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Effects of chocolate on cognitive function and mood: A systematic review
Abstract
A systematic review was conducted to evaluate whether chocolate or its constituents were capable of influencing cognitive function and/or mood. Studies investigating potentially psychoactive fractions of chocolate were also included. Eight studies (in six articles) met the inclusion criteria for assessment of chocolate or its components on mood, of which five showed either an improvement in mood state or an attenuation of negative mood. Regarding cognitive function, eight studies (in six articles) met the criteria for inclusion, of which three revealed clear evidence of cognitive enhancement (following cocoa flavanols and methylxanthine). Two studies failed to demonstrate behavioral benefits but did identify significant alterations in brain activation patterns. It is unclear whether the effects of chocolate on mood are due to the orosensory characteristics of chocolate or to the pharmacological actions of chocolate constituents. Two studies have reported acute cognitive effects of supplementation with cocoa polyphenols. Further exploration of the effect of chocolate on cognitive facilitation is recommended, along with substantiation of functional brain changes associated with the components of cocoa.
... These properties are in turn linked to the prevention of chronic diseases in humans. For instance, polyphenols-rich dark chocolate seems to have anti-diabetes properties, as it increases the sensitivity to insulin (Scholey and Owen 2013). Moreover, the daily consumption of cocoa derivatives seems to ameliorate some biochemical parameters linked to lipid, cholesterol, and glucose metabolism (Leyva-Soto et al. 2018). ...
... Moreover, the presence of these substances might explain the typical craving for chocolate (Bruinsma and Taren 1999). Of note, methylxanthines themselves (particularly caffeine) may play a role in the mood-altering effects of chocolate, by increasing alertness (Scholey and Owen 2013). However, it should be noted that theobromine is also capable of conferring negative mood effects, including reductions in self-reported calmness (Mumford et al. 1994). ...
... Moreover, some natural substances with antiinflammatory properties, like curcumin Ng et al. 2017) and saffron (Shafiee et al. 2018;Toth et al. 2019), were reported to significantly improve affective symptoms in psychiatric patients in combination with standard therapy. However, it is worth underlining that the effects of flavonoids on antioxidant capacity are likely to be observed only after a longer intake of cocoa (Scholey and Owen 2013). As our meta-analysis included mainly studies with acute or short-term administration of cocoa derivatives, we cannot attribute our positive findings solely to the antiinflammatory properties of polyphenols. ...
In the popular imaginary, cocoa-derived products, like chocolate, represent a panacea for mood and affectivity. However, whether this is a myth or a fact has yet to be clarified. A systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted according to the PRISMA guidelines to investigate the effect of cocoa-derived food on depressive and anxiety symptoms, positive and negative affect. We searched Web of KnowledgeTM and PsycINFO up to April 3, 2020. After screening 761 records, we selected nine studies. Two trials evaluated the long-term effects of cocoa consumption (>1 week), two studies the short-term effects (3 days), while five studies were conducted in acute (single administration). Random-effects meta-analyses found an overall significant effect of cocoa-rich products on depressive (Hedge’s g = 0.42, 95% CI 0.67 to 0.17) and anxiety symptoms (Hedge’s g = 0.49, 95% CI 0.78 to 0.19). Moreover, both positive (Hedge’s g = 0.41, 95% CI
0.06 to 0.77) and negative affect (Hedge’s g = 0.47, 95% CI 0.91 to 0.03) significantly improved. In all meta-analyses, the effect size was medium, while heterogeneity was low. Our findings suggest that the consumption of cocoa-rich products may improve affect and mood in the short term. However, given the short duration of trials, our results cannot be generalized to long-term intake of cocoa-derived food. Cautious interpretation is also needed due to the low number of participants and studies included in the meta-analyses.
... Previously, we found an epicatechin-rich grape polyphenol extract that was highly effective in protecting against the onset and/or progression of multiple, diverse neurological, psychological, and metabolic disorders in animal models, mainly due to its bioactivities in modulating synaptic function [22][23][24][25][26][27][28] . Published evidence suggests cocoa consumption (in the form of chocolate) may improve cognitive function 29 and reduce fatigue 30 . Clinical observation also revealed that cocoa may beneficially modulate mood 29 . ...
... Published evidence suggests cocoa consumption (in the form of chocolate) may improve cognitive function 29 and reduce fatigue 30 . Clinical observation also revealed that cocoa may beneficially modulate mood 29 . The biological activities/properties of cocoa are modulated by the bioavailability of its bioactive constituents which include polyphenols 20,21 . ...
