multiple folk taxa (over-differentiated), the latter being especially common with economically or culturally important species (Berlin et al. 1966;Wilkie and Saridan 1999;Platt et al. 2004b). ...
... Additionally, local folk taxonomies can be under-or over-differentiated, whereby multiple scientifically recognized taxa are grouped together as a single folk species (underdifferentiated) or conversely, a single scientifically recognized species is classified as multiple folk taxa (over-differentiated), the latter being especially common with economically or culturally important species (Berlin et al. 1966;Wilkie and Saridan 1999;Platt et al. 2004b). Therefore, a one-to-one concordance between folk species and scientifically recognized species cannot be assumed (Berlin et al. 1966;Baird 2006;Mohd-Azlan et al. 2013). ...
The Burmese Roofed Turtle (Batagur trivittata) is endemic to the major rivers of Myanmar. Once widespread and abundant, by the late 1990s B. trivittata was considered extinct until “rediscovered” in the Dokhtawady and Chindwin rivers during the early 2000s; the Dokhtawady has since been greatly altered by construction of the Yeywa Hydropower Dam and Reservoir (YHDR). Although a combination of ex- and in-situ conservation measures has averted biological extinction, B. trivittata remains critically endangered in the wild. We conducted a multi-year (2009–2019) investigation into the conservation status of B. trivittata with the following objectives: 1) determine the fate of the species in the Dokhtawady River and YHDR; 2) determine its conservation status in rivers not previously surveyed; and 3) query individuals with first-hand knowledge of the species to understand the processes that resulted in its near-extinction. Our investigation included Dokhtawady and YHDR, and the Shweli, Chindwin (including tributaries and headwaters), and Sittaung rivers. Our investigation relied heavily on the traditional ecological knowledge of villagers living along these rivers. We visited 243 villages, towns, and encampments, interviewed ca. 1433 persons, identified six vernacular names applied to B. trivittata, and accompanied villagers to 26 sandbanks used by nesting turtles (5 active and 21 former nesting sites). We determined that B. trivittata is no longer extant in the Dokhtawady River and YDHR, Sittaung, Shweli, and lower Chindwin rivers, or the Chindwin tributaries of Myitthar River, Nam Thalet Chaung, and creeks of Htamanthi Wildlife
Sanctuary. The year of the last known occurrence of B. trivittata varied among rivers, ranging from the early 1990s to 2012. Residents along the Sittaung River had no knowledge of B. trivittata and
the most recent museum specimen was collected in 1961. The Thanlwin is the only major river in Myanmar that remains unsurveyed for B. trivittata. A small number of turtles in the upper Chindwin
River constitute the only surviving—and reproducing—wild population. Here B. trivittata is confined to a 21-km stretch of the river (based on active nest sites), i.e., approximately 1.7% of its historical distribution in the Chindwin. Our results and previous surveys of other rivers suggest an overall reduction of >99% in the historical geographic range of B. trivittata. Based on extensive interviews along the Chindwin River, we propose the following extirpation scenario. First, long-term, chronic over-harvesting of eggs created a “decadent” population composed largely of reproductively mature adults. Despite the traditional practice of leaving in-situ a small number of eggs from each clutch to
complete incubation, low juvenile survival meant that few hatchlings attained adulthood. However, because B. trivittata is long-lived, the number of nests produced each year was not perceived to diminish over time and traditional practices therefore appeared effective in ensuring a sustainable crop of eggs. Second, nylon (and later monofilament) fishing nets introduced in the 1960s resulted in an
increasing number of adults being drowned as fisheries by-catch. Transient fishers from elsewhere moved onto the Chindwin in the 1980s, failed to respect traditional proscriptions protecting turtles,
and greatly increased mortality rates by killing adults and harvesting eggs. With no juveniles to replace adults, B. trivittata populations declined rapidly to near-extinction by the 1990s and early 2000s.
The extinction scenario in the Dokhtawady River and YDHR is somewhat different. This area was formerly a war zone between an Ethnic Armed Organization (EAO) and the Myanmar Government,
where fishers could venture only at great personal risk. As such, the war zone functioned as a de facto protected area, where B. trivittata was able to persist until being rediscovered in 2001. Population declines began with the cessation of hostilities, which was followed by a sudden influx of fishers. Completion of the YDHR intensified
fishing pressure on the now rapidly declining B. trivittata population and inundated the only nesting sandbank. With the extirpation of B. trivittata in the Dokhtawady, the few turtles surviving in the upper Chindwin became the sole remaining known wild population of this species.
... While interview survey is a useful and cost-effective approach to study rare and elusive species diffi cult to detect by conventional survey methods (e.g. Anadón et al., 2009;Phommachanh et al., 2017), the results should be interpreted with extreme caution in regions with morphologically or ecologically similar species (Sampaio et al., 2011;Galbreath et al., 2012;Mohd-Azlan et al., 2013;Willcox et al., 2019). Accurate identifi cation of mustelids, and even with mongooses and civets, is challenging even by professionals, as evident by misidentifi cations we observed in China. ...
Two species of Mustela weasels are known from the southern Chinese province of Guangdong:
yellow-bellied weasel M. kathiah and Siberian weasel M. sibirica. While they are conventionally considered widespread throughout Guangdong, both are poorly documented with limited verifiable locality and ecological information. This paper clarifies the distribution and status of these two species in Guangdong, and describes
their recent discoveries in adjoining Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. Mustela kathiah is widespread in a wide altitudinal range throughout Guangdong, with many records from areas below the commonly cited over 1000 m lower altitudinal threshold for the species. Mustela sibirica has a more peculiar distribution pattern, with all historical records near or north of the Tropic of Cancer followed by a recent surge of coastal records since the 2010s, many of which come from urbanised areas. To conclude, M. kathiah is widespread in Guangdong including part of Hong Kong, but the provenance of M. sibirica individuals recently recorded in urbanised areas of Pearl River Delta and eastern Guangdong is debatable, which warrants further investigation.
... Methods for direct or indirect monitoring of carnivore populations are costly and time-consuming, especially at large spatial scales (Rich et al. 2013). However, the use of secondary information, like interview surveys, to determine the status of the species is both cost-effective and reliable which can help managers make short-term decisions for the conservation of the species (Gros et al. 1996, Msoffe et al. 2007, Mohd-Azlan et al. 2013, Ahmad et al. 2021). Furthermore, due to the low density of wolves in India, many studies looking at the status of the species were based on indirect methods like interview surveys from local shepherds; sign surveys, or a combination of both (Jhala and Giles 1991, Kumar and Rahmani 1997, Singh and Kumara 2006. ...
The Indian grey wolf (Canis lupus pallipes) is the apex predator of the semi-arid landscapes of India. They have large home ranges and mostly thrive outside the protected areas, feeding on livestock to fulfil dietary needs, thus bringing them into direct conflict with humans, making it imperative to identify and conserve wolf-occupied areas. We used questionnaire surveys and field methods to estimate the number and status of wolves in Kailadevi Wildlife Sanctuary, Rajasthan. We estimated 19-45 wolves occurring at a density of 0.02-0.06 wolves/km 2 in 672.82 km 2 of Kailadevi Wildlife Sanctuary. The maximum number was estimated from the Nainyaki range. The presence of wolves was significantly positively related to the presence of sheep and goats. Due to low availability of natural prey in the study area, wolves depend on livestock, causing high economic loss to the resident people. Our study suggests that if strict conservation measures are taken, Kailadevi Wildlife Sanctuary holds the potential to act as a source population for the conservation of the Indian grey wolf in the larger landscape surrounding the study area. However, due to high anthropogenic pressure, the landscape is severely degraded and requires immediate attention to restore the existing scrubland for denning and rendezvous sites. Effective compensation schemes and awareness through outreach and education are required to reduce negative attitudes among the resident people and to prevent wolf persecution. Future research should make use of modern radio-telemetry techniques to better understand the ecology of the wolves in this landscape.
