Content uploaded by Veronica E. Manga
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Veronica E. Manga on Oct 04, 2019
Content may be subject to copyright.
Land
Use
Policy
29 (2012) 750–
760
Contents
lists
available
at
SciVerse
ScienceDirect
Land
Use
Policy
j
our
na
l
ho
me
p
age:
www.elsevier.com/locate/landusepol
Land
contamination
risk
management
in
Cameroon:
A
critical
review
of
the
existing
policy
framework
Osric
Tening
Fortona,∗,
Veronica
E.
Mangab,
Aaron
S.
Teningc,
Akwinga
V.
Asaahd
aLand
Quality
Division,
Environmental
and
Nature
Service
Area,
Ramboll
UK,
London,
W1
T
3DA,
United
Kingdom
bDepartment
of
Geology
and
Environmental
Science,
University
of
Buea,
P.O.
Box
63,
Buea,
Cameroon
cDepartment
of
Chemistry,
University
of
Buea,
P.
O.
Box
63,
Buea,
Cameroon
dDepartment
of
Geological
Sciences,
College
of
Science,
Engineering
and
Technology,
Osun
State
University,
PMB
4494,
Osogbo,
Osun
State,
Nigeria
a
r
t
i
c
l
e
i
n
f
o
Article
history:
Received
30
September
2010
Received
in
revised
form
24
November
2011
Accepted
26
November
2011
Keywords:
Cameroon
Land
contamination
Risk
management
Conceptual
site
model
Douala
Africa
Sustainable
development
Capacity
building
a
b
s
t
r
a
c
t
Land
affected
by
contamination
from
human
activities
has
been
identified
as
a
major
environmental
problem
in
developed
countries
and
there
are
established
mechanisms
for
identifying,
prioritising,
char-
acterising,
assessing
and
remediating
the
land
so
that
risks
to
human
health
and
environmental
receptors
are
minimised.
However,
comparative
mechanisms
and
approaches
for
sustainable
land
management
are
often
lacking
in
developing
countries
such
as
Cameroon.
This
paper
presents
a
critical
review
of
the
existing
policy
framework
in
Cameroon
in
relation
to
environmental
management,
particularly
land
contamination.
It
is
established
that
in
Cameroon,
there
is
an
acute
lack
of
comprehensive
information
on
land
contam-
ination
from
economic
development
and
industrialisation,
inadequate
legal
and
institutional
framework,
weak
enforcement
capacity
and
unsatisfactory
coordination
between
various
stakeholders
towards
sus-
tainable
land
management
practices.
The
coastal
town
of
Douala,
which
has
the
highest
level
of
industrial
activity
in
the
sub
region
is
used
to
demonstrate
how
dealing
with
land
contamination
is
a
public
health
priority
and
requires
attention
in
the
context
of
sustainable
development.
The
United
Kingdom
(UK)
regulatory
policy
framework
on
land
contamination
risk
management
is
used
to
show
how
land
contam-
ination
issues
and
risk
management
approaches,
including
conceptual
site
models,
could
be
introduced
into
the
sustainability
discourse
in
Cameroon.
A
number
of
recommendations
including
proposals
for
a
radical
overhaul
of
the
current
regulatory
policy
framework
are
formulated
and
presented.
Specifi-
cally,
the
creation
of
an
independent
Cameroon
Environment
Protection
Agency
(CEPA)
that
will
be
the
main
regulatory
body
responsible
for
developing
and
implementing
the
policy
proposals
in
this
paper
is
advocated.
© 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Introduction
The
contamination
of
soil,
groundwater
and
other
environmen-
tal
receptors
by
contaminants
from
historic
and
existing
land
uses
is
a
complex
environmental
problem
in
all
developed
countries
(Ferguson
et
al.,
1998).
Contaminated
land
which
is
typically
a
legacy
of
past,
bad
industrial
and
waste
management
practices
(Gay
and
Korre,
2006)
has
been
identified
as
one
of
the
major
threats
of
the
soil
resource
in
Europe
(Duffield
et
al.,
2000;
Rodrigues
et
al.,
2009b;
Swartjesa
et
al.,
2008).
Land
affected
by
contamination
may
present
a
risk
to
humans
and
ecological
receptors
such
as
flora
and
fauna,
as
well
as
water
quality
and
property
(Bone
et
al.,
2010;
∗Corresponding
author.
Tel.:
+44
0
207
631
5291;
fax:
+44
0
207
323
4645.
E-mail
address:
otforton@gmail.com
(O.T.
Forton).
DEFRA
and
EA,
2004;
Fonge
et
al.,
2011).
Consequently,
in
devel-
oped
countries
such
as
the
UK,
there
are
established
frameworks
and
mechanisms
for
assessing
and
managing
the
risk
posed
by
contaminated
sites
(Rodrigues
et
al.,
2009a).
However,
in
many
developing
countries,
such
frameworks
are
not
well
developed.
There
are
therefore
very
few
mechanisms
for
dealing
with
potential
risks
(affecting
human
health
and
environmental
receptors)
that
may
result
from
land
contamination.
Though
environmental
pollution
linked
to
domestic
and
indus-
trial
activities
is
recognised
as
a
problem
in
many
African
countries
(Gulamian
et
al.,
2005),
issues
surrounding
land
contamination
and
land
contamination
risk
management,
and
concepts
are
not
well
documented.