... Natural products have a history of being the source for many of the active ingredients in medications, and almost half of the drugs approved since 1994 are derived or inspired from natural products 40,41 . In recent years, cocoa products, specifically cocoa polyphenols, have received growing interest due to epidemiological observation that people consuming cocoa products such as chocolate reported either improvement in mood or attenuation of negative mood 29 . The benefits of chocolate have been in part, attributed to cocoa flavanols 42,43 . ...
Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a leading cause of disability, and there is an urgent need for new therapeutics. Stress-mediated induction of pro-inflammation in the periphery contributes to depression-like behaviors both in humans and in experimental models. Inflammatory cytokine interleukin-6 (IL-6) has emerged as a potential therapeutic target. Our studies demonstrated that metabolism of flavanol rich cocoa preparation (FRP) led to the accumulation of select phenolic acids that may contribute to its anti-inflammatory activity. Using a repeated social defeat stress (RSDS) model of depression, we showed that oral administration of FRP attenuates susceptibility to RSDS-mediated depression, supporting the further development of FRP as a novel therapeutic for the treatment of stress disorders and anxiety in humans.
... In human, cognitive function is studied through a variety of standardized tests that evaluate mental processes such as perception, attention, memory, decision making, and language comprehension [32,40,41]. Performance of mental processes changes during lifetime; executive and working memory reaches a peak between the 20s and 30s [42]. ...
... The intake of flavanols or flavan-3-ols in cocoa has been linked to benefits on cognitive processes such as memory, motor, executive function and IQ [32,40,64]. Although promising evidence is beginning to emerge, the heterogeneity of the study designs, dose, the timeframe of intervention, vehicles, methods for assessment, sample size and characteristics of participants difficulties the comparison between investigations and makes challenging to draw robust conclusions [31]. ...
... The age and health condition of the studied population is another relevant aspect for comparison across investigations since it has been previously suggested that these characteristics may have a significant impact on cognitive abilities [66]. Most studies have been conducted in aging or people suffering from some degree of mental impairment, where cocoa polyphenols seem to have more consistent effects [32,40]. However, the benefits of the consumption of cocoa polyphenols in young and middle age healthy people require further investigation, as well as a potential preventive effect on cognition decline. ...
The effects of cocoa-derived polyphenols on cognitive functions have been analyzed through numerous studies using different interventions (doses, vehicles, time frame, cognition tests, and characteristics of participants) which may hamper the interpretation and comparison of findings across investigations. Thus, a systematic review was conducted to analyze the effects of cocoa-derived polyphenols intake on human cognition and discuss the methodological aspects that may contribute to the heterogeneity of findings. Randomized clinical trials evaluating the effect of cocoa polyphenols on cognitive function in healthy subjects were selected according to selection criteria. Twelve studies were selected. Quality was assessed according to the Cochrane risk for bias tool. The most common risk for bias was the lack of information about the sequence generation process. Effects on cognitive function were observed after consumption of 50 mg/day of (-)-epicatechin and in studies using a component-matched placebo and cocoa as the polyphenol vehicle given to healthy adults (18-50 years). Memory (n = 5) and executive function (n = 4) showed the most significant effects with medium and large effect sizes after intake of intermediate doses of cocoa flavanols (500-750 mg/day). Overall, this set of studies suggest a positive effect of cocoa polyphenols on memory and executive function. However, the available evidence is very diverse and future studies may address the identified sources of variation to strengthen current evidence on this promising field.
... This method allows the brain to stop thinking for a while, and then the candidate relaxes the whole body, closes the eyes, focuses on breathing, takes deep breaths several times and exhales evenly, and the brain is best to exclude other distractions when breathing, which can quickly alleviate anxiety to some extent. When physiological discomfort occurs after the exam, different methods can be taken according to different degrees, such as listening to music, walking or massage, and you can often eat some food like desserts and candy with a lot of sugar that makes you happy [15,16]. In addition, how to relieve anxiety from the psychological aspect is more important. ...
... After the exam, if you are still worried about the exam, you can find close parents, relatives or friends around you to talk about the exams, and share your worries and anxieties with them, they will listen to your anxiety and help you relieve it. Or you can choose to eat some favorite food or dessert to brighten your mood [15,16]. ...