... The value of hunters' knowledge and tracking abilities should be recognized in future studies of cryptic species (Ziembicki et al. 2013), since some animals, including prey species, are easily identified when compared to other species that are considered to be less important (Mohd-Azlan et al. 2013;Parry and Peres 2015). Field surveys are needed in Sarawak and Malaysia to provide information about the distribution and taxonomy of slow loris. ...
The article Hiding in the dark: Local ecological knowledge about slow loris in Sarawak sheds light on relationships between human populations and wild animals, written by Priscillia Miard, K. A. I. Nekaris and Hatta Ramlee, was originally published electronically with open access.
... The value of hunters' knowledge and tracking abilities should be recognized in future studies of cryptic species (Ziembicki et al. 2013), since some animals, including prey species, are easily identified when compared to other species that are considered to be less important (Mohd-Azlan et al. 2013;Parry and Peres 2015). Field surveys are needed in Sarawak and Malaysia to provide information about the distribution and taxonomy of slow loris. ...
Local ecological knowledge (LEK) increases understanding of certain species and the threats they face, especially little-studied taxa for which data on distribution and conservation are often lacking. We conducted 111 semi-structured interviews in Sarawak, Malaysia, to collect local knowledge about the behavior and distribution of the Philippine slow loris (Nycticebus menagensis) from two ethnic groups, the Iban and the Penan. Our study revealed that male Penan respondents, generally hunters, who frequently go into the forest were better at identifying animals from pictures. Overall, the Penan have a more detailed knowledge of slow loris behaviors, habitat, and distribution than the Iban. The two ethnic groups have different attitudes towards slow loris as the Penan hunt, eat, or keep them as pets while the Iban consider them sacred and signifiers of good luck. We advocate the use of LEK for providing complementary information to scientific methods in the study of cryptic animals.
... Many of the respondents were actually aware of the Sarawak Wild Life Protection Ordinance 1998 (99.4%), therefore there were some hesitation and intimidation from them during the interviews. These social desirability biases could be due to the sensitivity of the interview topics itself, where the respondents may be concerned that the honest information would lead to unforeseen circumstances (Mohd-Azlan et al., 2013). ...
Archaeological records showed that human have lived in Borneo for at least 40000 and evidence of wildlife hunting for at least 35000 years. Wildlife is used for a variety of reasons, including subsistence, economy, pest control, and traditional needs. Technology has fuelled the course of human cultural evolution but the use of wildlife is still prevalent throughout the world especially in tropical forest. In Sarawak, local communities are allowed to hunt non-protected species outside protected areas. This study was focused on the effects of hunting on the distribution and diversity of terrestrial medium to large mammals in interior parts of Sarawak. By undertaking interview surveys with the local communities, information on hunting pressure and dependency of the communities towards these mammals were obtained. A total of 170 respondents were interviewed from three study sites: Ulu Baram, Ulu Baleh, and Pelagus. In general, the local communities are dependent of wildlife in Sarawak where the access to commercially available poultry and meat sources are scarce in these areas. A long term multi-prong approaches need to be considered to reduce the dependency on wild meat and prevent hunting of the endangered and protected species. © 2018, Malaysian Society of Applied Biology. All rights reserved.
... Therefore a systematic study combining secondary information and fi eld observation was initiated in Santubong National Park to identify the distribution of hornbills and to understand the perception and conservation awareness of the community. The major reason for use of interview surveys are the perceived time and cost savings and to provide a direct forum to discuss conservation issues with local communities (Mohd-Azlan et al. 2013 ). ...
... However if local names used for one, or more, of our focal species were applied to more than one taxa this would be a more serious issue. This highlights a concern over using LEK for species focussed-conservation efforts: a potential disconnect between locally-derived taxonomy and the western-scientific concepts of species which guide most conservation decision making [36][37][38]. ...
Pressures on freshwater biodiversity in Southeast Asia are accelerating yet the status and conservation needs of many of the region’s threatened fish species are unclear. This impacts the ability to implement conservation activities and to understand the effects of infrastructure developments and other hydrological changes. We used Local Ecological Knowledge from fishing communities on the Mekong River in the Siphandone waterscape, Lao PDR to estimate mean and mode last capture dates of eight rare or culturally significant fish species in order to provide conservation monitoring baselines. One hundred and twenty fishermen, from six villages, were interviewed. All eight species had been captured, by at least one of the interviewees, within the waterscape within the past year. However the mean and mode last capture dates varied between the species. Larger species, and those with higher Red List threat status, were caught less recently than smaller species of less conservation concern. The status of the Critically Endangered Pangasius sanitwongsei (mean last capture date 116.4 months) is particularly worrying suggesting severe population decline although cultural issues may have caused this species to have been under-reported. This highlights that studies making use of Local Ecological Knowledge need to understand the cultural background and context from which data is collected. Nevertheless we recommend our approach, of stratified random interviews to establish mean last capture dates, may be an effective methodology for monitoring freshwater fish species of conservation concern within artisanal fisheries. If fishing effort remains relatively constant, or if changes in fishing effort are accounted for, differences over time in mean last capture dates are likely to represent changes in the status of species. We plan to repeat our interview surveys within the waterscape as part of a long-term fish-monitoring program.
... In accordance with other studies (Williams, 2011;Gandiwa, 2012;Mohd-Azlan et al., 2013), the population estimates and trends based on opinions of participants in our questionnaire based interview survey varied greatly and in most cases did not result in a reliable insight in cheetah numbers and population trends for the respective areas of operation. Cheetah population estimates were therefore derived from the sightings reported during the questionnaire based survey, based on a method described and validated by Gros et al. (1996). ...
Zimbabwe used to hold the world third largest cheetah population. By 1999 the country’s cheetah population consisted of more than 1 500 cheetahs, the majority of which (80%) was found on commercial farmland. In those days, human-cheetah conflict was a main conservation threat. Since this last country wide assessment in 1999 there have been considerable changes in land use, which, in combination with poverty and an overall increase of the human population has had a serious impact on the cheetah population. Our survey shows the cheetah’s resident range has declined by 61%. The population has been reduced by at least 85% to 150-170 adult cheetahs, the majority of which reside in wildlife protected areas (80%). As a result, human-cheetah conflict is minimal and no longer regarded as a major conservation threat. With the current situation being the exact opposite of the historical situation there is a need to revise the cheetah management strategy in Zimbabwe by focusing conservation efforts on remaining viable free roaming cheetah populations and secure connectivity of these populations with larger transboundary populations.
... Snares mostly target species such as sambar Rusa unicolor Kerr, or bearded pig Sus barbatus Müller, but smaller snares set for porcupines, civets and ground birds might also affect M. nudipes. Further, interview-based hunting surveys, when properly designed and implemented(Mohd-Azlan et al., 2013), could helpfully determine catch frequencies for M. nudipes, especially because of its distinct morphological characteristics which makes it hard to confuse with other species. ...