Additionally,
as
many
developing
countries
are
undergoing
rapid
population
growth
associated
with
rapid
increases
in
urbanisation,
industrial
and
agricultural
land
uses
(Leopold
et
al.,
2008),
the
impacts
of
land
contamination
on
human
health
(public
health)
and
environmental
quality
is
likely
to
become
0264-8377/$
–
see
front
matter ©
2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.landusepol.2011.11.011
O.T.
Forton
et
al.
/
Land
Use
Policy
29 (2012) 750–
760 751
Fig.
1.
Map
of
Cameroon
showing
geopolitical
boundaries,
road
and
rail
network,
and
major
cities.
Reproduced
from
Asaah
(2010).
more
prevalent
and
topical
in
the
context
of
a
wider
sustainability
agenda
and
discourse.
Physiographic
characteristics
of
Cameroon
The
Republic
of
Cameroon
is
centrally
located
within
the
conti-
nent
of
Africa,
and
lies
between
latitudes
1◦38and
13◦05N
and
longitudes
8◦33
and
16◦16E
(Fig.
1).
It
has
a
total
surface
area
of
475,400
km2,
with
approximately
400
km
of
coastline
(Mafany
et
al.,
2006).
The
country
is
divided
into
10
administrative
units
known
as
Regions
(formerly
Provinces),
and
has
an
estimated
population
of
19.3
million
with
approximately
57%
of
the
popu-
lation
living
in
relatively
urbanised
areas
(Asaah,
2010).
Topographic
variations
and
the
Atlantic
Ocean
bordering
the
south-western
coastline
locally
modify
the
regional
climates,
imposing
different
sub-climatic
conditions
(Asaah,
2010)
including
the
Sudano–Saheline
zones
in
the
north,
the
humid
tropical
forest
of
the
Congo-Basin
in
the
south
and
the
Savannah
grassland
zones
in
the
west
of
the
country
(Gaston,
2009;
Tsalefac,
2007).
Cameroon
has
the
second
largest
(after
the
Democratic
Repub-
lic
of
Congo)
reservoirs
of
freshwater
(lakes
and
rivers)
in
Africa
(Mafany
et
al.,
2006).
Groundwater
aquifers
occur
within
the
crys-
talline
basement
and
in
volcano-sedimentary
terrains.
752 O.T.
Forton
et
al.
/
Land
Use
Policy
29 (2012) 750–
760
This
paper
will
review
and
present
some
approaches
to
address-
ing
land
contamination
in
Cameroon.
Experiences
and
concepts
from
the
UK
and
other
developed
countries
are
used
to
explore
the
issues
around
land
contamination
in
Cameroon
particularly
the
city
of
Douala,
which
has
the
greatest
industrial
activity
in
the
coun-
try.
A
number
of
measures
for
improving
the
effective
delivery
of
land
contamination
policy
as
part
of
a
local
sustainability
agenda
is
formulated
and
proposed.
Methodology
The
study
was
carried
out
using
policy
appraisal
and
analysis
of
data
from
secondary
sources.
Firstly,
a
detailed
content
analysis
of
relevant
literature
and
data
from
various
organisations
including
data
banks
of
United
Nation
agencies
such
as
the
World
Bank
was
undertaken
to
obtain
infor-
mation
specific
to
Cameroon
such
as
population
growth
rates
and
rates
of
urbanisation,
which
were
then
analysed
in
the
context
of
land
contamination
and
public
health
hazards
in
Cameroon.
Secondly,
a
critical
review
of
the
statutory
policy
instruments
and
laws
related
to
environmental
management
in
Cameroon,
with
specific
interest
in
land
contamination,
was
undertaken
in
order
to
identify
existing
policy
on
land
contamination
prior
to
proposing
strategies
to
improve
on
ground
contamination
risk
management
strategies
in
Cameroon.
The
ministerial
portfolios
of
the
various
ministerial
departments
in
Cameroon
were
reviewed
and
ana-
lysed
in
order
to
identify
specific
departments
and
responsibilities
related
to
land
contamination
risk
management.
This
approach
was
important
because
it
helped
identify
the
problems
with
the
existing
policy
and
its
implementation
and
also
gave
a
framework
against
which
more
sustainable
approaches
could
be
formulated.
Thirdly,
the
UK
contaminated
land
policy
framework,
used
as
a
best
case
example,
is
compared
to
the
complex
regulatory
system
in
Cameroon.
This
comparative
analysis
is
then
used
to
inform
the
discussions
on
the
development
of
best
practice
approaches
for
a
sustainable
contaminated
land
policy
in
Cameroon.
Results
History
of
industrial
development
in
Cameroon
Historically,
the
government
of
Cameroon
has
promoted
the
development
of
import
substitution
and
export
oriented
indus-
tries
given
that
agriculture
is
a
major
contributor
to
the
country’s
Gross
Domestic
Product
(GDP).
On
average
agriculture
contributes
approximately
20%
to
the
annual
GDP
and
employs
approximately
70%
of
the
work
force
in
the
country
(Dewbre
and
Borot-de-Battisti,
2008;
F-11,
2011;
OECD,
2008;
WB,
2011).
Over
95%
of
Cameroon’s
industries
lie
along
the
coastal
towns
(Sama,
1996)
(Fig.
1)
where
access
for
exports
is
readily
available
(Luken
et
al.,
2002).
The
devel-
opment
of
export
oriented
industries
along
the
coast
of
Cameroon
has
been
associated
with
a
net
migration
of
people
from
the
hin-
terlands
in
search
of
work
and
commercial
opportunities
in
the
primary,
secondary
and
tertiary
industries
along
the
major
roads,
riverine,
swampy
and
marshy
areas
in
the
coastal
towns.