Comparing the study pressure of todays students with those of the past, it is obvious that there are heavier bags, more homework, and less sleep time. Students learning pressure is getting heavier and heavier, and there is more and more anxiety about learning. In a specific time period every year, this pressure and anxiety will reach an explosive point, and this time period is often a period of time for students to take exams. This paper focuses on the overall degree of Test Anxiety among Chinese college students and conducts a Chinese-style questionnaire survey of the Test Anxiety Scale. Most Chinese students have a high or very highest anxiety index. This paper analyzes the current situation at the different examination stages for students, namely, before, during, and after the examination. It also provides different relief plans for different students with different test anxiety indexes, such as how to better prepare for exams or adjust their mentality.
... Performing many self-control trait-associated behaviors is related to less tobacco use and a lack of eating disorders [53]. Dietary habits including a plant-based diet, polyphenol, carbohydrate, and alcohol consumption have been linked to feelings of energy or fatigue [54][55][56][57] and trait and state mindful eating positively predicts a healthier eating behavior that leads to healthier habits and weight management [58]. Sleep quality and quantity have been consistently found to be correlated with decreased feelings of fatigue [59,60]. ...
... In addition, our results regarding dietary habits, and especially polyphenol and caffeine consumption, provide correlates for feelings of energy and/or fatigue [55][56][57]. A diet that is rich in polyphenols (e.g., cocoa flavanols) improved the feelings of mental fatigue, and even though a clear mechanistic explanation is not known, it is postulated that it is related to the known vasodilatory effects and improvements in endothelial function due to the polyphenols [131][132][133][134][135][136][137]. ...
Noncommunicable chronic diseases are associated with lifestyle behaviors. Psychological and social factors may influence the adoption of such behaviors. Being mentally and physically energized or fatigued may influence the intention–behavior gap of healthy lifestyle adoption accordingly. We investigated the associations of age, sex, lifestyle behaviors, mood, and mental and physical energy and fatigue at both the trait and state levels. The participants (N = 670) completed questionnaires assessing their sleep, mood, mental and physical state energy and fatigue, physical activity, mental workload, and diet. The ordinary least squares regression models revealed an overlap between the mental state and trait energy levels for males who consume polyphenols, have a high mental workload, and sleep well. Being younger, having a high stress level, bad sleep habits, and being confused and depressed were associated with high mental fatigue. Physical energy and fatigue shared the same commonalities with the previous results, with greater discrepancies observed between the state and trait indicators compared to that between mental energy and fatigue. Diet and stress management seem to be predictors of high physical energy, and females report higher physical fatigue levels. Health care professionals should consider this psychosocial complex profiling in their differential diagnosis and when one is implementing lifestyle behavioral changes to address the facets of preventive medicine, wellness, and health promotion.
... Chocolate intake was also higher in adult subjects screening positive for possible depression based on the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D), presumably a form of selfmedication [28]. Further studies will help determine whether the flavanol contained in chocolate is dissociable from that of carbohydrates or chocolate's gustatory properties [29,30]. ...
... When possible effects on emotion are considered, chocolate consumption counters a negative mood state relative to drinking water [65]. As mentioned in Section 2.1, further studies must determine whether chocolate consumption is dissociable from carbohydrate intake or its gustatory properties in regard to its potential impact on mood [29,30]. ...
Partly because of its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, cocoa flavanols have been examined in reversing age-related cognitive deficits. Epidemiological studies indicate a relation between flavonoid intake and prevention of dementia. In confirmation of this relation, several pharmacological studies show faster speed of responding and better executive performance in flavanol-treated aged or young subjects. The lack of any effect appears in some studies, especially in young subjects, perhaps due to the use of groups with high educational levels and the possibility of a ceiling effect. In several studies, neuropsychological ameliorations were followed by increases in cerebral blood flow. These results are in line with those of animal experimentation, since improvements have been found in motor and spatial performance of young and aging mice or rats as well as animal models of Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease. Improvements are also reported in biologic markers of Alzheimer’s disease, in particular an increase soluble Aβ and a decrease in tau hyperphosphorylation.
... Chocolate is widely consumed, and there have been studies examining its effect on mood and performance. A systematic review [8] identified eight relevant studies. ...
... In contrast, caffeine in coffee had selective effects on mood and performance, with the outcomes depending on the type of task and the impulsivity of the participant. The absence of effects of chocolate agrees with some previous studies, [8] and it appears that cocoa and flavanols lead to greater effects than chocolate per se. Similarly, dark chocolate produces greater effects than dairy milk chocolate. ...
Background: There has been considerable research on the effects of
... Our findings relating to cognitive function parameters contradict a systematic review by Scholey (2013). In their review, the authors did not perform meta-analysis to quantitatively pool the results, although three out of the seven included studies showed positive cognitive function effects. ...