Malay weasel Mustela nudipes is restricted to the Sundaic sub-region, in Borneo, Sumatra and the Malay–Thai peninsula. A distribution model suggested that the species is widespread on Borneo and occurs in a wide range of habitats. The ecology of the species is poorly known, making it difficult to predict how its populations are likely to be affected by ongoing deforestation and forest degradation. A summary of likely key habitats and priority actions for this species on Borneo is provided. Abstrak (Bahasa Indonesia). Musang Kepala-Putih Mustela nudipes persebarannya terbatas pada sub-wilayah Sunda, di Pulau Borneo, Sumatera dan Semenanjung Malaysia–Thailand. Suatu model persebaran dari Musang Kepala-Putih menunjukkan bahwa jenis ini tersebar luas di Borneo dan dapat dijumpai di berbagai tipe habitat. Namun ekologi dari jenis ini masih belum sepenuhnya diketahui, sehingga sulit memperkirakan bagaimana populasi M. nudipes akan terpengaruh oleh adanya penggundulan dan penurunan kualitas hutan. Suatu rangkuman mengenai habitat kunci dan langkah-langkah prioritas untuk jenis ini telah disajikan. Abstrak (Bahasa Malaysia). Pulasan Tanah Mustela nudipes terhad kepada kawasan Sunda, di Borneo, Sumatra dan Semenanjung Malaya–Thailand. Suatu model taburan bagi Mustela nudipes mencadangkan bahawa spesis ini tersebar meluas di Borneo dan berada di pelbagai jenis habitat. Ekologi spesies ini tidak banyak diketahui dan ini menyulitkan proses peramalan bagaimana populasi M. nudipes mungkin akan dipengaruhi oleh kemusnahan hutan serta degradasi kualiti hutan. Kami mencadangkan beberapa habitat dan tindakan yang terpenting untuk memastikan pemuliharaan spesis ini.
... Therefore a systematic study combining secondary information and fi eld observation was initiated in Santubong National Park to identify the distribution of hornbills and to understand the perception and conservation awareness of the community. The major reason for use of interview surveys are the perceived time and cost savings and to provide a direct forum to discuss conservation issues with local communities (Mohd-Azlan et al. 2013 ). ...
A rapid survey on the distribution of hornbills in Santubong National Park, Sarawak, East Malaysia, was carried out in April 2013 using point sampling technique at various locations around the park. Only the Rhinoceros hornbill, Buceros rhinoceros, was recorded, with a total of 45 independent calls and 15 observations at 10 locations around the protected area, mostly during early mornings and late evenings from 162 h of survey. Most of Rhinoceros hornbills were observed in pairs (73 %), while a single observation recorded at least ten individuals at a location. Additionally, local communities were interviewed to collect information on the occurrence, status, ecology and perception on Hornbill conservation in Santubong National Park. A standard questionnaire was designed to meet the purpose of this study. This survey was conducted on local communities from five local villages around Santubong National Park, local and international tourist visiting touristic areas in Santubong peninsula. In general the awareness on the conservation needs and status of the hornbill is high suggesting that the communities are interested and supportive of conservation related activities. Based on the socio-economic and ecological survey, the surrounding habitat of this protected area need to be protected through park extension that will increase connectivity between nearby forest patches which in turn may ensure the long term viability of the Rhinoceros hornbill in Santubong National Park.
Wetlands in the Mekong Delta of southern Vietnam support populations of globally threatened species, including Hairy-nosed otter ( Lutra sumatrana ) and, historically, Fishing cat ( Prionailurus viverrinus ). However, protected areas in the southern wetlands have become terrestrial islands, surrounded by aquaculture and agriculture, leading to intensified interactions between humans and wildlife. This research explored different human-wildlife interactions to assess whether they bear potential threats to populations of threatened, wetland-dwelling carnivores such as otters, wild cats, and other small carnivores. 400 semi-structured interviews were conducted in communities living in the buffer zones of two protected areas: U Minh Thuong National Park and U Minh Ha National Park. Our results revealed that fish farmers who live closer to protected area boundaries were more likely to experience conflict with otters, wild cats, and other small carnivores. While the effect of distance to the protected area’s edge on small carnivore impacts were similar in both study sites, prior impacts were found to influence increasingly severe actions of respondents against the impacting wildlife. Overall, most locals had little-to-no knowledge of Fishing cats. This evidence corresponds with other studies which suspect the Fishing cat to be in extremely low densities or potentially extirpated from the wetlands in the last few decades. High prices of wildlife have driven intensive illegal hunting in the region. More people in U Minh Thuong were aware of illegal wildlife trade activities than in U Minh Ha and men tended to have more knowledge and willingness to share about those illicit activities. Our results suggested community engagement activities to tackle human-otter conflict and illegal activities related to wildlife should target mostly men, older villagers, and fish farmers living near the edges of both protected areas. Education and outreach campaigns to improve community awareness of wildlife should target women and young people, who were significantly less aware of wildlife issues in the area overall.
Power analyses help to improve the cost‐effectiveness of monitoring strategies for wildlife populations, but rarely account for variation in detection probability, affecting the power of data to detect trends in occupancy. We explore the power of occupancy models informed by two locally‐informed methods (interviews and daily diaries) to detect changes in occupancy for 14 mammal species hunted for wild meat within a community forest in Cameroon. This is the first study to use the formula developed by to compare power between locally‐informed methods and camera traps, and identify the monitoring strategies best suited to different species. Comparable effort is required between the three methods to detect 50% as 80% change in occupancy, except where occupancy is less than 0.13 (diary data), 0.03 (camera), or 0.6 (interviews). Overall, where occupancy <0.54, 200 sites and four repeat visits were required to detect at least a 30% change in occupancy. Achieving power to detect any level of change useful for conservation planning is often not viable for projects with small budgets and for species with very low detection rates. However, some species of conservation importance (e.g., gorilla, chimpanzee) are better detected and as such could be monitored using data collected in collaboration with local communities.
Sarawak is known as the “Land of Hornbills”, having the Rhinoceros Hornbill as the state emblem and with hornbills also being closely associated with important cultural symbols and beliefs among various local communities. However, up to date there is limited understanding on the perception, awareness, and beliefs of local communities towards hornbills. This paper aims to describe the aforementioned factors in western Sarawak, in hope of acquiring the socio-cultural information needed to fill the gap, and to clarify misconceptions towards hornbill conservation efforts in Sarawak. Data collection was accomplished using Open Data Kit (ODK). A total of 500 respondents were approached in five administrative divisions in western Sarawak, namely Kuching, Samarahan, Serian, Sri Aman, and Betong. The questionnaire was carefully formulated to control acquiescence bias that might arise. Boosted Regression Tree (BRT) modelling was conducted to evaluate the strongest demographic predictor variables influencing the answers and word clouds were used to visualise hornbill species by the local community. Sarawakians acknowledge the importance of hornbills as a cultural symbol (95%) despite hornbills being used for food, medicine, and decoration. Whilst this study describes the perceptions of hornbills in local communities, a comprehensive assessment throughout Sarawak is recommended for better understanding of hornbill importance in other communities. Such socio-cultural information is vital to ensure the success of conservation efforts and for effective management strategies of hornbills within Sarawak.
