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Gender differences in online consumption and content production among Italian undergraduate students

Authors:
Arianna Mainardi at Università degli Studi di Milano-Bicocca
Arianna Mainardi
Andrea Mangiatordi at Università degli Studi di Milano-Bicocca
Andrea Mangiatordi
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Abstract and Figures

Gender has now ceased to influence Internet access and frequency of use, especially among youths. However, self-efficacy in digital skills, content production and Internet uses are still associated with gender. For that reason, this article uses data from a survey conducted in a university in Northern Italy to explore if male and female undergraduates differ in their activities of online consumption and content production and whether self-efficacy could explain the differences.
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RIVISTA
PIC$AIS
PROCESSI(E(
ISTITUZIONI(
CULTURALI
Media(industries(and(
grassroots(cultural(
production(in(the(
digital(era
Rivista(Pic@Ais(
Cultura(e(Comunicazione
Culture(and(Communication
N°3(–(2013
ISSN(2036@9700
Abstract
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Data'and'Methodology
Sample
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Findings
90$'.("$"#+'(*0$-#$())!"'&%'#$'.#$*!'+*5#"$*4$*!&$%0%)7"("$*4$(0'#&0#'$+*0<
"!5;'(*0$W(1#1$(0'#&0#'$!"#Y$%0,$*0)(0#$+*0'#0'$;&*,!+'(*0$"'7)#"1$Z.&*!/.$
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 
'.#$4#%'!&#"$ *4$#%+.$ +)!"'#&3$ -#$ %&#$ /*(0/$ '*$ #:%5(0#$ .*-$/#0,#&$ %0,$


2(&"'$*4$%))$-#$+%0$"'%'#$'.%'$'.#&#$("$ %$ ;*"('(6#$ +*&&#)%'(*0$ K#'-##0$ '.#$
(0,#:$*4$+*0"!5;'(*0$W+%)+!)%'#,$%"$'.#$5#%0$6%)!#$*4$'.#$+*0"!5;'(*0$

W'.#$5#%0$*4$'.#$6%&(%K)#"$&#/%&,(0/$;&%+'(+#"$*0$+*0'#0'$;&*,!+'(*0$!"#,$
4*&$'.#$"#+*0,$+)!"'#&$%0%)7"("Y1$D!+.$+*&&#)%'(*0$-%"$'#"'#,$!"(0/$D;#%&<
<
(=#"$#%+.$+)!"'#&$+*5;%&(0/$'.#$+#0'&*(,"$(0$#%+.$+)!"'#&$-('.$'.#$5#%0$
6%)!#$*4$'.#$"%5#$6%&(%K)#$(0$'.#$#0'(&#$"%5;)#1$


U"*+(%K)#"V$%0,$ U-#K$ +*0"!5#&"V1$U]50(6*&#"V$%0,$U;)%(0$!"#&"V$+*&<
&#";*0,$'*$'.#$"%5#$;#&+#0'%/#$*4$"'!,#0'"$WXgjY$W0mNbTY3$-.()#$U-#K$
+*0"!5#&"V$%&#$XNj$W0mNXfY$%0,$U"*+(%K)#"V$XTj$W0mS_fY1
R#0,#&$,(44#&#0+#"$(0$*0)(0#$+*0<
"!5;'(*0$%0,$+*0'#0'$;&*,!+'(*0$
%5*0/$9'%)(%0$!0,#&/&%,!%'#$
"'!,#0'"
P1$GP98PEC9
P1$GP8R9PZ]EC9$
G1$G9hLMO9
21$DhM8989
RIVISTA
PIC$AIS
;%/1$SS
Frequency Valid'percentage
Sociables S_f 20,1
Omnivores NSd 27
Plain'users NbT 27
Web'consumers NXf 25,9
Z*'%) XSTb ITT
Tab.'1.'Internet'consumption'styles'within'the'sample.