This
has
meant
that
more
and
more
people
live
in
the
coastal
areas
and
depend
on
the
very
resources
(e.g.
soil,
surface
and
groundwater,
air)
which
are
used
by
the
associated
industries.
Inadequate
man-
agement
of
emissions
to
air,
land
and
water
could
result
in
public
health
issues
and
ultimately
affect
the
net
economic
output
of
the
town
and
country.
It
is
estimated
that
approximately
22%
of
Cameroon’s
popula-
tion
live
in
close
proximity
to
the
coast
(EarthTrends,
2003).
For
example,
the
coastal
town
of
Douala
(Fig.
2)
is
the
industrial
centre
for
Cameroon
and
the
Central
African
sub
region
(Essombe-Edimo,
2007).
It
has
a
population
of
over
3.2
million
inhabitants
(Essombe-
Edimo,
2007)
which
equates
to
over
16%
of
the
entire
country’s
population
of
19.5
million
(WB,
2011).
The
coastal
city
of
Douala
has
an
estimated
annual
population
growth
rate
of
8%
and
con-
tributes
over
65%
of
the
Cameroon’s
GDP
(Essombe-Edimo,
2005)
due
to
the
density
of
primary,
secondary
and
tertiary
industries
in
the
city
and
its
environs
(Fig.
2).
As
shown
in
Fig.
2
there
is
a
high
density
of
residential
developments
around
the
industrial
zones
and
along
the
streams
and
rivers
across
the
city
which
flow
into
the
Wouri
Estuary.
Following
independence
in
the
1960s,
the
government
of
Cameroon
put
in
place
the
Industrial
Zones
Devel-
opment
and
Management
Authority
(MAGZI)
[Decree
No.
71/DF/95
of
01/03/71]
with
the
principal
aim
of
promoting
industrial
devel-
opment
in
accordance
with
the
development
and
industrialisation
policies
of
the
country.
In
the
specific
case
of
Douala,
the
Bassa
and
Bonaberi
industrial
zones
were
located
on
the
outskirts
of
the
city.
However,
over
the
years,
there
has
been
increasingly
haphazard
residential
developments
and
urbanisation
in
the
areas
identified
as
“industrial
zones”.
As
such,
there
is
currently
a
very
fuzzy
dis-
tinction
between
residential
and
industrial
areas.
This
is
largely
attributed
to
the
haphazard
nature
of
urban
development
in
the
city
and
a
lack
of
short
and
long
term
city
planning
and
devel-
opment.
Generally,
in
such
an
environment
risks
due
to
ground
contamination
(e.g.
industrial
emissions
to
land,
ground
and
sur-
face
waters
which
are
a
direct
resource
to
residents)
can
be
acute
and
can
exacerbate
the
typical
public
health
issues
as
hygiene
and
infectious
diseases.
The
Bassa
and
Bonaberi
industrial
zones
in
Douala
has
the
high-
est
level
of
industrial
activities
in
Cameroon
(Asaah
et
al.,
2006).
Present
and
historical
industrial
land
uses
include
breweries,
oil
refineries,
textile
preparation
and
manufacture,
tanneries,
rub-
ber
processing,
petrol
stations,
cement
manufacture,
garages,
ship
yards
and
ancillary
services
and
food
processing
industries.
Anec-
dotal
evidence
suggests
that
the
majority
of
the
industries
reject
their
liquid
waste
into
the
urban
drainage
network
and
it
ends
up
in
the
Atlantic
Ocean
(Sama,
1996).
Though
these
industrial
zones
were
historically
located
areas
identified
in
the
Cameroon’s
development
plans
as
centres
for
industrial
activities
and
growth
(Essombe-Edimo,
2007)
the
haphazard
and
fortuitous
growth
of
human
settlements
around
the
industrial
zones
has
meant
there
is
no
clear
demarcation
between
the
industrial
and
residential
areas
(Fig.
2).
The
dependence
on
the
marine
and
coastal
resources,
extreme
poverty
among
coastal
communities
and
in-migration
to
coastal
areas
combine
to
place
heavy
pressures
(deteriorating
water
quality,
including
pollution
of
lagoons,
bays,
estuaries
and
streams)
on
coastal
ecosystems
(Hewawasam,
2000)
which
trans-
lates
into
poverty
and
poor
health
among
coastal
communities.
Within
this
context,
addressing
land
contamination
hazards
and
risks
is
a
public
health
and
economic
priority.
Another
area
of
development
with
a
significant
potential
for
land
contamination
in
Cameroon
is
mining
and
associated
activ-
ities.
Historically,
traditional
artisanal
mining
has
been
established
in
Cameroon
predominantly
in
the
hinterlands,
such
as
in
the
East
and
Adamawa
Provinces
(Fig.
1).
However,
the
last
10
years
have
seen
the
rapid
growth
of
the
mining
sector
with
large
multina-
tionals
acquiring
licenses
to
mine
reserves
of
minerals
and
metals
including
bauxite,
iron,
nickel,
cobalt,
uranium
and
gold.
The
envi-
ronmental
legacy
of
artisanal
or
large
scale
mining
in
Cameroon,
specifically
in
relation
to
soil
contamination
is
still
unknown
as
it
has
not
yet
been
quantitatively
assessed
or
discussed
in
detail
in
the
literature.