Information on the distribution and abundance of the forest elephant Loxodonta cyclotis is needed to allocate limited resources appropriately and set conservation goals for the species. However, monitoring at large scales in forest habitats is complicated, expensive and time consuming. We investigated the potential of applying interview-based occupancy analysis as a tool for the rapid assessment of the distribution and relative abundance of forest elephants in eastern Cameroon. Using single-season occupancy models, we explored the covariates that affect forest elephant occupancy and detectability, and identified spatial and temporal patterns in population change and occupancy. Quantitative and qualitative socio-demographic data offer additional depth and understanding, placing the occupancy analysis in context and providing valuable information to guide conservation action. Detectability of forest elephants has decreased since 2008, which is consistent with the decline in perceived abundance in occupied sites. Forest elephants occupy areas outside protected areas and outside the known elephant range defined by IUCN. Critical conservation attention is required to assess forest elephant populations and the threats they face in these poorly understood areas. Interview-based occupancy analysis is a reliable and suitable method for a rapid assessment of forest elephant occupancy on a large scale, as a complement to, or the first stage in, a monitoring process.
South-east Asian mammals face a particularly severe threat of extinction. Borneo, the third largest island in the world, is located in the centre of South-east Asia. It harbours more endemic carnivores than does any other island except Madagascar. Almost half the Bornean carnivore species have been classified by The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species as threatened. Because little is known about most Bornean carnivores, predicting their spatial distribution is important for management strategies to improve the conservation of these species. As a part of the 1st Borneo Carnivore Symposium (BCS) we started to assemble a knowledge base of Bornean carnivores. We established the Borneo Carnivore Database which contains the previously largely fragmented occurrence records of carnivores on the island and then used these records to predict the distribution of 20 Bornean carnivores (all native species except sun bear Helarctos malayanus and the four otter species, Eurasian otter Lutra lutra, Asian smallclawed otter Aonyx cinereus, hairy-nosed otter Lutra sumatrana and smooth-coated otter Lutrogale perspicillata). We describe general considerations – the underlying assumptions, advantages, and most importantly the limitations and constraints – of species distribution modelling. We then summarise the methodological framework of our modelling approach and results of the sensitivity analyses. We emphasise that despite the extensive efforts to compile existing information, so few or spatially biased occurrence records exist for some species that the model outcomes presented in this journal issue must be interpreted cautiously. We recommend using new data as they become available to test our projections and improve our understanding of carnivore distributions on Borneo.
Information from natural history collections (NHCs) about the diversity, taxonomy and historical distributions of species worldwide is becoming increasingly available over the Internet. In light of this relatively new and rapidly increasing resource, we critically review its utility and limitations for addressing a diverse array of applications. When integrated with spatial environmental data, NHC data can be used to study a broad range of topics, from aspects of ecological and evolutionary theory, to applications in conservation, agriculture and human health. There are challenges inherent to using NHC data, such as taxonomic inaccuracies and biases in the spatial coverage of data, which require consideration. Promising research frontiers include the integration of NHC data with information from comparative genomics and phylogenetics, and stronger connections between the environmental analysis of NHC data and experimental and field-based tests of hypotheses.
The Annamite mountains of Laos and Vietnam have yielded several important mammalian discoveries. We have found a striped rabbit of the previously monospecific genus Nesolagus, extending its known range more than 1,500 km north from the island of Sumatra into mainland Southeast Asia. The Sumatran and mainland Annamite populations are morphologically similar, but genetic data indicate that they have been isolated for millions of years.
The Malay Weasel Mustela nudipes inhabits only the Sundaic sub-region of South-East Asia and has never been studied in the field. Overall, it is recorded only rather rarely. Given major declines in many better-known Sundaic forest vertebrates, records
were collated from as many sources as possible to re-evaluate its
conservation status. The collation was not exhaustive, but allowed
clear conclusions:
1. Malay Weasel has been recorded recently almost throughout
its historical range (Borneo, Sumatra and the Malay—Thai
peninsula) with the exception of several small areas with
only limited recent survey; hence, no range contraction is
suspected.
2. Occurrence was confirmed from Brunei, whence no major
international collection contains a specimen.
3. The purely Sundaic distribution was confirmed, although the
species extends further north in peninsular Thailand (to 10°N)
than often believed.
4. Although several specimens from Java have been catalogued
and some recent sources include Java in the range, the only
specimen with an authoritative Javan locality turned out to
be an Indonesian Mountain Weasel M. lutreolina. It is safe to
assume that Malay Weasel does not inhabit Java.
5. Absence from Java and the distribution in mainland South-
East Asia imply a restriction to areas lacking a marked dry
season.
6. Malay Weasel inhabits a wide altitudinal range, from sea-level
up to at least 1,700 m on Borneo and 1,300 m on Sumatra and
the Malay—Thai peninsula, with many records from hill areas.
Although the species’s dependence on forests remains unclear,
the highland records are significant because forest loss and
degradation rates of the Sundaic highlands lag significantly
behind those of the lowlands.
7. Records came from a wide range of natural vegetation types.
Most were from lowland and hill dipterocarp forests, but this
cannot be seen to indicate an altitudinal preference because
these are the predominant natural habitats in the species’s
range and host most biological fieldwork. Tropical heath forest
(kerangas), swamp forest, montane forest and montane scrub
were also used.
8. Many records came from degraded areas, including in plantations of exotic trees, with two from urban or suburban settings.
While it cannot yet be concluded that populations can persist
independent of natural forest, the species is clearly not highly
selective in the habitats it uses.
9. No observer reported seeing the species often; even at sites
with the highest overall search effort, records were few. Yet
the species has been found in most areas with substantial
fieldwork.
10. Direct observation indicates that the species is not typically
shy, while all methods combined (camera-traps, live-traps,
location of road-kills) have low recording rates, indicating
that Malay Weasels probably live at low density. The reason
for the paucity of camera-traps records is unclear.
11. Contrary to previous statements, Malay Weasels are widely
active by, and throughout the, day; indeed there is evidence
for only occasional nocturnal activity.
12. Malay Weasels forage singly, on the ground, and in habits
seem typical of non-aquatic congeners.
13. Although the effects on Malay Weasel of major ongoing habitat
change are unclear, it is evidently less immediately threatened
by forest loss than are many other Sundaic species. Within re-
maining habitat, no threats specifi c to it were detected, despite
occasional killing as a poultry thief and for medicinal use,
and undoubtedly some level of by-catch in snaring for other
species. It should not be listed as internationally threatened.
14. The conservation priority for Malay Weasel is to study use of
anthropogenic habitats to give a clearer predictive ability for future
conservation status trends. Because it remains so little-known, it would benefit from studies of its general natural history.
Local people living in the Mekong River basin hold a large amount of Local Ecological Knowledge (LEK). While LEK has inherent value, scientists are becoming increasingly interested in accessing LEK to advance scientific knowledge, and improve resource management. Certainly local people also have an interest in using LEK to improve natural resource management. However, not everyone who tries to access and apply LEK makes use of appropriate approaches and methods for collecting and analysing LEK. Therefore, efforts need to be made to both develop approaches for accessing and analysing LEK, and to disseminate information about appropriate methods for researchers who may not have extensive experience with LEK. There are also important ethical issues surrounding LEK. While this paper does not address all of the important issues associated with LEK, it does raise some practical methodological points that will hopefully be useful, especially for those with the need to conduct rapid biology-based local assessments of natural resources. Five methods used in combination are presented as an example of the importance of triangulation in collecting and analysing LEK. While this article considers LEK mainly within the context of fishers and fisheries in Laos, the issues discussed are certainly relevant in other situations, and with regard to other natural resources in other countries as well.