... In their review, the authors did not perform meta-analysis to quantitatively pool the results, although three out of the seven included studies showed positive cognitive function effects. It was suggested that further investigation was needed of acute cognitive effects of chocolate along with examination of functional brain changes associated with cocoa-flavanols [54]. Recent human trials have shown that dark chocolate (35 g) improved verbal memory in health young adults, which further supports exploration in this area [12]. ...
Chocolate has a history of human consumption tracing back to 400 AD and is rich in polyphenols such as catechins, anthocyanidins, and pro anthocyanidins. As chocolate and cocoa product consumption, along with interest in them as functional foods, increases worldwide, there is a need to systematically and critically appraise the available clinical evidence on their health effects. A systematic search was conducted on electronic databases such as MEDLINE, EMBASE, and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) using a search strategy and keywords. Among the many health effects assessed on several outcomes (including skin, cardiovascular, anthropometric, cognitive, and quality of life), we found that compared to controls, chocolate or cocoa product consumption significantly improved lipid profiles (triglycerides), while the effects of chocolate on all other outcome parameters were not significantly different. In conclusion, low-to-moderate-quality evidence with short duration of research (majority 4–6 weeks) showed no significant difference between the effects of chocolate and control groups on parameters related to skin, blood pressure, lipid profile, cognitive function, anthropometry, blood glucose, and quality of life regardless of form, dose, and duration among healthy individuals. It was generally well accepted by study subjects, with gastrointestinal disturbances and unpalatability being the most reported concerns.
... In contrast, Factor 2 refers to the search for cigarettes to relieve withdrawal symptoms, being a strong predictor of relapse. The literature points that the consumption of chocolate and its components positively influence cognitive function and mood, however, it remains unknown whether the effects of chocolate on mood are due to its oro-sensorial characteristics or to the pharmacological actions of its constituents 17 . However, a recent meta-analysis indicates that eating cocoa-rich products, such as dark chocolate, may provide short-term benefits for mood and affective symptoms 18 . ...
Objective
Analyze craving in smokers with cardiovascular comorbidities submitted to a nutritional approach.
Methods
Two groups were randomized and submitted to clinical intervention (n = 32): Group 1 (G1, n = 15): ingested 40 g of chocolate containing 70% cocoa/day and behavioral intervention for smoking cessation for one month; Group 2 (G2, n = 17): control group, only behavioral intervention. Questionnaire of Smoking Urges-Brief (QSU-Brief) - Brazil version measured total craving and its factors. Anthropometric measurements verified the nutritional interference of the procedure and the serum assessment verified the interference of inflammatory processes related to smoking. The study was registered on the Brazilian Registry of Clinical Trials (ReBEC): RBR-83jr3.
Results
After one month, compared to the initial evaluation, the G1 reduced the craving evaluated by the QSU-Brief and its Factors 1 and 2. Total QSU-Brief: 44.27 ± 15.82 x 27.00 ± 18.03 (p = 0.008); Factor 1: 21.90 ± 7.70 x 12.90 ± 8.87 (p = 0.006); Factor 2: 11.90 ± 6.30 x 7.00 ± 6.63 (0.007). G2 showed a reduction in total QSU-Brief and Factor 1, but not in Factor 2. QSU-Brief total 28.17 ± 17.24 x 19.52 ± 9.50 (p = 0.049); Factor 1: 14.47 ± 8.74 x 9.23 ± 6.11 (p = 0.046). Serum levels of cortisol, leptin, serotonin, C-Reactive Protein (CRP) and insulin did not show differences (p > 0.05). No anthropometric differences were found.
Conclusion
The results demonstrate that daily consumption of chocolate for one month (70%) reduced craving in smokers at the beginning of treatment. Chocolate potentiated the well-known effect of behavioral counseling on Factor 1 (pleasurable drug effects) and also interfered with factor 2 (unpleasant withdrawal effects).
KEYWORDS
Smoking; food; chocolate; craving; comorbidity
... 40 The seemingly protective association of the pastries and sweets may reflect the fact that some sweets, such as chocolate, may be rich in flavanols and methylxanthine and beneficial to brain health. 41 Additionally, volumes of different subcortical regions may be related to particular nutrients. For instance, a diet high in fat and refined sugar might harm neurogenesis in the hippocampus, which is essential for memory. ...
INTRODUCTION
The associations of the Mediterranean-DASH Intervention for Neurodegenerative Delay (MIND) diet with brain structural changes are unclear.
METHODS
Among 26,466 UK Biobank participants, a 15-point MIND score was calculated from 24-hour diet recalls from 2009 to 2012. We assessed its associations with 17 magnetic-resonance-derived brain volumetric markers and their longitudinal changes and explored whether genetic factors modify the associations.
