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The Chilean Strawberry (Fragaria chiloensis): Over 1000 Years of Domestication
Abstract and Figures
The cultivated strawberry of South America, the octoploid Fragaria chiloensis L. has a long and interesting history. While the origin of the species in Chile cannot be completely determined, it is suspected to be an introduction from North America by birds. After making landfall in Chile, the species spread from the coast into the mountains developing a number of four ecotypes over a long period. At least two native people, the Mapuche, between Rio Bio-Bio and south-central Chile, and the Picunche, between Rio Itata and Rio Bio-Bio, began the domestication process. While white and red fruited forms were developed, the white form (because of fruit size) seemed to have been preferred as the red fruited types are not mentioned frequently in the literature. At the time of the Spanish invasion of Chile, F. chiloensis was widely grown in small garden plots. Over time under the Spanish rule, larger plantings first of 1–2 ha and later of many hectares were grown. As the Spanish continued their exploration and conquest of South America, they carried F. chiloensis with them up the western coast to Peru, Ecuador and Colombia. For many years these scattered plantings were the source of fresh fruit for the burgeoning populations. The cultivated F. x ananassa Duch. ex Rozier was introduced in Chile around 1830, but the F. chiloensis was still preferentially grown. In the early 1900s, a large canning industry that served hundreds of acres of F. chiloensis planting thrived. By the 1950s, F. x ananassa began to predominate and the rise of the importance of the University of California and European developed strawberries that was impacting the world also displaced much of the traditional production. An increased awareness of this vast genetic resource arose in the 1980s and 1990s. Faculty, particularly at the Universidad de Talca, have collected and characterized germplasm that represents not only tremendous diversity but captures many of the land races that have been developed. This germplasm has been utilized in small commercial plantings (0.1–0.3 ha) and in breeding programs to further develop F. chiloensis commercial cultivars. There is still a small but vibrant community of small growers in Chile (along the North-Central coast of the Pacific Ocean) and Ecuador (mainly around Ambato) producing the land races for commercial sale in local markets. It is estimated that around 30 ha of open field plantings are cultivated in Chile with yields averaging around 3–4 tons/ha.
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... chiloensis) (Figure 9) was exported to Chile from Europe in the early eighteenth century, and it is the maternal progenitor of the commercial strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa) [55]. Mapuche and Picunche people cultivated this plant, and the fruit was consumed as a nutritive food or fermented drink in ceremonial rites [116]. In this regard, flavonoids, mainly anthocyanins, are strawberries' main constituents of phenolic compounds [117]. ...
... Notably, the nutritional composition of the strawberry varies considerably with its genetic background. White Chilean strawberries are a good source of phenolic antioxidants [116]. Furthermore, in vitro studies have shown that white Chilean strawberry fruit has a high free radical scavenging effect [117]. ...
Medicinal plants have been used since prehistoric times and continue to be utilized in the treatment of several diseases as a fundamental part of the healing process. Inflammation is a condition characterized by redness, pain, and swelling. This process is a hard response by living tissue to any kind of injury. Furthermore, inflammation is produced by an extensive range of diseases such as rheumatic and immune-mediated conditions, cancer, cardiovascular diseases, obesity, and diabetes. Hence, anti-inflammatory based treatments could emerge as a novel and exciting approach to treat these diseases. Medicinal plants and their secondary metabolites are known for their anti-inflammatory properties, and this review introduces various native Chilean plants whose anti-inflammatory effects have been evaluated in experimental studies. Fragaria chiloensis, Ugni molinae, Buddleja globosa, Aristotelia chilensis, Berberis microphylla, and Quillaja saponaria are some of the native species analyzed in this review. Since inflammation treatment is not a one-dimensional solution, this review seeks a multidimensional therapeutic approach to inflammation with plant extracts based on scientific and ancestral knowledge
... There are about 22 species of genus Fragaria. It was first cultivated in France and North America (Finn et al., 2013). In Pakistan it was first cultivated during 1980 and got fame as ground mulberry (Rajwana et al., 2017). ...
Locally grown strawberry fruit was used for the development of strawberry based cottage cheese and cake for the improvement of nutritional status and quality. In product development phase, four kinds of treatments were adopted like T1 (5% strawberry pulp), T2 (10% strawberry pulp), T3 (5% strawberry pulp) and T0 (control). The developed products were analyzed for their sensory characteristics and microbial analysis (TPC). The resultant data indicated that the T2treatment of strawberry based cake and cream cheese with 10% strawberry pulp was appreciated during sensory profiling whereas, the minimum microbial count was found in T1 at 6 day of storage of cake. Similarly, the minimum count of cream cheese was accessed in T3 at 10 day of storage.