Presence-absence data can be useful to wildlife managers in a wide variety of contexts, from monitoring populations at large spatial scales to identifying habitats that are of high value to specific species of conservation concern. However, a key issue is that a species may be declared "absent" from a landscape unit simply as a result of not detecting the species using the prescribed sampling methods. The effect of this imperfect detection is that parameter estimates will be biased, and any modeling of the data provides a description of the surveyors' ability to find the species on the landscape, not where the species is on the landscape. The reliability of so-called "pres- ence-absence" data for making sound management decisions and valid scientific conclusions could therefore be questioned. However, after collecting appropriate data (i.e., repeated surveys of landscape units within a relative- ly short timeframe), recently developed statistical models can be used to obtain unbiased parameter estimates. Here I provide a nontechnical overview of the issues that pertain to wildlife studies or monitoring programs that seek to make reliable inference about the presence or absence of a target species.
The clouded leopard Neofelis nebulosa has already disappeared from part of its range in southern Asia; it is classified as vulnerable by IUCN and is on Appendix I of CITES. Little is known about this secretive forest-dweller anywhere in its range, and the sparse information needs to be augmented so that effective conservation measures may be taken if necessary. In early 1986 the senior author travelled through the interior of Malaysian Borneo, staying at villages and timber camps, to assess the status of the species in the region and to find out more about its behaviour.
Nondetection of a species at a site does not imply that the species is absent unless the probability of detection is 1. We propose a model and likelihood-based method for estimating site occupancy rates when detection probabilities are 1. The model provides a flexible framework enabling covariate information to be included and allowing for missing observations. Via computer simulation, we found that the model provides good estimates of the occupancy rates, generally unbiased for moderate detection probabilities (0.3). We estimated site occupancy rates for two anuran species at 32 wetland sites in Maryland, USA, from data collected during 2000 as part of an amphibian monitoring program, Frog-watch USA. Site occupancy rates were estimated as 0.49 for American toads (Bufo amer-icanus), a 44% increase over the proportion of sites at which they were actually observed, and as 0.85 for spring peepers (Pseudacris crucifer), slightly above the observed proportion of 0.83.
Sarawak, Borneo, faces high levels of deforestation: logging, oil palm plantations, hunting and shifting cultivation pose major threats to its diverse fauna. Very little credible, accurate and up-to-date information exists regarding the small carnivores of Sarawak, even though many are considered threatened by the IUCN Red List. The first 54 months of a long-term wildlife monitoring programme in a logging concession in the Upper Baram of Sarawak found 14 of the 19 small carnivores expected there. Yellow-throated Marten Martes flav-igula, Binturong Arctictis binturong, Masked Palm Civet Paguma larvata, Common Palm Civet Paradoxurus hermaphroditus, Banded Civet Hemigalus derbyanus and Short-tailed Mongoose Herpestes brachyurus seemed fairly widespread, and Hose's Civet Diplogale hosei, endemic to Borneo, was recorded often: the site may thus be a valuable one for further research into this little-known species. Main threats to small carnivores remain unclear, but they are not the primary quarry species of local hunters. Further camera-trapping of small carnivores supplemented with techniques to study the semi-arboreal and semi-aquatic species is urgently required to clarify their conservation status. Karnivora kecil di satu kawasan pembalakan di Ulu Baram, Sarawak, Borneo. Abstrak Sarawak, Borneo, sedang mengalami kadar kemusnahan hutan yang tinggi: pembalakan, perladangan kelapa sawit, pemburuan dan pertanian pindah randah merupakan ancaman utama kepada kepelbagaian faunanya. Sangat sedikit maklumat terkini yang tepat dan sa-hih wujud berkaitan karnivora kecil di Sarawak, walaupun kebanyakannya tergolong dalam "IUCN Red List". 54 bulan pertama dalam program kajian jangka panjang pemantauan hidupan liar di sebuah kawasan pembalakan di Ulu Baram, Sarawak, mendapati 14 spesis daripada 19 spesis karnivora kecil yang dijangkakan di situ, dengan kadar penemuan yang rendah berbanding hidupan liar yang lain. Yellow-throated Marten Martes flavigula, Binturong Arctictis binturong, Masked Palm Civet Paguma larvata, Common Palm Civet Paradoxurus hermaphroditus, Banded Civet Hemigalus derbyanus dan Short-tailed Mongoose Herpestes brachyurus nampaknya bert-aburan meluas, dan Hose's Civet Diplogale hosei, endemik ke Borneo, nampaknya juga biasa ditemui: ini menunjukkan tempat ini suatu tempat kajian sangat bernilai untuk penyelidikan spesis yang sangat kurang kita ketahui ini. Ancaman utama kepada karnivora kecil di sini masih kita tidak pasti,tetapi spesis-spesis ini bukanlah tumpuan utama pemburu-pemburu tempatan. Kajian seterusnya meng-gunakan perangkap kamera, dan dibantu oleh teknik-teknik penyelidikan untuk spesis-spesis semi-arboreal dan semi-akuatik amatlah diperlukan segera untuk menentukan status pemuliharaannya.
One hectare of primary forest in Central Kalimantan was enumerated and all trees 10 cm dbh tagged and identified to species as far as possible. Two informants, regarded as the most knowledgeable on forest trees by the local community, supplied the vernacular names for the trees. The study found that only 12% of vernacular names given by one informant and 22% by the second could be equated consistently to taxa. Of these taxa 77% were given the same vernacular name by both informants and the remaining 23% had an obvious common origin (cognate). Many of these taxa were distinctive or had a use to the informants. The results have important implications for the conversion of vernacular names to scientific names by anyone carrying out inventory work in Kalimantan.
Species conservation is difficult. Threats to species are typically high and immediate. Effective solutions for counteracting these threats, however, require synthesis of high quality evidence, appropriately targeted activities, typically costly implementation, and rapid re-evaluation and adaptation. Conservation management can be ineffective if there is insufficient understanding of the complex ecological, political, socio-cultural, and economic factors that underlie conservation threats. When information about these factors is incomplete, conservation managers may be unaware of the most urgent threats or unable to envision all consequences of potential management strategies. Conservation research aims to address the gap between what is known and what knowledge is needed for effective conservation. Such research, however, generally addresses a subset of the factors that underlie conservation threats, producing a limited, simplistic, and often biased view of complex, real world situations. A combination of approaches is required to provide the complete picture necessary to engage in effective conservation. Orangutan conservation (Pongo spp.) offers an example: standard conservation assessments employ survey methods that focus on ecological variables, but do not usually address the socio-cultural factors that underlie threats. Here, we evaluate a complementary survey method based on interviews of nearly 7,000 people in 687 villages in Kalimantan, Indonesia. We address areas of potential methodological weakness in such surveys, including sampling and questionnaire design, respondent biases, statistical analyses, and sensitivity of resultant inferences. We show that interview-based surveys can provide cost-effective and statistically robust methods to better understand poorly known populations of species that are relatively easily identified by local people. Such surveys provide reasonably reliable estimates of relative presence and relative encounter rates of such species, as well as quantifying the main factors that threaten them. We recommend more extensive use of carefully designed and implemented interview surveys, in conjunction with more traditional field methods.