RESULTS
Higher MIND adherence was associated with larger volumes of thalamus, putamen, pallidum, hippocampus, and accumbens (beta per 3-unit increment ranging from 0.024 to 0.033) and lower white matter hyperintensities (P-trends < 0.05), regardless of genetic predispositions of Alzheimer's disease. MIND score was not associated with their longitudinal changes (P > 0.05) over a median of 2.2 years among participants with repeated imaging assessments (N = 2963), but was associated with slower atrophy in putamen (beta: 0.026, P-trend = 0.044) and pallidum (beta: 0.030, P-trend = 0.033) among APOE ε4 non-carriers (N = 654).
DISCUSSION
The MIND diet showed beneficial associations with certain brain imaging markers, and its associations with long-term brain structural changes warrants future investigation.
... Flavanols (flavan-3-ols and procyanidins) are the most studied compounds in cocoa and its derivatives for their beneficial health effects: with benefits to cardiovascular health and cognitive function [7][8][9][10][11]. According to the work of Lamport et al. [12] it was determined by testing healthy young people consuming dark and white chocolate that everyday consumption of portions (35 g) of dark chocolate can confer benefits to the brain in healthy consumers. ...
In this study, a new product was evaluated: enriched dark chocolate with two encapsulated plant extracts: Salvia Lavandiulaefolia and Salvia officinalis with the addition of fruit extract Malpighia glabra (acerola). Physico-chemical characteristics, antioxidant, and sensory properties of chocolate with extracts (AC300, AC400, and AC500) were determined in relation to chocolate without additives (DC). The analysis showed that according to the hardness, enthalpy, and sensory analysis, AC 400 chocolate (sample with 36.34 g of dark chocolate, 0.256 g Acerola extract, and 0.4 g Cognivia™ extract) had the best characteristics, while the rheology and particle size distribution was almost identical in all three samples of functional chocolates. A small amount of extracts did not cause changes in the structure of chocolate, but it significantly improved the polyphenolic status of chocolate and antioxidant activity. The results of the antioxidant activity tests showed that the best sample was AC 500 (sample with 36.24 g of dark chocolate, 0.256 g Acerola extract, and 0.5 g Cognivia™ extract), in which the total polyphenol content was the highest, as well as a level of compounds that inhibit AChE activity.
... 2.053]. The notion that chocolate can be efficacious even when received after a delay is supported by research showing the people hold a very strong association between chocolate and feeling better (Atalay & Meloy, 2011;Macht & Mueller, 2007;Scholey & Owen, 2013). Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. ...
Stressors (e.g., a dangerous environment) that create a need (e.g., a need for safety) can also elicit negative emotions (e.g., fear, distress, and sadness) and different strategies for coping with them. Subsequently, the types of coping strategies a person can employ either address (1) the source of the negative emotions (i.e., the need) or (2) the consequences of the negative emotions (i.e., the negative affective state). We hypothesized that the temporal efficacy of need-based actions determines when each type of coping strategy is pursued. Negative emotions encourage a person to address the need when the available need-based actions are efficacious (i.e., they meet the need) in the present (i.e., they meet the need soon after acquisition or usage). Negative emotions encourage a person to prioritize the negative affective state when the available need-based actions are efficacious in the future or have delayed availability.
... They reported that though chocolate consumption is associated with reduced risk of diabetes or cardiovascular-diseaserelated death, the evidence was weak. Regarding cognition, a systematic review showed that chocolate consumption was not associated with better cognitive function [7]. ...
Background:
Dark chocolate has attracted attention for its potential for cognitive improvement. Though some reports indicate that dark chocolate is good for cognitive function, others raise doubts. This inconsistency in past results reflecting the relationship between dark chocolate and cognitive function indicates the potential existence of factors that mediate between dark chocolate intake and cognitive function.
Methods:
With the hypothesis that fatigue may be one such mediating factor, we performed a four-week randomized control study to seek a link between dark chocolate consumption, cognitive function, fatigue, and the brain in middle-aged adults.
Results:
We found that dark chocolate reduced mental and physical fatigue, and a path analysis revealed that it enhanced vitality, executive function, memory, and gray matter volume both directly and indirectly. Fatigue reduction was also associated with an improvement in physical function, which had a positive impact on emotional functioning, relief of bodily pain, and social functioning.
Conclusions:
Our results suggest that dark chocolate may help reduce fatigue in individuals, leading to improvements in brain health and various cognitive functions as well as in quality of life.