... White-fruited strawberries have existed for centuries as white-fruited forms of Fragaria chiloensis cultivated by native individuals in South America (Finn et al. 2013). Hybrids of these forms with cultivated strawberries (Fragaria ×ananassa Duchesne ex Rozier) have been called "pineberries" because of the presence of a pineapple-like aroma. ...
... Strawberry has a long history of genetic improvement for traits associated with the sensory quality of the fruit. Certainly, since ancient times, the aborigines of the new world [12,120,125,126], practiced selection for some organoleptic characteristics such as fruit weight, color, firmness and flavor, outstanding attributes that have been reported in the landrace's varieties of Chile [124][125][126][127]. These qualities, which are under genetic control, have been incorporated into commercial cultivars of F. xananassa. ...
The growing increase in global strawberry production and consumption has been spectacular during this century. In 2019, 396,401 ha were planted, and 8.9 million tons of fruit were produced globally, and more than 50% of that volume was in the subtropical climate. The problems and losses caused by diseases and pests are of global importance, particularly with root and crown diseases, the severity and spread of which has been magnified by the cancelation of certain soil fumigants, and by the susceptibility to one or more of the parasites of the group of cultivars currently planted. The use of the genetic reservoir available both in the cultivated species, as in the 26 wild species, is a formidable wealth of genes, partially collected, and characterized, which can be of fundamental importance to introduce new genetic combinations into modern commercial cultivars and to redesign them, so that they have a greater adaptation to stresses caused by biotic and abiotic factors, in addition to an important improvement in the nutraceutical quality of the fruit. This chapter documents the importance of this gene pool in the development of elite cultivars with these qualities.
White-fruited strawberry cultivars have recently become popular due to their exotic appearance and flavor, but more needs to be known about their overall quality and postharvest performance. The objective of this study was to characterize and compare the overall quality of the white-fruited strawberry Florida Pearl® ‘FL 16.78-109’ against the commercial, red-fruited strawberry ‘Florida Brilliance’ at harvest and during cold storage (1 °C). Results showed that harvest date and weather conditions contributed to significant differences in fruit quality, regardless of the cultivar. However, Pearl was softer at harvest and had lower total phenolic and anthocyanin contents but was less acidic and had higher total sugars and ascorbic acid contents than Brilliance. Pearl major polyphenols were kaempferol 3-glucoside, quercetin 3-glucoside, quercetin, and gallic acid, while for Brilliance epicatechin, pelargonidin, pelargonidin 3-glucoside, and ferulic acid were the major polyphenol compounds identified. After cold storage, Pearl lost less weight than Brilliance and showed a less dramatic decline in individual polyphenols. Pearl and Brilliance anthocyanins and phenolic acids were the polyphenol groups most affected by cold storage because they showed the highest decline from harvest to the end of storage. Cold storage also had different effects on other polyphenols, but the effect was cultivar-dependent. Overall, white strawberries have a unique appearance, are sweet, have an excellent bioactive profile, and can maintain good postharvest quality.
Fruits of Fragaria species usually have an appealing bright red color due to the accumulation of anthocyanins, water-soluble flavonoid pigments. Octoploid cultivated strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa) is a major horticultural crop for which fruit color and associated nutritional value are main breeding targets. Great diversity in fruit color intensity and pattern is observed not only in cultivated strawberry but also in wild relatives such as its octoploid progenitor F. chiloensis or the diploid woodland strawberry F. vesca, a model for fruit species in the Rosaceae. This mini-review examines our understanding of fruit color formation in strawberry and how ongoing developments will advance it. Natural variations of fruit color as well as color changes during fruit development or in response to several cues have been used to explore the anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway and its regulation. So far, the successfull identification of causal genetic variants has been largely driven by the availability of high-throughput genotyping tools and high-quality reference genomes of F. vesca and F. x ananassa. The current completion of haplotype-resolved genomes of F. x ananassa combined with QTL mapping will accelerate the exploitation of the untapped genetic diversity of fruit color and help translate the findings into strawberry improvement.