False negative detections may bias the surveys for rare species and reduce the reliability of models based on the proportion of occupied patches. We assessed the detectability of the Eurasian otter Lutra lutra through the standard survey method by analysing the detection history of 28 sampling stretches surveyed monthly between March 2001 and January 2003. Each survey negative for otter spraints was considered as a false negative if the otter had been recorded in the previous and/or following month (respectively, cFN and FN). Otter marking intensity (MI) (MI=N° of spraints per kilometre) was calculated and assumed to represent an index of its relative abundance. Spraints were found in 81.7% of all surveys. Yearly MI ranged from 1.02 to 101.4 spraints per kilometre. In 2002, mean MI was significantly lower than in the previous year, while no clear seasonal trend could be outlined. The minimum number of surveys required to establish the occurrence of the otter, as estimated by a probability model, was 2.6 and was inversely related to MI. For a sub-sample of 18 sampling stretches, the relation between the frequency of both cFN and FN and five variables of potential interest for otters was tested by means of stepwise linear multiple regressions, yielding two highly significant models, which both included only MI as the explanatory variable. The frequency of both FN and cFN was correlated to MI and the resulting equations used to assess the percentage of surveys positive for otters in both years. After the correction for non-detections, otter site occupancy did not vary between the 2 years, except for one river when applying the more conservative estimate of false negatives (cFN). Multiple visits and the assessing of MI should become standard components of otter surveys. This approach has broad applicability and may be applied to assess the large-scale distribution of other rare or elusive mammalian carnivores.
Background:
The flat-headed cat (Prionailurus planiceps) is one of the world's least known, highly threatened felids with a distribution restricted to tropical lowland rainforests in Peninsular Thailand/Malaysia, Borneo and Sumatra. Throughout its geographic range large-scale anthropogenic transformation processes, including the pollution of fresh-water river systems and landscape fragmentation, raise concerns regarding its conservation status. Despite an increasing number of camera-trapping field surveys for carnivores in South-East Asia during the past two decades, few of these studies recorded the flat-headed cat.
Methodology/principal findings:
In this study, we designed a predictive species distribution model using the Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt) algorithm to reassess the potential current distribution and conservation status of the flat-headed cat. Eighty-eight independent species occurrence records were gathered from field surveys, literature records, and museum collections. These current and historical records were analysed in relation to bioclimatic variables (WorldClim), altitude (SRTM) and minimum distance to larger water resources (Digital Chart of the World). Distance to water was identified as the key predictor for the occurrence of flat-headed cats (>50% explanation). In addition, we used different land cover maps (GLC2000, GlobCover and SarVision LLC for Borneo), information on protected areas and regional human population density data to extract suitable habitats from the potential distribution predicted by the MaxEnt model. Between 54% and 68% of suitable habitat has already been converted to unsuitable land cover types (e.g. croplands, plantations), and only between 10% and 20% of suitable land cover is categorised as fully protected according to the IUCN criteria. The remaining habitats are highly fragmented and only a few larger forest patches remain.
Conclusion/significance:
Based on our findings, we recommend that future conservation efforts for the flat-headed cat should focus on the identified remaining key localities and be implemented through a continuous dialogue between local stakeholders, conservationists and scientists to ensure its long-term survival. The flat-headed cat can serve as a flagship species for the protection of several other endangered species associated with the threatened tropical lowland forests and surface fresh-water sources in this region.
Monitoring programs increasingly are used to document the spread of invasive species in the hope of detecting and eradicating low-density infestations before they become established. However, interobserver variation in the detection and correct identification of low-density populations of invasive species remains largely unexplored. In this study, we compare the abilities of volunteer and experienced individuals to detect low-density populations of an actively spreading invasive species, and we explore how interobserver variation can bias estimates of the proportion of sites infested derived from occupancy models that allow for both false negative and false positive (misclassification) errors. We found that experienced individuals detected small infestations at sites where volunteers failed to find infestations. However, occupancy models erroneously suggested that experienced observers had a higher probability of falsely detecting the species as present than did volunteers. This unexpected finding is an artifact of the modeling framework and results from a failure of volunteers to detect low-density infestations rather than from false positive errors by experienced observers. Our findings reveal a potential issue with site occupancy models that can arise when volunteer and experienced observers are used together in surveys.
Self-regulation is a complex process that involves consumers’ persistence, strength, motivation, and commitment in order to be able to override short-term impulses. In order to be able to pursue their long-term goals, consumers typically need to forgo immediate pleasurable experiences that are detrimental to reach their overarching goals. Although this sometimes involves resisting to simple and small temptations, it is not always easy, since the lure of momentary temptations is pervasive. In addition, consumers’ beliefs play an important role determining strategies and behaviors that consumers consider acceptable to engage in, affecting how they act and plan actions to attain their goals. This dissertation investigates adequacy of some beliefs typically shared by consumers about the appropriate behaviors to exert self-regulation, analyzing to what extent these indeed contribute to the enhancement of consumers’ ability to exert self-regulation.
Threatened species become increasingly difficult to detect as their populations decline. Managers of such cryptic threatened species face several dilemmas: if they are not sure the species is present, should they continue to manage for that species or invest the limited resources in surveying? We find optimal solutions to this problem using a Partially Observable Markov Decision Process and rules of thumb derived from an analytical approximation. We discover that managing a protected area for a cryptic threatened species can be optimal even if we are not sure the species is present. The more threatened and valuable the species is, relative to the costs of management, the more likely we are to manage this species without determining its continued persistence by using surveys. If a species remains unseen, our belief in the persistence of the species declines to a point where the optimal strategy is to shift resources from saving the species to surveying for it. Finally, when surveys lead to a sufficiently low belief that the species is extant, we surrender resources to other conservation actions. We illustrate our findings with a case study using parameters based on the critically endangered Sumatran tiger (Panthera tigris sumatrae), and we generate rules of thumb on how to allocate conservation effort for any cryptic species. Using Partially Observable Markov Decision Processes in conservation science, we determine the conditions under which it is better to abandon management for that species because our belief that it continues to exist is too low.
• conservation planning
• decision theory
• optimal monitoring
• Sumatran tiger
The looming mass extinction of biodiversity in the humid tropics is a major concern for the future, yet most reports of extinctions in these regions are anecdotal or conjectural, with a scarcity of robust, broad-based empirical data. Here we report on local extinctions among a wide range of terrestrial and freshwater taxa from Singapore (540 km2) in relation to habitat loss exceeding 95% over 183 years. Substantial rates of documented and inferred extinctions were found, especially for forest specialists, with the greatest proportion of extinct taxa (34-87%) in butterflies, fish, birds and mammals. Observed extinctions were generally fewer, but inferred losses often higher, in vascular plants, phasmids, decapods, amphibians and reptiles (5-80%). Forest reserves comprising only 0.25% of Singapore's area now harbour over 50% of the residual native biodiversity. Extrapolations of the observed and inferred local extinction data, using a calibrated species-area model, imply that the current unprecedented rate of habitat destruction in Southeast Asia will result in the loss of 13-42% of regional populations over the next century, at least half of which will represent global species extinctions.
All is not well for biodiversity in the tropics. Despite recent debate over the extent of future tropical extinctions and the effectiveness of reserve systems, the continued disappearance of habitat, soaring human population, and loss of vital ecosystem services demand immediate action. This crisis is worrying, given that tropical regions support over two-thirds of all known species and are populated by some of the world's poorest people, who have little recourse to lower environmental-impact lifestyles. Recent evidence has shown that - in addition to unabated rates of forest loss - coastal development, overexploitation of wildlife, catchment modification, and habitat conversion are threatening human well-being. We argue that the recent technical debate about likely extinctions masks the real issue - that, to prevent further loss of irreplaceable tropical biodiversity, we must err on the side of caution. We need to avoid inadvertently supporting political agendas that assume low future extinction rates, because this will result in further destruction of tropical biodiversity.