\#$"'%&'$K7$,#"+&(K(0/$'.#$'-*$ /&*!;"$'.%'$%&#$%'$'.#$*;;*"('#$;*)#"$&#<
/%&,(0/$(0'#0"('7$*4$(0'#&0#'$!"#$%0,$6%&(#'7$*4$*0)(0#$%+'(6('(#"$+*0,!+'<
<
@!#0')7$'.%0$'.#$*'.#&"3$#0/%/#$(0$%$"5%))$0!5K#&$*4$%+'(6('(#"$%0,$6("('$
          
6%)!#$ (0$ #%+.$ *0)(0#$ %+'(6('73$ -.(+.$ 5#%0"$ '.%'$ "'!,#0'"$ (0$ '.("$ /&*!;$
'#0,$'*$K#$)#""$%+'(6#$+*5;%&#,$'*$'.#$*'.#&"$<$'.#7$!"#$'.#$(0'#&0#'$)#""$
(0'#0"#)7$'.%0$'.#(&$;##&"1$
  
Z.#7$%&#$"'!,#0'"$-.*$+%&&7$*!'$5%07$,(44#&#0'$*0)(0#$%+'(6('(#"$-('.$%$
.(/.$4&#@!#0+71$Z.("$+)!"'#&$.%"$6%)!#"$%K*6#$5#%0$4*&$0#%&)7$%))$(0'#&0#'$
%+'(6('(#"$+*0"(,#&#,$4*&$'.#$+)!"'#&$%0%)7"("1$9'$(0,(+%'#"$'.%'$"'!,#0'"$(0$
'.("$/&*!;$%&#$(0+)(0#,$'*$!"#$5%07$,(44#&#0'$-#K"('#"$%0,$"#&6(+#"3$%0,$
'*$,*$('$@!('#$4&#@!#0')71$
Z.#$'-*$*'.#&$/&*!;"$+%0$K#$(,#%))7$)*+%'#,$(0$%$5(,,)#$%&#%3$K#'-##0$
U;)%(0V$%0,$U*50(6*&#V$!"#&"e$ '.#7$ %&#$ U"*+(%K)#"V$%0,$U-#K$ +*0"!5<
#&"V1$90'#&#"'(0/)73$'.#"#$'-*$/&*!;"$.%6#$*;;*"('#$'#0,#0+(#"1$
UD*+(%K)#"V$ %&#$ .#%67$ !"#&"$ *4$ '.#$ 5*"'$ -#))$ [0*-0$ "*+(%)$ 0#'-*&[$
"('#"$W2%+#K**[$%0,$l*!Z!K#$(0$;%&'(+!)%&Y$%0,$\#K$X1T$"#&6(+#"$W"!+.$
%"$ R**/)#$ P;;"Y1$Z.#$ +#0'&*(,"$ 4*&$ '.("$ /&*!;$ *0$ 6%&(%K)#"$ &#)%'#,$ '*$
"*+(%)$0#'-*&[$ "('#"$ .%6#$ '.#$ .(/.#"'$ 6%)!#"3$ %)"*$ +*5;%&#,$ '*$ U*50(<
6*&#"V1$ UD*+(%K)#V$ !"#&"$ "##5$ 0*'$ ;%&'(+!)%&)7$ (0'#&#"'#,$ (0$ *0)(0#$ %+<
'(6('(#"$-.(+.$%&#$0*'$&#)%'#,$-('.$5%(0'%(0(0/$"*+(%)$&#)%'(*0".(;"$W"!+.$
%"$*0)(0#$0#-"Y1$Z.#$U-#K$+*0"!5#&"V3$%'$'.#$+*0'&%&7$%&#$)#""$#0'.!"(<
%"'(+$%K*!'$"*+(%)$ 0#'-*&[$"('#"$W'.#7$.%6#$)*-#&$5#%0$6%)!#"$*0$ '.#"#$
6%&(%K)#"Y3$K!'$'.#7$%&#$4&#@!#0'$0#-"$&#%,#&"3$'.&*!/.$*0)(0#$0#-";%;#&$
-#K"('#"$*&$-#K$K)*/"3$%0,$'.#7$%&#$5*&#$(0+)(0#,$'*$!"#$#<5%()$*&$-%'+.$
"'&#%5(0/$6(,#*$'.%0$U"*+(%K)#"V1$
Sociables Omnivores Plain'users Web'Consumers Variable'Mean
YouTube dN3S_ dN3IX _f3bf df3If dX3fIb
Wikipedia dX3SX df3_d gd3b_ dX3SN _d3b_gb
EBay bI3__ b_3I f_3_X SS3T_ S_3XX
Google'Maps _b3bf _b3S N_3fX g_3Sd gd3Sfb
Yahoo'Answers NS3X Nf3fd Sf3N bI3Ng bb3gIb
Facebook dS3fI dX3TX _b3_S _X3SX __3NSgb
Twitter Sf3Xb bT3b X_3dX fN3fg fd3gN
Apple'Store bT3TS Sd3fd Xb3_f fS3gS ST
R#0,#&$,(44#&#0+#"$(0$*0)(0#$+*0<
"!5;'(*0$%0,$+*0'#0'$;&*,!+'(*0$
%5*0/$9'%)(%0$!0,#&/&%,!%'#$
"'!,#0'"
P1$GP98PEC9
P1$GP8R9PZ]EC9$
G1$G9hLMO9
21$DhM8989
RIVISTA
PIC$AIS
;%/1$Sb
Google'Apps bN3bN bf3I_ Id3If XI3_f fg3Ngb
Picasa bI3I_ fd Ig3fN Ig3fg fI3XXgb
e?mail gN3gg _d3SS NN3Xg _T3Sb g_3XfXb
Online' newspa?