The Green Revolutions in fruits and vegetables have been less well documented but collectively as important to global food security and human well-being as the Green Revolutions in wheat, rice, and other cereals. Using an unparalleled collection of breeding records, an equally unparalleled collection of clonally preserved and genotyped individuals tracing to the beginning of strawberry domestication, phenotypes of early and modern hybrids observed in coastal California environments, and single-step pedigree-genomic prediction of breeding values, we show that phenomenal genetic gains from breeding drove a 2,755% increase in yield and a billion kg increase in annual production over the last 60 years in the US, principally through expansion in California. One of the catalysts for this Green Revolution was the introduction of a single gene from a wild ancestor that more than doubled yields by eliminating photoperiod sensitivity and enabling year-round production in coastal California and beyond.
The consumption of cultivated berry species (e.g., strawberries, blueberries) has increased dramatically in the last two decades after consumers appreciated them as flavorful, convenient and healthy fruits. Wild berries and similar small wild fruits are traditionally consumed around the world by local people as safe, nutritious, tasty, and versatile foods. These wild fruits have played an important role in the nutrition and bio-cultural aspects of rural communities. Like their commercial counterparts, wild berries contain important nutrients and bioactive compounds that may prevent or delay some chronic diseases attributed to oxidative stress and chronic inflammation. This review provides a comprehensive appraisal of the chemical and bioactive components in wild berry species and their traditional uses as foods around the globe. Presently, wild berries and similar wild small fruits are novel food sources that inspire applications as culinary products, processed foods, and nutraceuticals. Further research is needed to validate the content and action of bioactive components responsible for health claims. Sustainable commercial exploitation of wild berries should consider biocultural, environmental, and socio-economic aspects.
Strawberry is mainly a temperate fruit crop but now it is being grown under subtropical and tropical conditions as well due to existence of wide range of genotypes. These genotypes need to be evaluated for their performance under different growing environment preferably under protected conditions. The experiment was carried out at Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab during 2018-19 to determine the role of growing conditions and the genotype × growing conditions interaction for commercial cultivation of strawberry under two growing conditions, polytunnel and shade net for twenty-six quantitative traits. The data confirms significant difference among genotypes for plant height and plant spread where better growth was reported under polytunnel at early phase, while in later phase the growth was better under shade net. 'Winter Dawn', 'Hadar', 'E1-13#32', 'Barak', 'San Andreas', 'Sweet Charlie' and 'Camarosa' failed to produce runners while in other genotypes, the runner production was reported to be significantly better under shade net than polytunnel. The chlorophyll index, leaf area index, average fruit yield per plant and all the quality attributes were significantly affected by genotypes, growing conditions and their interaction. The genotypes grown under polytunnel outperformed that of shade net with highest mean yield per plant in 'Winter Dawn'followed by'Hadar' and 'Camarosa'.
Societal Impact statement
To secure a stable, safe food supply, the future of humanity depends on the conservation and application of cultivated and wild plant diversity. Strawberries are globally important. They are widely produced and provide significant human health benefits. In 2019, annual world production was 14.5 MT (FAOSTAT, 2022). This report characterizes agricultural traits of diverse heritage strawberries. The gene pool of breeding programs has traditionally included a reliable but limited set of cultivars. The traits of lesser known heritage strawberry cultivars and selections examined by our study could be of value in expanding gene pools by tapping into existing cultivated genetic diversity.
Summary
Strawberries are a berry crop of global significance. We present a comprehensive evaluation of strawberry diversity through phenotyping 284 strawberry cultivars from the U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Clonal Germplasm Repository Corvallis, Oregon, USA.
We assessed 284 cultivars in 2019 and 2020 for quantified variation across 16 traits, including phenology, plant morphology, and fruit quality traits at full ripeness. Through cluster analysis, we determined groups of accessions that had desirable traits, including quality fruits, earliest fruit ripening, or high numbers of daughter plant production. We observed that this strawberry diversity panel displayed a wide range of phenotypic variation that could prove useful for future strawberry improvement.
ORUS 2427‐1, NW 90054‐37, and “Independence,” each developed by the Oregon USDA breeding program, displayed a combination of the highest fruit quality traits. “Independence” also had the longest runner length and the highest number of daughter plants. Two California cultivars, Oso Grande and Cuesta, and the Oregon cultivar Pinnacle had a short ripening time, on average 32 days between flowering and harvest, with the range for the study group of 25–41 days.
Our data provide insight for breeders to expand gene pools, producers who choose cultivars for green‐wall production, or geneticists who need data to prepare genome‐wide association studies.