... Cocoa was also shown to prevent Aβ oligomerinduced neurite dystrophy by activating BDNF in neuronal cultures (Cimini et al., 2013). These observations have also been corroborated by clinical studies demonstrating that cocoa flavanols enhance the dentate gyrus function and reduces cognitive decline in humans (Crews et al., 2008;Desideri et al., 2012;Scholey and Owen, 2013;Brickman et al., 2014). Blueberry was shown to improve memory function in APP/PS1 AD mice through increase of ERK signaling and neural sphingomyelinspecific phospholipase C activity (Joseph et al., 2003). ...
Alzheimer′s disease (AD) is an irreversible progressive neurodegenerative disease affecting approximately 50 million people worldwide. It is estimated to reach 152 million by the year 2050. AD is the fifth leading cause of death among Americans age 65 and older. In spite of the significant burden the disease imposes upon patients, their families, our society, and our healthcare system, there is currently no cure for AD. The existing approved therapies only temporarily alleviate some of the disease’s symptoms, but are unable to modulate the onset and/or progression of the disease. Our failure in developing a cure for AD is attributable, in part, to the multifactorial complexity underlying AD pathophysiology. Nonetheless, the lack of successful pharmacological approaches has led to the consideration of alternative strategies that may help delay the onset and progression of AD. There is increasing recognition that certain dietary and nutrition factors may play important roles in protecting against select key AD pathologies. Consistent with this, select nutraceuticals and phytochemical compounds have demonstrated anti-amyloidogenic, antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, and neurotrophic properties and as such, could serve as lead candidates for further novel AD therapeutic developments. Here we summarize some of the more promising dietary phytochemicals, particularly polyphenols that have been shown to positively modulate some of the important AD pathogenesis aspects, such as reducing β-amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles formation, AD-induced oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and synapse loss. We also discuss the recent development of potential contribution of gut microbiome in dietary polyphenol function.
... Eating foods like candy and other sweet treats is pleasurable (Freeman et al., 2018;Scholey & Owen, 2013). However, excessive consumption of sugary foods is not recommended given the health consequences (Freeman et al., 2018). ...
Eating candy is pleasurable. Yet, eating candy in large quantities is not recommended. Manufacturers have consistently produced small portion sizes of a variety of candy. While consuming small versus large portion sizes is healthier, do people experience the same amount of pleasure from eating a small portion and does it matter how it is eaten? In a pre-registered study, we examined how candy portion size and mindful eating affected eating-related pleasure. Participants (N = 301) were randomly assigned to eat a small (113 calories) or large (210 calories) portion of a popular candy, Reese's Peanut Butter Cups. They were also randomly assigned to eat the candy in a regular or mindful manner. We examined eating-related pleasure after consumption. We found that eating pleasure did not differ between portion sizes in the regular eating condition, but in the mindful eating condition, participants experienced more pleasure when eating the small versus large portion. Furthermore, participants experienced more guilt after eating the large versus small portion in the regular eating condition, but portion size did not affect feelings of guilt in the mindful eating condition. An awareness of such effects could encourage people to reduce the portion sizes of the candy they consume.
... Moreover, chocolate contains also two compounds similar to anandamide that, through the binding to the same brain sites of cannabinoids, may be responsible for sense intensification and euphoria sensations as well as they may cooperate with other components of chocolate in the production of transient feelings of well-being (Bruinsma and Taren 1999). Caffeine and theobromine also have additive and mutually reinforcing outcomes on cognition and vigilance (Scholey and Owen 2013). Cocoa-rich products also contain a great quantity of polyphenols, which may act as anti-inflammatory and antioxidant agents, being likely implicated also in mood and anxiety improvement (Felger 2018;Fusar-Poli et al. 2021a). ...
Chocolate is the most desired food in the world, and it has always been considered as a pleasant food, sought after both for hedonistic reasons and for its role as a “panacea” for mood and affectivity. Multiple features of “the food of Gods” can explain how it is induced/increased to induce/increase the desire to eat it. Its unique orosensory qualities (i.e., taste, smell, aroma, and texture) mostly contribute to explaining the commonly shared acceptability of chocolate craving. Furthermore, chocolate determines a peculiar brain activity, activating analogous brain areas and neurobiological mechanisms than substances of abuse. Chocolate contains various biologically active components such as methylxanthine, biogenic amines, and cannabinoid-like fatty acids, all of which arguably own both biological and emotional activity. Chocolate may be consumed as a form of self-medication for dietary lacks or to compensate low levels of neurotransmitters implicated in the regulation of mood, appetite, and behavior. Chocolate consumption and cravings are often parossistic and vary along with hormonal fluctuations related to the menstrual cycle, which suggests a hormonal relationship. This chapter focuses on chocolate characteristics, by focusing on their relationships with the neurobiological mechanisms, which may contribute to maintaining chocolate addiction and craving.