per
fg3Tb NN3bg XX3Nb NI3dX Sg3TSgb
Video'call XI3Nf bI3gS Ib3I_ Id3_X Xg3TdXb
IM Sf3SS _T3NX S_3TX Xb3ff Sd3fbXb
Chatroom d3NN XT3Xb d3db S3Ig II3TTgb
E?'commerce Xg3_ fN3Tg IT3dX XX3IX XS3XXgb
Reading'blogs fI3If NI3Ib If3gd f_3Tb fN3Tf
 Nb3bX gg3bd SN NI3TS NX3bfgb
Streaming bf3bf gX3TN fX3Ng b_3b_ bS3XI
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
      <
'#0'$;&*,!+'(*01$\#$+*5;%&#$6%&(%K)#"$5#%0$6%)!#"$(0$#%+.$/&*!;$-('.$
'.#$5#%0$6%)!#$*4$'.#$"%5#$6%&(%K)#$(0$'.#$#0'(&#$"%5;)#1$D'%&'(0/$4&*5$

;&*,!+#&"Ve$'.#$4*&5#&"$ %&#$ '.#$)#""$%+'(6#$(0$%))$-#K$;)%'4*&5"$*&$-#K$
"#&6(+#"3$-.()#$'.#$)%''#&"$%&#$'.#$5*"'$%+'(6#$(0$%))$*4$'.#51$Z.#0$'.#&#$
%&#$'-*$(0'#&5#,(%'#$/&*!;"e$U4%+#K**[#&"V$-.*$%&#$(0+)(0#,$'*$;&*,!+#$
+*0'#0'$5%(0)7$*0$2%+#K**[$%0,$U6%&(#/%'#,V$-.*$.%6#$%$5*&#$,(6#&"#$
K#.%6(*&$%0,$%&#$;%&'(+!)%&)7$%+'(6#$*0$l*!Z!K#$W%))$*4$'.#5$.%6#$;!K<
)(".#,$%$6(,#*$%'$)#%"'$*0+#Y1
Frequency Valid'percentage
Facebookers S_g XS
Variegated' SfT XI3X
Extended'producers XNN If3I
Casual'producers _S_ SI3_
Z*'%) XTfI ITT
G(""(0/ STX
Z*'%) XSff
Tab'3:'Online'content'production'styles'within'the'sample.