An elite group of 38 strawberry accessions representing all subspecies of the beach strawberry [Fragaria chiloensis (L.) Miller] and the scarlet strawberry (F. virginiana Miller) was planted in a replicated design at five locations across the United States, and evaluated for plant vigor, flowering date, runner density, fruit set, fruit appearance, and foliar disease resistance. Considerable genotype x location interaction was observed for many of these traits. However, a few genotypes were impressive at all locations including PI 551735 (FRA 368) with its unusually large, early fruit, and Pls 612486 (NC 95-19-1),612493 (Frederick 9), and 612499 (RH 30), which were very vigorous and had unusually good fruit color. Genotypes that were superior at individual locations included Pls 551527 (FRA 110) and 551728 (Pigeon Pt.) in Maryland for their large fruit, and PI 612490 (Scotts Creek) in Oregon which had extremely large fruit, superior color, firmness, and flavor. The Pls 612495 (LH 50-4),612498 (RH 23), and 612499 (RH 30) performed well as day neutrals at multiple sites.
Resumen Distribución actual de Fragaria chiloensis (L.) Duch. en Chile Se actualizó la información sobre la dis-tribución de Fragaria chiloensis (L.) Duch. con datos de dos expediciones de colecta, una en 1992 y otra en 1995, que recorri-eron desde la VII Región hasta la XI Región de Chile. La información sobre la ubicación geográfica y la altura de los sitios de la colecta permitió determinar las características predominantes del cli-ma en que aún se encuentra creciendo la especie, ya sea espontáneamente o como especie cultivada. La mayor parte de las accesiones se recolectó en áreas cuyo cli-ma era de gran amplitud térmica y de características muy variables. En cuanto a la altura del sitio de colecta, la especie se halló con mayor frecuencia entre 101 y 500 msnm, aunque se la encontró tam-bién entre 1 y 1850 msnm. La mayor frecuencia ocurrió entre los 36° y 39° de latitud sur, aunque se recolectó entre los 34° 55' S (Iloca) y los 44° 43' S (Puerto Cisnes) en la costa, y entre los 35° 30' S (Vilches) y los 47° 33' S (Laguna Larga, Cochrane), en el interior. Fue posible dis-tinguir tres tipos de plantas, según las características de los frutos: plantas sil-vestres de fruto rojo pequeño (F. chiloen-sis subsp. chiloensis f. patagonica), plantas silvestres de fruto blanco mediano o pe-queño, y plantas cultivadas de fruto blan-co grande (F. chiloensis subsp. chiloensis f. chiloensis). Las plantas de fruto blanco, silvestres o cultivadas, se encontraron si-empre en lugares cercanos al mar o a los lagos y nunca a gran altitud (siempre a < 500 msnm). Se encontraron solamente tres accesiones silvestres de fruto blanco, y también a baja altitud. Las silvestres de fruto rojo se distribuyen por toda la zona prospectada, desde la alta cordillera de los Andes hasta las playas junto al mar; rara vez se las encontró en áreas agríco-las o ganaderas.
This book fully integrates the conventional and biotechnological approaches to fruit crop breeding. Individual chapters are written on a wide variety of species including apple, apricot, blackberry, blueberry, cranberry, cherry, currant, gooseberry, grape, kiwifruit, peach, pear, plum, raspberry and strawberry. For each crop, there is a discussion of their taxonomy and evolution, history of improvement, crossing techniques, evaluation methods, heritability of major traits and germplasm resources, along with the most recent advances in genetic mapping and QTL (quantitative trait loci) analysis, marker assisted breeding, gene cloning, gene expression analysis, regeneration and transformation. Patenting and licensing issues are also covered. This book will be useful in fruit breeding classes and should provide as a springboard for all fruit breeders desiring an update on the latest technologies, horticulturalists who wonder what is being done in fruit breeding and genomicists searching for a way to contribute to fruit breeding efforts.
The major cultivated strawberry species, Fragaria x ananassa, is a hybrid of two native species, F. chiloensis and F. virginiana. Strawberry breeders are focused on improving local adaptations, fruit quality, productivity and disease resistance, and many are interested in developing new day-neutral cultivars. Some of the major pathogens worldwide are Botrytis cinerea, Colletotrichum spp., Phytophthora cactorum, Phytophthora fragariaeandVerticillium albo-atrum. The genetics of many of the horticulturally important traits have been investigated in strawberry and a number of genes have been characterized and cloned that are highly expressed during fruit ripening and maturation. Marker systems have been developed in strawberry for genetic linkage mapping and QTL have been identified for the day neutrality trait and several other fruit characteristics. Transgenic strawberries have been produced with herbicide and pest resistance and an effective marker-free transformation process has been developed. Two major EST libraries have been generated as genomic resources.