Anthropogenic
activities,
be
it
historic
or
present
are
a
major
source
of
contaminants
including
heavy
metals
(e.g.
cadmium,
lead,
mercury
and
arsenic),
and
organic
compounds
(such
as
pesticides,
herbicides,
persistent
organic
pollutants
(POPs),
polycyclic
aro-
matic
hydrocarbons
(PAHs),
polychlorinated
biphenyls
(PCBs),
and
O.T.
Forton
et
al.
/
Land
Use
Policy
29 (2012) 750–
760 753
Fig.
2.
Schematic
diagram
of
the
Douala
metropolis
showing
the
density
of
human
settlements
around
the
industrial
zones.
The
boundaries
of
the
industrial
zones
indicated
in
(b)
are
not
precise
as
the
zones
show
approximate
areas
that
have
the
highest
concentration
of
industries
in
Douala.
In
addition
to
the
major
industrial
developments,
there
is
a
high
concentration
of
small
scale
potentially
contaminative
industries
and
establishments
such
as
garages,
petrol
stations,
saw
mills
along
the
major
and
subsidiary
roads
as
well
as
rivers.
dioxins
(PCDDs)
(HPA,
2009;
Järup,
2003;
Ongley,
1996;
Rodrigues
et
al.,
2009a;
Schaerer,
1996;
UNEP,
2009;
Wang
et
al.,
2004)
into
the
environment.
This
could
affect
human
health
and
environ-
mental
receptors
including
groundwater,
surface
waters
(streams,
lakes,
rivers
seas
and
oceans)
and
the
mangroves.
Uncertainties
about
the
nature
and
significance
of
chemical
contamination
can
be
a
major
stumbling
block
hindering
sustainable
development,
and
increasing
pressures
on
greenfield
sites
(Duffield
et
al.,
2000).
In
a
developing
country
such
as
Cameroon,
this
would
translate
to
increased
deforestation
to
create
land
for
development,
reduction
in
natural
carbon
sinks
and
contribution
to
local
and
global
climate
change.
Land
contamination
in
Cameroon
In
Cameroon,
soil
quality
assessments
are
mostly
undertaken
within
the
context
of
agricultural
production
where
soil
fertility
and
nutritional
status
determination
are
the
main
objectives.
This
754 O.T.
Forton
et
al.
/
Land
Use
Policy
29 (2012) 750–
760
Table
1
Comparison
between
the
principles
of
Cameroon’s
Law
No.
96/12
of
05/08/1996
and
the
UK’s
Environmental
Protection
Act
(1990)
with
an
emphasis
on
land
contamination
policy.
Cameroon’s
“Environmental
Law”
Law
No.
96/12,
August
1996aUK
Environmental
Protection
Act,
EPA
1990
Part
III
on
Environmental
management
Part
III
–
Chapter
1
–
Provisions
for
the
preparation
of
a
National
Environmental
Management
Plan
(NEMP)
which
shall
be
amended
every
5
years
Chapter
II
–
Environmental
Impact
Assessments
Addressed
in
the
UK
under
a
different
regulatory
regime,
principally
the
Town
and
Country
Planning
Act.
Planning
Policy
Statement
23
(PPS23)
is
used
to
manage
land
contamination
risks
through
the
planning
and
land
development
process
Chapter
III–Protection
of
the
receptor
Environment
Section
1
–
Protection
of
the
atmosphere
Part
I
–
Integrated
pollution
controll
and
air
pollution
control
by
local
authorities
(regulates
existing
industrial
processes
including
emissions
to
air,
land
and
water)
Section
2
– Protection
of
continental
watersband
flood
waters
Part
IIA
– Contaminated
land
Section
III
–
PRotection
of
the
coast
and
maritimebwaters
Part
IIA
of
the
Environmental
Protection
Act
1990
(inserted
as
part
of
the
Environmental
Act,
1995)
describes
a
new
regulatory
role
for
local
authorities
in
dealing
with
land
contaminated
from
historical
land
use
Section
4
–
Protection
of
soils
and
the
subsoil
Chapter
IV
–
Plant
classified
as
dangerous,
unhygienic
or
inconvenient
and
polluting
activities
Part
II
–
Waste
on
land
(sets
the
framework
for
minimising
pollution
of
the
environmental
due
to
waste
management
activities)
aPart
II
of
the
Cameroonian
“Environmental
Law”
relates
to
the
Preparation,
Coordination
and
Financing
of
Environmental
Policies
(including
establishing
norms
[standards]
for
air,
water,
soil
to
safeguard
human
health
and
the
environment,
Creation
of
an
Inter-ministerial
Committee
on
the
Environment
and
a
National
Consultative
Commission
on
the
Environment
and
Sustainable
Development
to
assist
the
government
in
formulating,
coordinating,
implementing
and
monitoring
environmental
policies).
bContinental
Waters
refer
to
all
surface
and
groundwater
across
the
country
while
Maritine
Waters
refers
to
the
body
of
all
brackish
water
and
all
sea
water
under
Cameroon’s
national
jurisdiction.
In
the
UK
both
Continental
Waters
and
Maritine
Waters
(as
referred
to
in
Cameroon)
are
collectively
called
Controlled
Waters.
However,
more
recently
in
Scotland,
Controlled
Waters
are
termed
“The
Water
Environment”.
arises
because
plantation
agriculture
which
covers
extensive
areas,
especially
in
the
southern
part
of
the
country
(Fig.