' Facebookers Variegated'
producers
Extended
producers
Casual'
producers
Total
l*!Z!K#$;&*,!+'(*0 T ITT bd3S T3XS fd3dI
\([(;#,(%$;&*,!+'(*0 f3Xd II3IN Id3dX X3fN d3I_Xb
2%+#K**[$-%))$;*"' gb3b_ Nb3d_ Nb3Tb SS3bd NX3_
2%+#K**[$ ;(+'!&#"3$ )(0[3$
6(,#*
NS3Xd bN3__ b_3b fS3Nd bf3bd
2%+#K**[$/&*!;" gT3bb NX3SI Nf3Sf fd3d_ bd3TdXb
Z-(''#&$;&*,!+'(*0 T T ITT T3_f Xb3XTgb
H)*//(0/ Ig3Sg Ig3bb XS3IS X3bd Ib3Sfgb
C9l$;!K)(".(0/ bX3Td Sg3IX bT3fd I_3bf SX3TfXb
2*&!5$;%&'(+(;%'(0/ XT3NX XN3SS fX3SX g3XN XI3N_b
2)(+[&$;&*,!+'(*0 X3XN f3gX IS3Xd T3bd b3XIb
H)*/$+*55#0'(0/ Sf3gg f_3Ig SN3fb IX3fX fb3IbXb

R#0,#&$,(44#&#0+#"$(0$*0)(0#$+*0<
"!5;'(*0$%0,$+*0'#0'$;&*,!+'(*0$
%5*0/$9'%)(%0$!0,#&/&%,!%'#$
"'!,#0'"
P1$GP98PEC9
P1$GP8R9PZ]EC9$
G1$G9hLMO9
21$DhM8989
RIVISTA
PIC$AIS
;%/1$SN
Gender&and&online&consumption&and&production&practices
\#$K#)(#6#$ '.%'$ (0'#&0#'$!"#&"$ (0$ '.#$/&*!;$ *4$'.#$ U*50(6*&#"V$ %0,3$%'$
'.#$"%5#$'(5#3$(0$'.#$/&*!;$*4$'.#$U#:'#0,#,$;&*,!+#&"V$+*!),$K#$)%K#)#,$
%"$%&'"(&"')!""#*1$Z.#$(0'#&"#+'(*0$*4$ '.#"#$ /&*!;"$ %))*-$!"$'*$(,#0'(47$
'.#$5*"'$%+'(6#$!"#&"e$ISf$&#";*0,#0'"3$&#;&#"#0'(0/$b1dj$*4$'.#$*6#&%))$
"%5;)#1$Z.#"#$!"#&"$'#0,$'*$+*0"(,#&$'.#5"#)6#"$.(/.)7$#:;#&'$ WNT1_jY$
*&$#:;#&'$WIg1bjY1$P5*0/$'.#5$'.#&#$%&#$Ng$4#5%)#$W'.%'$+*&&#";*0,"$'*$
f1dj$*4$'.#$"%5;)#$'*'%)$*4$4#5%)#$"'!,#0'"Y$%0,$gN$5%)#$"'!,#0'"$W'.%'$
+*&&#";*0,"$'*$IT1_j$ *4$ '.#$'*'%)$*4$ 5%)#$ &#";*0,#0'"Y1$G%)#$"'!,#0'"$
"##5$'*$K#$ +.%&%+'#&(=#,$ K7$%0$.(/.#&$%/#0+7$%0,$5*&#$)([#)7$4%))$(0'*$
'.#$%&'"(&"')!""#$,#"+&(;'(*01
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Tab.5':'Gender'distribution'within'internet'consumption'styles.
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producers
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Tab.'6:'Gender'distribution'within'online'content'production'styles.
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Plain Web'consumer Sociable Omnivore Total'(100%)
Not'expert 2#5%)# SX3ITj XS3XTj IN3_Tj IN3_Tj 772
G%)# fS3XTj fS3XTj IN3ITj Ib3STj 149
Suf.'expert 2#5%)# fI3XTj XX3gTj XS3XTj XI3dTj 343
G%)# Ib3TTj ST3_Tj Ib3_Tj X_3fTj 120
Expert 2#5%)# Xf3XTj Xd3XTj XX3TTj Xb3NTj 336
G%)# Id3NTj fb3ITj IN3dTj X_3STj 148
Very'expert 2#5%)# II3fTj XT3gTj X_3ITj 39,80% 256
G%)# S3gTj Id3fTj XT3STj 55,60% 275
Total 2#5%)# bfd SIN fbd fdf 1707
fI3NTj XS3STj XI3TTj Xf3TTj 100,00%
Total G%)# III XTb IXS XbX 692
IN3TTj Xd3NTj Ig3dTj fN3STj 100,00%
Tab.'7:'Internet'skills'self?evaluation,'gender'and'internet'consumption'styles.
Casual' Variegated' Facebookers Extended' Total
Not'expert 4#5%)# bb3TTj IS3NTj Xb3fTj b3ITj 644
5%)# bf3TTj XI3STj Id3gTj N3TTj 117
Suf.'Expert 4#5%)# Sb3STj XT3gTj XN3_Tj g3ITj 295
5%)# fb3dTj fI3ITj Id3STj If3NTj 103
Expert 4#5%)# fb3dTj Id3fTj fX3dTj II3dTj 295
5%)# fg3fTj fT3XTj Ib3ITj Ig3bTj 230
Very'expert 4#5%)# XN3ITj XN3NTj XX3dTj XS3fTj 218
5%)# XX3XTj Xg3_Tj IS3_Tj fb3XTj 230
Total 4#5%)# NbI XgT f_d ISX 1452
SS3_Tj I_3NTj XN3_Tj d3_Tj
5%)# Idg Ibd dN IXS 576
fS3XTj Xg3NTj IN3gTj XI3bTj
Tab.'8:'Internet'skills'self'evaluation,'gender'and'online'content'production'styles.