Increasing numbers of cougars (Puma concolor) have been documented in Great Plains and Midwestern states in recent years. This includes numerous reports of cougars in Michigan; however, evidence of a natural population has not been obtained. We conducted track surveys and operated camera stations from November 2004 through April 2005 in Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore (SBDNL), Michigan. We obtained no images of cougars during 863 camera nights and did not observe cougar tracks or associated sign (e.g., scats, hair, kill sites) during 493 km of track surveys. Presence of 10 carnivore species, including bobcat (Lynx rufus), coyote (Canis latrans), and domestic dog (Canis familiaris) was documented. We also investigated four cougar sightings and one report of cougar tracks within and adjacent to SBDNL. We were unable to locate any cougar sign at the sighting locations but did observe sign of coyote and bobcat. A domestic dog made the reported cougar tracks. We found no evidence supporting the presence of cougars at SBDNL.
Despite being one of the rarest felids in the world the Endangered Bornean bay cat Catopuma badia has received little conservation attention. Most information consists of historical records, morphological descriptions, and anecdotes from various sources. During 2003–2006 we undertook surveys using camera trapping, interviews and field observations, to determine the species’ distribution and document any threats to its persistence. We also examined museum specimens and completed a thorough literature review, collecting 15 additional geographic records throughout Borneo. Our results show that opportunistic hunting and land use changes are the main threats to the bay cat, and we make recommendations for its conservation.
Estimating the dynamics of furbearer populations is challenging because their elusive behavior and low densities make observations difficult. Statistical population reconstruction is a flexible approach to demographic assessment for harvested populations, but the technique has not been applied to furbearers. We extended this approach to furbearers and analyzed 8 yr of age-at-harvest data for American marten (Martes americana) in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. Marten abundance estimates showed a general downward trend from an estimate of = 1,733.3 animals in 2000 to = 1,163.9 in 2007. The harvest probability of martens increased nearly 5-fold from 0.0542 in 2000 to 0.2637 in 2007, which corresponded to a 5-fold increase in trap-nights. Continued monitoring of martens in the Upper Peninsula, Michigan, and a reassessment of current harvest regulations are necessary given the estimated decreases. Moreover, we do not encourage the use of harvest indices as the sole technique to assess the status and trends of marten and fisher populations. Auxiliary studies in the Upper Peninsula, Michigan, will allow for continued use and improvement in the application of these models. © 2011 The Wildlife Society.
We analysed two camera‐trap photos of an alleged new species of carnivore from Kalimantan, Borneo, Indonesia.
Comparisons of the features seen in the photos with morphological features of 17 similar‐looking species from the region suggest that the animal is not a new species of carnivore, as had been widely speculated, but is most likely a rarely seen species of flying squirrel, probably Aeromys thomasi .
We advocate continuing adherence to the formalities of species description based on actual specimens and a formal review process. Even informal announcements about possible new species based on photographs or other indirect evidence should adopt a cautionary approach. All the possibilities should be eliminated using any available means, such as comparative morphometrics and assessments of body shape and posture, and coat colour.
Insular Southeast Asia experienced the highest level of deforestation among all humid tropical regions of the world during the 1990s. Owing to the exceptionally high biodiversity in Southeast Asian forest ecosystems and the immense amount of carbon stored in forested peatlands, deforestation in this region has the potential to cause serious global consequences. In this study, we analysed deforestation rates in insular Southeast Asia between 2000 and 2010 utilizing a pair of 250 m spatial resolution land cover maps produced with regional methodology and classification scheme. The results revealed an overall 1.0% yearly decline in forest cover in insular Southeast Asia (including the Indonesian part of New Guinea) with main change trajectories to plantations and secondary vegetation. Throughout the region, peat swamp forests experienced clearly the highest deforestation rates at an average annual rate of 2.2%, while lowland evergreen forests declined by 1.2%/yr. In addition, the analysis showed remarkable spatial variation in deforestation levels within the region and exposed two extreme concentration areas with over 5.0% annual forest loss: the eastern lowlands of Sumatra and the peatlands of Sarawak, Borneo. Both of these areas lost around half of their year 2000 peat swamp forest cover by 2010. As a whole this study has shown that deforestation has continued to take place on high level in insular Southeast Asia since the turn of the millennium. These on-going changes not only endanger the existence of numerous forest species endemic to this region, but they further increase the elevated carbon emissions from deforested peatlands of insular Southeast Asia thereby directly contributing to the rising carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere.
Local ecological knowledge can provide a unique source of data for conservation, especially in efforts to investigate the status of rare or possibly extinct species, but it is unlikely to remain constant over time. Loss of perspective about past ecological conditions caused by lack of communication between generations may create “shifting baseline syndrome,” in which younger generations are less aware of local species diversity or abundance in the recent past. This phenomenon has been widely discussed, but has rarely been examined quantitatively. We present new evidence of shifting baselines in local perception of regional species declines and on the duration of “community memory” of extinct species on the basis of extensive interviews with fishers in communities across the middle-lower Yangtze basin. Many Yangtze species have experienced major declines in recent decades, and the Yangtze River dolphin or baiji (Lipotes vexillifer) and Yangtze paddlefish (Psephurus gladius) may have become extinct during the 21st century. Although informants across all age classes were strongly aware of the Yangtze ecosystem's escalating resource depletion and environmental degradation, older informants were more likely to recognize declines in two commercially important fish species, Reeves’ shad (Tenualosa reevesii) and Yangtze pufferfish (Takifugu fasciatus), and to have encountered baiji and paddlefish in the past. Age was also a strong predictor of whether informants had even heard of baiji or paddlefish, with younger informants being substantially less likely to recognize either species. A marked decrease in local knowledge about the Yangtze freshwater megafauna matched the time of major population declines of these species from the 1970s onwards, and paddlefish were already unknown to over 70% of all informants below the age of 40 and to those who first started fishing after 1995. This rapid rate of cultural baseline shift suggests that once even megafaunal species cease to be encountered on a fairly regular basis, they are rapidly forgotten by local communities.
Resumen: El conocimiento ecológico local puede proporcionar una fuente única de datos para la conservación, especialmente en esfuerzos para investigar el estatus de especies raras o posiblemente extintas, pero es poco probable que permanezca constante en el tiempo. La pérdida de perspectiva sobre las condiciones ecológicas pasadas causada por la falta de comunicación entre generaciones puede crear el “síndrome de directrices cambiantes,” con el que las generaciones jóvenes están menos enteradas de la diversidad o abundancia de especies local en el pasado reciente. Este fenómeno se ha discutido ampliamente, pero raras veces se ha examinado cuantitativamente. Presentamos nuevas evidencias de cambios en las directrices en la percepción local sobre la declinación de especies locales y sobre la duración de la “memoria de la comunidad” de especies extintas con base en entrevistas a pescadores en comunidades en la cuenca media-baja del Yangtze. Muchas especies del Yangtze han experimentado fuertes declinaciones en décadas recientes, y el delfín del Yangtze o baiji (Lipotes vexillifer) y el pez espátula del Yangtze (Psephurus gladius) pueden haberse extinguido durante el siglo veintiuno. Aunque los informantes en todas las clases de edades estaban muy conscientes de la reducción drástica de recursos y la degradación ambiental del ecosistema, los informantes de mayor edad tuvieron mejor conocimiento de las declinaciones de dos especies de peces de importancia comercial Tenualosa reevesii y Takifugu fasciatus, y reconocieron la presencia de baiji y pez espátula en el pasado, muy pocos informantes jóvenes reconocieron a ambas especies. La marcada disminución en el conocimiento ecológico local sobre la megafauna del Yangtze coincidió con el tiempo de las principales declinaciones poblacionales de estas especies a partir de 1970, y el pez espátula fue desconocido para más de 70% de los informantes menores a 40 años y para aquellos que comenzaron a pescar después de 1995. Esta rápida tasa de cambio de directrices culturales sugiere que una vez que se dejan de encontrar especies de megafauna en intervalos medianamente regulares, son olvidadas rápidamente por las comunidades locales.