1)
plays
a
vital
role
in
Cameroon’s
economy.
Intensification,
expansion
as
well
as
the
long
term
uses
of
agricultural
inputs
in
plantations
and
food
cul-
tivation
are
a
threat
to
soil
and
water
quality
in
these
areas.
Very
little
or
no
information
on
soil–water
interaction,
which
is
a
nec-
essary
tool
to
sustainable
land
development
is
available.
Common
fertilisers
used
are
urea
for
nitrogen,
single
superphosphate
(SSP)
for
phosphorus
and
murate
of
potash
for
potassium.
The
pesticides
that
are
commonly
used
include
DDT,
organohalogens
(e.g.
aldrin
and
dieldrin,
toxaphene),
carbamates,
pyrethroids
and
Cu-based
fungicides
(Ongley,
1996;
Schaerer,
1996;
UNEP,
2009).
Though
these
chemicals
impact
on
groundwater
quality
(Ducci
et
al.,
2008),
in
Cameroon
their
legacy
and
impacts
on
the
local
groundwater
and
surface
water
resources
have
not
been
documented.
Despite
the
evidence
of
contamination,
there
is
very
little
quantitative
data
[in
the
public
domain]
on
the
status
of
land
contamination
in
Cameroon.
Fonge
et
al.
(2011)
using
fish
as
bio-
indicator
of
heavy
metals
in
Douala
estuary
of
Cameroon,
found
out
that
the
heavy
metal
levels
in
the
fish
were
significantly
higher
than
in
water,
indicating
bioaccumulation.
Njofang
et
al.
(2007,
2009)
investigated
geochemical
pollution
in
the
sediment
and
plant
system
in
the
Noun
River
and
its
tributaries
(West
Cameroon),
as
a
means
of
establishing
a
baseline
geochemical
database
for
a
sustainable
ecosystem
through
the
identification
of
geogenic
and
anthropogenic
inputs
into
the
soils
and
plant
matrices.
Asaah
et
al.
(2006)
undertook
geochemical
analysis
of
shallow
soils
in
the
Bassa
Industrial
Zone
of
Douala,
Cameroon
and
used
a
range
of
meth-
ods
to
determine
heavy
metal
contamination
around
industrial
areas,
waste
dump
sites
and
metal
and
mechanical
workshops
and
affluent
residential
areas.
Leopold
et
al.
(2008)
analysed
metal
sed-
iments
from
the
Mingao
River
from
the
Municipal
Lake
in
Yaounde,
Cameroon
with
a
view
to
differentiating
anthropogenic
(service
stations,
garages,
dump
sites,
etc.)
inputs
and
pollutants
in
the
stream
sediments.
Both
Asaah
et
al.
(2006)
and
Leopold
et
al.
(2008)
used
a
combination
of
geochemical
parameters
such
as
Enrichment
Factors
(Dragovic
et
al.,
2008;
Vega
et
al.,
2009),
Geochemical
Accu-
mulation
Indices
(Brown
et
al.,
2003)
and
associated
statistical
methods
to
differentiate
between
the
sources
of
contamination.
This
approach
to
identifying
soil
contamination
has
been
predom-
inantly
favoured
in
countries
where
Generic
Assessment
Criteria
(GAC)
to
inform
assessments
on
the
level
of
risks
to
receptors
do
not
exist.
These
approaches
are
a
useful
tool
for
source
characterisa-
tion
and
identifying
potentially
problematic
sites
requiring
further
attention.
There
is
the
need
to
formulate
and
implement
a
regulatory
policy
framework
that
will
encourage
the
characterisation
and
effective
remediation,
where
required,
of
potentially
contaminated
land.
This
will
ensure
that
land
contamination
risk
management
will
be
mainstreamed
into
the
overall
policy
framework
for
sus-
tainable
environmental
management.
Comparative
analysis
of
the
environmental
management
policy
framework
in
Cameroon
and
the
UK
Most
countries
in
the
world
are
parties
to
the
1992
agreements
on
sustainable
development
at
the
Rio
Earth
Summit
which
through
Agenda
21
(UNEP,
2007)
formulated
a
blueprint
of
action
for
sus-
tainable
environmental
management
(UN,
1993).
While
there
had
been
established
regulatory
policy
frameworks
in
countries
such
as
the
UK,
the
Earth
Summit
in
Rio
1992
and
Agenda
21
introduced
in
a
new
phase
of
environmental
and
regulatory
policy
framework
in
developing
countries
such
as
Cameroon
(Manga
et
al.,
2008).
Prior
to
this
period,
Cameroon
had
very
little
in
the
form
of
environmental
policy
as
environmental
protection
was
not
a
top
priority
in
its
development
policy
agenda.
In
1996,
a
landmark
pol-
icy,
Law
No.
96/12
of
05/08/1996
(termed
“Environmental
Law”
in
this
paper)
was
promulgated
which
stipulated
provisions
for
pol-
icy
objectives
and
strategies
to
deliver
comprehensive
sustainable
development
in
Cameroon.
In
the
UK,
the
late
1980s
and
early
1990s
saw
the
further
development
of
environmental
legislation
with
the
increasing
influence
of
the
European
Community
Legislation.
In
O.T.
Forton
et
al.
/
Land
Use
Policy
29 (2012) 750–
760 755
Fig.
3.
A
simplistic
representation
of
the
land
contamination
risk
management
policy
framework
in
the
UK.