Discussion
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... Si tratta in questo caso di gruppi su social networks, forum online e siti web che permettono non solo la pubblicazione ma anche il dialogo, il dibattito e la relazione, tra i membri, tramite commenti, spazi virtuali di confronto e di dibattito. I nuovi strumenti di comunicazione non sono solamente volti alla promozione di sé stessi, ma anche alla relazione con altri/e, e hanno uno specifico ruolo nei processi di formazione, definizione e ridefinizione dell'identità, dei ruoli, delle modalità relazionali anche di genere (Capecchi 2006;Mainardi et al. 2013; Krijnen, and Van Bauwel 2015;Maloney et al. 2018). ...
Dordoni, A., Magaraggia, S. (2021). Modelli di mascolinità nei gruppi online Incel e Red Pill: narrazione vittimistica di sé, deumanizzazione e violenza contro le donne, AG About Gender - Rivista internazionale di studi di genere, 10(19): 35-67
Article
Full-text available
  • Jun 2021
Online groups that share violent language and hate speech against women have been spreading and multiplying. Incel and Red Pill groups are part of the manosphere and are active and increasing in Italy too. The aim of the study upon which this article is based, and whose preliminary results are presented here, is to analyse interactions, representations and discourses connected to gender identities and models of masculinity, presented and co-produced within the Incel and Red Pill Italian community. Through the analysis of empirical material, web articles, posts and comments on closed groups active on social media, we identified two interconnected themes: (1) aesthetics, frustration and a narrative of self?victimization; (2) reification, dehumanization and violence against women. The results show that violence is immanent and integrated into the lexicon and imaginary used by this virtual community, and is at the core of the new models of masculinity produced and reinforced by these groups. Keywords: gender models, masculinity, incel, red pill, violence.
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... 11 (2) permanente" rivela una maggiore dipendenza online delle ragazze (65,6% di chi dichiara di essere sempre connesso) rispetto ai ragazzi (34,4%). Per il resto, in linea con la letteratura degli ultimi anni, il genere non appare più una variabile discriminante nell'accesso e frequenza d'uso di Internet (Gui, 2015;Mainardi et al., 2013). Anche il tipo di scuola che si frequenta (Istituto tecnico commerciale-economico, Liceo Scientifico, Classico o delle Scienze Umane, Istituto professionale nel settore industria e artigianato) non è una variabile che determina differenze di uso della rete e dell'ampiezza del range di attività svolte online. ...
On life: adolescenti tra narrazioni e identità
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  • May 2021
In this paper, we investigate how young people use social media. In particular, we analyse their narrative strategies and what is considered crucial in others’ social representation. This research study was carried out in the high schools of Reggio Calabria, a provincial capital medium-sized in the south of Italy. Using a survey, we investigate the everyday uses of the Internet technologies by girls and boys aged between fourteen and sixteen: their performed activities, the smartphone role in their family and peers relationships, the impact of the digital content on their behaviours. According to our findings, dichotomy interpretations of the digital ecosystem turn out to be misleading: people live consistently within both environments of an existence on-life. In the conclusions, we claim that we should not stigmatise this double environment lives, but understand and give it value.
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... Another desirable characteristic of the media educator shared by interviewees is their gender. There is an essentialist point of view and stereotypes that identify men as better in this field (Mainardi et al. 2013, Bimber, 2000. It happens even if, as we observed, what adolescents demand is not only connected to technology in the strict sense. ...