... The main psychoactive components of chocolate are [54,55] as follows. ...
This paper discusses the effect of chrononutrition on the regulation of circadian rhythms; in particular, that of chocolate on the resynchronization of the human internal biological central and peripheral clocks with the main external synchronizers, light–dark cycle and nutrition-fasting cycle. The desynchronization of internal clocks with external synchronizers, which is so frequent in our modern society due to the tight rhythms imposed by work, social life, and technology, has a negative impact on our psycho-physical performance, well-being, and health. Taking small amounts of chocolate, in the morning at breakfast at the onset of the active phase, helps speed up resynchronization time. The high flavonoid contents in chocolate promote cardioprotection, metabolic regulation, neuroprotection, and neuromodulation with direct actions on brain function, neurogenesis, angiogenesis, and mood. Although the mechanisms of action of chocolate compounds on brain function and mood as well as on the regulation of circadian rhythms have yet to be fully understood, data from the literature currently available seem to agree in suggesting that chocolate intake, in compliance with chrononutrition, could be a strategy to reduce the negative effects of desynchronization. This strategy appears to be easily implemented in different age groups to improve work ability and daily life.
... Human trials have revealed that tests of executive function and processing are sensitive to cocoa flavanols [32]. Moreover, chocolate, cocoa supplements or cocoa flavonoids in acute or sub-acute administration showed cognitive improvement [13,[33][34][35]. ...
Cognitive decline is a common problem in older individuals, often exacerbated by neurocognitive conditions, such as vascular dementia and Alzheimer’s disease, which heavily affect people’s lives and exert a substantial toll on healthcare systems. Currently, no cure is available, and commonly used treatments are aimed at limiting the progressive loss of cognitive functions. The absence of effective pharmacological treatments for the cognitive decline has led to the search for lifestyle interventions, such as diet and the use of nutraceuticals that can prevent and limit the loss of cognition. Cocoa and chocolate are foods derived from cocoa beans, commonly used in the population and with good acceptability. The purpose of this review was to collect current experimental evidence regarding the neuroprotective effect of chocolate and cocoa (or derived molecules) in the elderly. From a systematic review of the literature, 9 observational studies and 10 interventional studies were selected, suggesting that the biomolecules contained in cocoa may offer promising tools for managing cognitive decline, if provided in adequate dosages and duration of treatment. However, the molecular mechanisms of cocoa action on the central nervous system are not completely understood.
... Dark chocolate contains relatively high amounts of flavonoids including catechin, epicatechin, and procyanidin. Dark chocolates possess antioxidants and a positive effect on cognitive function and mood (Scholey and Owen, 2013). This study aimed to develop dark chocolate with a flavour combination using passion fruit and orange peels as functional ingredients. ...
Fruit wastes, mainly the peels and the seeds are produced as by-products in large quantities due to the high consumption and industrial processing of the edible parts of the fruits. The utilization of fruit wastes such as fruit peels and seeds for food production serves as a means to reduce the environmental impact. This project aimed to develop dark chocolate by using passion fruit with seeds and orange peels as functional ingredients. Dark chocolate is well known for its high antioxidant activity, especially rich in healthpromoting flavonoids. Passion fruit seeds and orange peels are high in dietary fibre content. Thus, the addition of these ingredients could increase the dietary fibre content of dark chocolate. The effects of passion fruits with seeds and orange peels on the nutritive values, antioxidant properties, and sensorial properties of dark chocolate were evaluated. The passion fruit with orange peel dark chocolate contained 51.15% fat, 9.55% moisture, 8.04% protein, 3.56% ash, and 3.06% total dietary fibre. The sample contained significantly higher (p<0.05) dietary fibre (3.06±0.02%) than that of the control (0.93±0.10%). Sensory qualities (colour, surface smoothness, aroma, texture, melting property, and overall acceptance) of dark chocolate were evaluated by 35 panellists using a 9-point hedonic scale. The mean overall acceptance score of the sample was 6.91 out of 9 with an acceptance index of 77%. The DPPH radical scavenging activity of the sample (86.10±0.13%) was significantly higher (p<0.05) than that of the control (61.10±0.13%). In conclusion, the development of passion fruit and citrus peel dark chocolate provides an alternative way to deliver health-promoting antioxidants and dietary fibre to consumers. The product has acceptable sensory quality and has a potential confectionery market.