1990,
the
UK
consolidated
environmental
policy
covering
a
wide
range
of
areas
including
air
pollution,
land
contamination,
waste
management
into
the
Environmental
Protection
Act
(HMSO,
1990).
Table
1
shows
a
comparison
between
Cameroon’s
“Environment
Law”
and
the
UK
Environmental
Protection
Act,
highlighting
sec-
tions
which
are
relevant
to
land
contamination
risk
management.
The
underlying
principles
of
Cameroon’s
“Environment
Law”
as
set
out
in
Chapter
III
(fundamental
principles)
includes
the
precau-
tionary,
preventive
action,
polluter
pay,
liability
and
participative
principles
which
are
similar
to
the
underlying
principles
of
polluter
pay,
use
of
best
available
techniques
and
duty
of
care
in
the
UK’s
Environmental
Protection
Act
(1990).
In
the
UK,
significant
work
on
policy
formulation
and
implementation
have
been
undertaken
on
specific
aspects
of
the
Environmental
Protection
Act,
1990
and
there
is
an
established
regulatory
policy
framework
and
relevant
statutory
policy
instruments
on
all
sections
of
the
1990
Act
includ-
ing
waste
management
(e.g.
Adams
et
al.,
2000)
and
contaminated
land
(e.g.
DEFRA
and
EA,
2004).
In
Cameroon
however,
the
pace
of
policy
implementation
is
rather
slow
due
to
delays
in
institut-
ing
or
passing
of
rules
of
implementation,
guidance
or
regulations
stipulated
in
the
“Environmental
Law”
No.
96/12
of
05/08/1996.
Recently,
some
authors
have
analysed
the
existing
policy
frame-
work
in
Cameroon
and
proposed
best
practice
measures
for
improving
the
delivery
of
sustainable
waste
management
(Manga
et
al.,
2008),
health
care
waste
management
(Manga
et
al.,
2011)
and
environmental
impact
assessments
(Alemagi
et
al.,
2007).
There
is
no
available
evidence
in
the
public
domain
to
suggest
that
a
study
on
the
existing
framework
on
land
contamination
has
been
undertaken
in
the
past.
Approaches
to
contaminated
land
management
in
the
UK
In
the
UK,
contaminated
land
is
defined
as:
“Land
which
appears
to
the
local
authority
in
whose
area
it
is
situated
to
be
in
such
a
condition,
by
reason
of
substances
in,
on
or
under
the
land,
that
–
significant
harm
is
being
caused
or
there
is
a
significant
possibil-
ity
of
such
harm
being
caused;
or
pollution
of
controlled
waters
is
being,
or
is
likely
to
be,
caused”
(DEFRA,
2008;
HMSO,
1995).
Over
the
decades,
significant
efforts
involving
regulators,
indus-
try,
research
and
academic
institutions
and
the
civil
society
have
been
undertaken
to
ensure
that
the
legacy
of
contaminated
land
is
adequately
dealt
with
in
the
UK.
Nowadays,
the
UK
is
an
international
reference
point
in
relation
to
land
contamination
and
approaches
to
managing
ground
contamination
risks.
The
approaches
to
taking
decisions
on
the
management
of
contam-
inated
land
sites
has
evolved
from
the
cost-centred
approaches
in
the
mid-1970s
(based
on
the
use
of
“trigger
values”),
through
the
technology
feasibility
studies
of
the
mid-1980s,
the
risk-based
approaches
of
the
mid-1990s
to
a
much
integrated
approach
including
sustainable
development
(Pollard
et
al.,
2004).
The
cur-
rent
UK
approach
to
managing
land
contamination
is
based
on
the
principles
of
risk
assessment
and
risk
management
such
that
unac-
ceptable
risk
to
human
health
and
the
environment
are
managed
and
land
is
made
‘suitable
for
use’.
There
are
two
principal
regimes
for
managing
land
contami-
nation
–
Part
IIA
and
the
Planning
Process
(Fig.
3).
The
UK
uses
a
tiered
approach
to
assessing
risk
to
human
health
and
environ-
mental
receptors
(Fig.
3)
involving
the
development
of
a
Conceptual
Site
Model
(CSM)
using
a
source–pathway–receptor
and
pollutant
756 O.T.
Forton
et
al.
/
Land
Use
Policy
29 (2012) 750–
760
Table
2
Key
legislative
aspects
related
to
land
contamination
and
sustainable
land
management
in
Cameroon.
Legislation
and
Statutory
Instrument
Specific
sections
related
to
pollution/contamination
sources
and
receptors
Text
of
Implementationa
Law
No.
96/12
of
5/08/1996 Article
21:
Protection
of
atmosphere Decree
No.
2005/0577/PM
of
23/02/05
and
Order
No.
006/MINEP
of
08/03/05
Law
on
Environmental
Management
which
sets
the
legal
framework
for
environmental
management
in
Cameroon
including
protection
of
the
atmosphere,
marine
and
continental
waters,
soils
and
sub
soils
and
biodiversity
Article
30:
Protection
of
continental
waters
None
Article
31:
Protection
of
coastal
and
marine
waters None
Article
36
and
38:
Protection
of
soils
and
subsoils
None
Article
47–53:
Waste
disposal
on
land
None
Article
57:
Dangerous
and
hazardous
waste
None
Law
N0.
98/005
of
4/04/1998
Article
4:
Protection
of
surface
and
groundwater
from
industrial
pollution
Decree
No.
2001/163/PM
of
08/05/01
Decree
No.