Telling, doing, (Media)educating. Adolescents’ experiences, expectations, suggestions concerning media education
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Full-text available
  • Feb 2017
Frequently the relation between young people and the technologies of communication is trivialized by describing adolescents as naturally predisposed to digital technology or as incautious users. Media education goes beyond this oversimplification in trying to help adolescents to improve their digital and media literacy. Many debates have taken place around media education but only a small number of them take into consideration what adolescents think about their experiences with media education and what they expect from it. In this paper, I will discuss the results of a qualitative study carried out in the Veneto Region (Italy) on upper secondary school students. The article aims to explore media-educational activities through adolescents’ own words. The objective is to bring out what interviewees define as the strengths and weaknesses of media education as they have experienced it. The paper seeks to be a point of reflection about media-educational activities, which frequently in Italy continues to be crystallized around technical aspects and sometimes maintains an old approach that could be incapable of listening to girls and boys or of comprehending their lives and needs.
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The youth on-line life: risks, violence and support networks
Article
  • Nov 2022
The paper presents the results of an online survey carried out by five Italian Universities to investigate the cyber violence phenomenon between young people aged between 19 and 25 (2365 valid questionnaires). The web transforms social relationships because it moves them out of the ‘real’ context and places them in an undefined space–time dimension where, the identity dimension does not pass only through being passive users but active builders of content and relationships. The web is not without risks, including the well-known phenomenon of cyberviolence. The data collected allow us to focus on formal and informal networks (ref. family and school) that young people activate between real and virtual life to cope with the risks and problems arising from the phenomena of cyberviolence. Within the analysis we adopted a gender approach useful to emphasize the different forms of violence that can be characterized by male and female points of view. In the conclusions we also focus on interventions that can be put in place to address this problem by imagining the characteristics of an alliance between institutions (family and school) that could represent a safety network for boys and girls starting from the awareness of the risks that the network can offer.
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Dal fumetto al grande schermo: modelli educativi e super-eroine della Marvel (2000-2020) 1
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  • Jan 2021
Negli ultimi due decenni, la Marvel Cinematic Universe ha portato sugli schermi la trasposizione delle trame e di alcuni personaggi dei fumetti Marvel, ideati a partire dagli anni Sessanta; ha prodotto diciotto film, spin off, video giochi, gadgets e merchandising ispirati ai film, ottenendo un successo internazionale fra giovani e giova-nissimi. In alcuni casi, il passaggio dal fumetto al cinema ha comportato modifiche e censure riguardo alle carat-teristiche dei personaggi, al loro ruolo, alle loro avventure. Il contributo introduce alcuni personaggi femminili presenti in questi film, a partire dalla consapevolezza che essi possono svolgere una funzione culturale ed educa-tiva profonda, proponendo modelli identitari, di relazioni, di ruoli, in particolare rivolti ad adolescenti. L'analisi pedagogica proposta si focalizza sulle differenze o similitudini rispetto ai modelli presenti nel fumetto e riflette sugli aspetti connessi alla rappresentazione del corpo, sulle relazioni con gli altri personaggi, sul ruolo rivestito all'interno dell'intreccio narrativo. From 2000 to 2020, Marvel Cinematic Universe has brought on screens the transposition of the plots and some characters of the Marvel comics, conceived from the Sixties, producing eighteen official films, some spin-offs, video games, gadgets and merchandising inspired by the movies and achieving international success among 1 Il presente contributo è frutto della collaborazione e della comune rielaborazione fra le autrici: tuttavia, Lisa Brambilla è re-sponsabile del sottoparagrafo 4.4 e delle Conclusioni; Marialisa Rizzo è responsabile dei paragrafi 1, 2 e 3; Gabriella Seveso del paragrafo 4 (ad esclusione del sottoparagrafo 4.4).
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Le trasformazioni della disuguaglianza digitale tra gli adolescenti: evidenze da tre indagini nel Nord Italia
Article
  • Dec 2015
Based on unique datasets collected by the author in three northern italian regions’ schools (˜8000 students), the article describes how youth’s family background currently relates to their Internet use practices. The results show that nowadays the only indicators that show a linear relationship with social stratification are the use of the Internet for in-depth information searching and the breadth of Internet uses carried out frequently. Other variables such as the use of social networking sites, production of online content, gaming and the time spent online seem to have become widespread irrespectively of young people’s social origins. A third set of variables, concerning how pervasive the use of one’s smartphone is in social and personal life, shows an inverse relationship with social stratification: those that are more advantaged show a lower pervasiveness. Therefore, today the digital profile of students coming from disadvantaged backgrounds is characterized by a low level of information searching, low breadth of Internet uses and high pervasivity of mobile devices. On the one hand, this poses a challenge to traditional digital inequality theory; on the other, it calls for critical education interventions to prevent addictive behaviours.
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