ABSTRACT Occupancy models that account for imperfect detection are often used to monitor anuran and songbird species occurrence. However, presence—absence data arising from auditory detections may be more prone to observation error (e.g., false-positive detections) than are sampling approaches utilizing physical captures or sightings of individuals. We conducted realistic, replicated field experiments using a remote broadcasting system to simulate simple anuran call surveys and to investigate potential factors affecting observation error in these studies. Distance, time, ambient noise, and observer abilities were the most important factors explaining false-negative detections. Distance and observer ability were the best overall predictors of false-positive errors, but ambient noise and competing species also affected error rates for some species. False-positive errors made up 5% of all positive detections, with individual observers exhibiting false-positive rates between 0.5% and 14%. Previous research suggests false-positive errors of these magnitudes would induce substantial positive biases in standard estimators of species occurrence, and we recommend practices to mitigate for false positives when developing occupancy monitoring protocols that rely on auditory detections. These recommendations include additional observer training, limiting the number of target species, and establishing distance and ambient noise thresholds during surveys.
Widespread hunting of flying foxes has generated concern regarding population declines and the spread of emerging infectious diseases. To investigate the potential impacts of this trade, we conducted questionnaires in 45 settlements across 12 population centres within Central Kalimantan, Indonesia, a region previously identified as a hunting hotspot. By combining results from 63 hunter and 88 vendor interviews, we highlight two population centres (Palangka Raya and Buntok/Tamiang Layang) with higher hunting rates than other areas, which act as flying fox trading hubs. Flying fox populations were perceived to be declining province-wide: declines in captures and sales were reported by 81% of hunters and 60% of market vendors, who also reported availability as the key factor underlying temporal variations in trade. There was substantial risk of zoonotic disease transmission between bats, hunters and traders: the vast majority of respondents were unaware that flying foxes carry potentially fatal viruses, and so few people protected themselves from physical contact. Moreover, both hunters and vendors were frequently bitten and the majority of bites drew blood. Most hunters (58%) also reported unintentional by-catches that included keystone bird species and slow lorises. The scale of hunting over Central Kalimantan represents a serious threat to the long-term viability of flying fox populations (and potentially those of other species), and could have serious public health implications. Reducing or eliminating hunting and trade would mitigate the risk of disease transmission, while maintaining the economic and ecosystem benefits that flying foxes provide, in terms of pollination and seed dispersal.
Conservation practices are supposed to get refined by advancing scientific knowledge. We study this phenomenon in the context of monitoring tiger populations in India, by evaluating the ‘pugmark census method’ employed by wildlife managers for three decades. We use an analytical framework of modern animal population sampling to test the efficacy of the pugmark censuses using scientific data on tigers and our field observations. We identify three critical goals for monitoring tiger populations, in order of increasing sophistication: (1) distribution mapping, (2) tracking relative abundance, (3) estimation of absolute abundance. We demonstrate that the present census-based paradigm does not work because it ignores the first two simpler goals, and targets, but fails to achieve, the most difficult third goal. We point out the utility and ready availability of alternative monitoring paradigms that deal with the central problems of spatial sampling and observability. We propose an alternative sampling-based approach that can be tailored to meet practical needs of tiger monitoring at different levels of refinement.
Recent concerns about changing elasmobranch populations have prompted the need to understand their patterns of distribution
and abundance through non-destructive sampling methods. Since scientific divers represent a small portion of the total number
of divers worldwide, the use of non-scientific divers could drastically increase the number of observations needed to monitor
broad-scale, long-term trends. Here, we use 83,940 surveys collected by trained volunteer divers to examine spatial and temporal
trends of the most frequently sighted elasmobranch species in the greater-Caribbean, the yellow stingray (Urobatis jamaicensis). Despite being relatively common and listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List, little is known about the status of this
species. In total, yellow stingrays were observed on 5,658 surveys (6.7% sighting frequency) with the highest occurrence in
the regions surrounding Cuba. Overall, sighting frequency declined from 20.5% in 1994 to 4.7% in 2007—a standardized decline
rate of −0.11. However, these trends were not consistent in all regions. The strongest decline occurred in the Florida Keys,
the most sampled region, where trends were similar among all areas, habitats and depths. In contrast, sighting frequency significantly
increased in Jamaica where large fishes are severely depleted. We discuss possible explanations for these changes including
habitat degradation, exploitation and changes in trophic interactions. Our results suggest large-scale changes in yellow stingray
abundance that have been unnoticed by the scientific community. Thus, our study highlights the value of non-scientific divers
for collecting data that can be used to understand population trends of otherwise poorly studied species.
KeywordsCitizen science–Elasmobranch monitoring–Yellow stingray–Diver survey–Population trend–Trophic interactions
The availability of user-friendly software and publicly available biodiversity databases has led to a rapid increase in the use of ecological niche modelling to predict species distributions. A potential source of error in publicly available data that may affect the accuracy of ecological niche models (ENMs), and one that is difficult to correct for, is incorrect (or incomplete) taxonomy. Here we remind researchers of the need for careful evaluation of database records prior to use in modelling, especially when the presence of cryptic species is suspected or many records are based on indirect evidence. To draw attention to this potential problem, we construct ENMs for the North American Sasquatch (i.e. Bigfoot). Specifically, we use a large database of georeferenced putative sightings and footprints for Sasquatch in western North America, demonstrating how convincing environmentally predicted distributions of a taxon's potential range can be generated from questionable site-occurrence data. We compare the distribution of Bigfoot with an ENM for the black bear, Ursus americanus, and suggest that many sightings of this cryptozoid may be cases of mistaken identity.
Field surveys of biological responses can provide valuable information about environmental status and anthropogenic stress. However, it is quite usual for biological variables to differ between sites or change between two periods of time also in the absence of an impact. This means that there is an obvious risk that natural variation will be interpreted as environmental impact, or that relevant effects will be missed due to insufficient statistical power. Furthermore, statistical methods tend to focus on the risks for Type-I error, i.e. false positives. For environmental management, the risk for false negatives is (at least) equally important. The aim of the present study was to investigate how the probabilities for false positives and negatives are affected by experimental set up (number of reference sites and samples per site), decision criteria (statistical method and α-level) and effect size. A model was constructed to simulate data from multiple reference sites, a negative control and a positive control. The negative control was taken from the same distribution as the reference sites and the positive control was just outside the normal range. Using the model, the probabilities to get false positives and false negatives were calculated when a conventional statistical test, based on a null hypothesis of no difference, was used along with alternative tests that were based on the normal range of natural variation. Here, it is tested if an investigated site is significantly inside (equivalence test) and significantly outside (interval test) the normal range. Furthermore, it was tested how the risks for false positives and false negatives are affected by changes in α-level and effect size. The results of the present study show that the strategy that best balances the risks between false positives and false negatives is to use the equivalence test. Besides tests with tabulated p-values, estimates generated using a bootstrap routine were included in the present study. The simulations showed that the probability for management errors was smaller for the bootstrap compared to the traditional test and the interval test.
Incl. bibliographical references, index, biographical notes on the authors
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