2001/164/PM
of
08/05/01
The
National
Water
Code
which
institutes
a
water
regime
and
its
enabling
instruments
which
specify
the
conditions
and
restrictions
concerning
the
use
of
water
resources
for
industrial
purposes
as
well
as
the
conditions
for
the
dumping
of
industrial
waste
in
aquatic
environment
Article
5:
List
of
substances
whose
discharge
into
surface
and
groundwater
is
prohibited
None
Article
6:
Anti-pollution
measures
and
devises
None
Article
7:
Watershed
protection Decree
No.
2001/165/PM
of
08/05/01
Law
N0.
98/015
of
14
July
1998
Article
3:
Categories
of
classified
establishments
Decree
No.
99/818/PM
of
09/11/99
Law
governing
classified
and
dangerous
establishments
Article
8:
Standards
of
waste
emissions
from
classified
establishments
None
Law
N0.
001
of
16
April
2003.
Article
50:
Mining
waste
treatment
and
pollution
prevention
None
Institutes
the
Mining
Code
Article
60
and
75:
Environmental
management
and
site
rehabilitation
None
Law
No.
2003-3
of
21
April
2003
Relating
to
Phytosanitary
protection
Article
19:
Environmental
protection
from
residual
pesticide
products
None
Law
N0.
2005/0577/PM
of
23/02/2005
Provides
the
procedural
framework
governing
Environmental
Impact
Assessment
(EIA)
in
Cameroon
Decree
No.
0069/MINEP
of
03/2005
aThe
majority
of
Laws
and
Statutory
Instruments
of
the
Republic
of
Cameroon
are
available
online
at
the
Prime
Minister’s
Office–Official
website
http://www.spm.gov.cm/en/documentation/laws-and-statutory-instruments.html
[last
accessed
20.11.11].
linkage
methodology
(DEFRA
and
EA,
2004).
Soil
contamination
is
a
hazard,
which
may
be
a
source
of
risk
if
toxic
substances
reach
receptors
by
various
pathways
(Ferguson
et
al.,
1998).
A
pollutant
linkage
is
known
to
exist
if
all
three
(source,
receptor
and
pathway)
are
present,
as
shown
on
a
Conceptual
Site
Model
(CSM).
Once
a
pollutant
linkage
is
identified
a
number
of
tools
including
site
characterisation
and
risk
assessments,
remediation
can
be
used
to
refine
the
CSM,
risk
estimation
and
evaluation
(DEFRA
and
EA,
2004).
There
is
a
wide
body
of
guidance
and
approaches
statutory
regu-
latory
bodies
such
as
the
Environment
Agency
and
the
Department
of
Food
and
Rural
Affairs
(DEFRA)
use
in
identifying
and
making
informed
decisions
on
land
affected
by
contamination.
Risks
to
human
health
are
assessed
in
relation
to
specific
Soil
Guideline
Values
(SGVs)
or
Generic
Assessment
Criteria
(GAC)
based
on
spe-
cific
land
use
scenarios
and
assumptions
about
the
characteristic
and
behaviour
of
the
contaminant
sources,
pathways
and
recep-
tors
(Cheng
and
Nathanail,
2009).
In
the
absence
of
GACs
from
the
regulators,
GACs
have
been
developed
by
other
authoritative
bod-
ies
such
as
Land
Quality
Management
(LQM)
and
are
widely
used
by
all
in
the
industry.
GACs
are
used
in
order
to
simplify
the
risk
assessment
process
and
providing
a
bench
marking
reference
point
which
can
be
applicable
to
all
sites
(DEFRA
and
EA,
2004).
Risks
to
controlled
waters
are
assessed
against
Drinking
Water
Quality
Standards
and
Environmental
Quality
Standards.
In
some
instances,
as
required
by
the
results
of
the
risk
assessment
(Fig.
3)
Site
Specific
Assessment
Criteria
(SSAC)
can
be
developed
and
used
in
specific
cases.
Legal
and
legislative
policy
framework
on
land
contamination
in
Cameroon
While
there
is
no
specific
national
contaminated
land
strategy
and
policy,
there
are
a
limited
number
of
statutory
policy
instru-
ments
(Table
2)
which
make
reference
to
aspects
of
contaminated
land
risk
management
as
is
in
the
UK.
Additionally,
there
are
several
ministerial
departments
(Table
3)
with
different
roles
and
respon-
sibilities
related
to
the
management
of
environmental
pollution
and/or
land
contamination.
It
is
evident
from
Table
2,
that
the
majority
of
the
policy
instruments
which
could
be
used
towards
to
management
of
land
contamination
are
not
currently
implemented.
As
shown
in
Table
3,
there
appears
to
be
no
coordinated
approach
to
sustainable
land
management
and
ground
contam-
ination
risk
management
due
to
the
plethora
of
ministries
and
ministerial
departments
with
various
responsibilities
related
to
sustainable
land
and
environmental
management.
Discussions
Cameroon
has
a
wide
array
of
legislation
aimed
at
minimis-
ing
the
environmental
impacts
of
industrial
activities
including
land
contamination.
However,
these
are
often
not
well
formulated
and
implemented.
For
example,
the
responsibilities
for
managing
environmental
pollution
hazards
to
land
as
well
as
marine,
fluvial
and
lacustrian
(Controlled
Waters
in
the
UK)
are
devolved
among
several
ministerial
departments
(Table
3)
and
aimed
at
achieving
O.T.
Forton
et
al.
/
Land
Use
Policy
29 (2012) 750–
760 757
Table
3
Roles
and
responsibilities
of
key
ministerial
departments
related
to
sustainable
land
management
and
land
contamination
risk
management
in
Cameroon.
Ministerial
department
Key
responsibilities
related
to
sustainable
and
land
contamination
risk
management
in
Cameroon
Statutory
ordera
Ministry
of
Environment
and
Nature
Protection
(MINENP)
This
is
the
most
powerful
ministry
with
varied
responsibility
for
environmental
protection.
Required
to
collaborate
with
other
agencies
to
define
measures
for
the
rational
management
of
natural
resources;
Effective
control
of
investigation
and
pollution
in
the
field;
Specifies
the
criteria
(project
specific)
and
supervises
environmental
impact
assessments;
Negotiates
international
accord
and
conventions
which
are
related
to
environmental
protection.
Decree
No.
2005/0577/PM
of
23/02/05
7]
Order
No.
006/MINEP
of
08/03/05/
Ministry
of
Mines,
Industries
and
Technological
Development
(MINMITD)
Responsible
for
the
elaboration
of
developmental
strategies
to
govern
and
control
classified
establishments
or
industries
Decree
No.
99/818/PM
of
9/11/99,Order
No.
13/MINMEE/DMG/SL
of
19/04/77,
Law
02/MINMEE/DMG/SDAMI
of
4/01/9
Develop
strategies
for
industrial
development
and
the
control
of
classified
and
commercial
installations
for
pollution,
security,
hygiene
and
industrial
nuisance;
define
standards
for
industrial
pollution;
list
of
dangerous,
obnoxious
and
polluting
facilities
in
order
to
inform
the
public;
develops
regulations
governing
installation
and
exploitation
of
facilities
classified
as
dangerous,
obnoxious
and
polluting
Ministry
of
Transport
The
Ministry
of
Transport
has
a
department
of
maritime
affairs
and
navigable
ways.
Responsible
for
the
protection
of
the
marine,
fluvian
and
lacustrian
environment
including
routine
inspection
and
location
of
pollution
and
taking
action
against
polluters
Ministry
of
Territorial
Administration
and
Decentralisation
(MINTAD)
Follow-up
and
implement
regulations
for
organisation
and
functioning
of
Councils;
Oversees
the
execution
of
the
budget
of
the
government’s
council
support
fund
(FEICOM);
Restoration
of
hygiene
and
public
sanitation;
Supervises
Urban
Councils
which
are
responsible
for
follow-up
and
control-industrial
waste
management,
management
of
all
public
spaces
and
infrastructure;
sweeping
of
streets,
collection,
transportation
and
treatment
of
household
waste
Circular
letter
No.
0040/LC/MINAT/DCTD
of
04/04/00,
Order
No.
00072/MINAT/MINVILLE
of
21/05/00;Law
No.
714/23
of
5/12/74;
Law
no.
2004/18
of
22/07/04
Ministry
of
Urban
Development
and
Housing
(MINDUH)
Develop
and
implement
urban
restructuring,
management
strategies,
sanitation
and
drainage;
Define
and
enforce
standards
for
hygiene/sanitation,
collection
and/or
treatment
of
household
waste;
liaises
with
international
agencies
for
urban
development
Order
No.
00072/MINAT/MINVILL
of
21/05/00
Ministry
of
Public
Health
(MINPH)
Creates
hygiene
and
sanitation
units
in
councils;
provides
technical
support
to
the
hygiene
and
Sanitation
Units
of
Councils;
Proposes
standards
for
collection,
transportation
and
treatment
of
industrial,
domestic
waste
and
emptying
of
septic
tanks;
Designs
and
implements
public
education
campaigns
on
hygiene
and
sanitation
Order
No.
D67/NS/NN/ST/SG/BMPHP/NNPA
of
11/08/87,Circular
letter
No.
D69/N6/DMHK/SHPA
of
August
1980
aThe
majority
of
Laws
and
Statutory
Instruments
of
the
Republic
of
Cameroon
are
available
online
at
the
Prime
Minister’s
Office–Official
website
http://www.spm.gov.cm/en/documentation/laws-and-statutory-instruments.html
[Last
accessed
20.11.11].
similar
objectives
of
environmental
protection.
This
leads
to
inef-
ficiencies
through
duplication
and
wastage
of
both
human
and
capital
resources
(Manga
et
al.,
2008).
Additionally,
this
results
in
poor
enforcement,
poor
sensitisation
as
well
as
inadequate
coordi-
nation
between
the
various
stakeholders.
A
fundamental
flaw
in
the
current
policy
framework
is
the
requirement
for
a
Text
of
Implementation
which
in
many
cases
is
delayed
or
non-existent
(Table
2).
Additionally,
in
some
cases
where
they
exist,
they
are
very
general
and
do
not
offer
appropriate
technical
guidance
to
ensure
a
level
playing
field
for
all
stakehold-
ers
in
the
identification
and
management
of
land
contamination,
primarily
related
to
public
health
protection.
For
example,
Decree
No.
99/818/PM
of
09/11/99
enforcing
the
National
Water
Code
(Law
No.
98/015
of
14/07/2010)
does
not
provide
a
mechanism
on
how
to
monitor
any
pollution
to
groundwater
resources.
This
means
that
monitoring
becomes
ineffective
and
subjective
in
some
cases.
There
is
no
clear
policy
framework
for
managing
ground
contamination
risks
in
the
country
either
from