... Therefore, current findings supported an important role of milk and dark chocolate on brain health, although the effect of dark chocolate was more permanent on memory improvement. In this way, a previous study showed chocolate (with cocoa concentration 30-70%) improved memory (Lamport et al., 2020), and this cognitive improvement related to flavonoid-enriched cocoa (Lamport et al., 2020;Scholey and Owen, 2013) and/ or long-term consumption of it (Socci et al., 2017). However, it was found the memory trend curve had a mildly decreased slope in the dark chocolate diet with respect to other diets (Figure 3). ...
... 4). Moreover, it seems the beneficial effect of dark chocolate on cognition probably presents the role of high flavanol and epicatechin content with antioxidant properties on the improvement of brain functions (Lamport et al., 2020;Scholey and Owen, 2013). In this way, Lamport et al. ...
... Consumption of dietary antioxidants such as the polyphenols in green tea has shown a negative correlation with depression-like symptoms Huang et al., 2019;Knüppel et al., 2017). Likewise, chocolate or its components have been found to reduce negative mood or enhance mood, and also enhance or alter cognitive functions temporarily (Scholey and Owen, 2013). Alcohol consumption is prevalent amongst university students including those who report feelings of sadness and hopelessness (Htet et al., 2020). ...
Academic achievement and cognitive functions are influenced by sleep and mood/emotion. In addition, several other factors affect learning. A coherent overview of the resultant interrelationships is essential but has not been presented till date. This unique and interdisciplinary review sits at the interface of physiology, psychology, and education. It compiles and critically examines the effects of sleep and mood on cognition and academic performance while including relevant conflicting observations. Moreover, it discusses the impact of several regulatory factors on learning, namely, age, gender, diet, hydration level, obesity, sex hormones, daytime nap, circadian rhythm, and genetics. Core physiological mechanisms that mediate the effects of these factors are described briefly and simplistically. The bidirectional relationship between sleep and mood is addressed. Contextual pictorial models that hypothesise learning on an emotion scale and emotion on a learning scale have been proposed. Essentially, convoluted associations between physiological and psychological factors, including sleep and mood that determine academic performance are recognised and affirmed. The emerged picture reveals far more complexity than perceived. It questions the currently adopted ‘one-size fits all’ approach in education and urges to envisage formulating bespoke strategies to optimise teaching-learning approaches while retaining uniformity in education. The information presented here can help improvise education strategies and provide better academic and pastoral support to students during their academic journey.
... Some reviews tend towards the positive. For instance, Scholey and Owen [31] highlighted beneficial acute effects of CF on cognitive performance, and Socci et al. [32] mentioned that CF could increase cognitive functioning and generally enhance cognitive achievement. In a systematic review that came out this year, Barrera-Reyes et al. [33], indicated that CF has a medium to large effect on memory and executive function. ...
Background: Consumption of cocoa flavanols may have acute physiological effects on the brain due to their ability to activate nitric oxide synthesis. Nitric oxide mediates vasodilation, which increases cerebral blood flow, and can also act as a neurotransmitter.
Objectives: This study aimed to examine whether cocoa flavanols have an acute influence on visual working memory (WM).
Methods: Two separate randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, counterbalanced
crossover experiments were conducted on normal healthy young adult volunteers (NExp1=48 and NExp2=32, gender-balanced). In these experiments, 415 mg of cocoa flavanols were administered to test their acute effects on visual working memory. In the first experiment, memory recall precision was measured in a task that required only passive maintenance of grating orientations in WM. In the second experiment, the recall was measured after active updating (mental rotation) of WM contents. Habitual daily flavanols intake, body mass index, and gender were also considered in the analysis.
Results: The results suggested that neither passive maintenance in visual WM nor active
updating of WM were acutely enhanced by consumption of cocoa flavanols. Exploratory
analyses with covariates (body mass index and daily flavanols intake), and the between subjects factor of gender also showed no evidence for effects of cocoa flavanols, neither in terms of reaction time nor accuracy.
Conclusions: Overall, cocoa flavanols did not improve visual working memory recall
performance during maintenance, nor did it improve recall accuracy after memory updating.
... For example, 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP) is an important precursor to monitor during roasting as it can pass the blood-brain barrier and form serotonin in the brains after decarboxylation (Turner et al., 2006). The top level represents the unique orosensory properties of cocoa (level 4), since presumably the mood and cognition are not only a ected by pharmacological actions, but also through avor (Scholey & Owen, 2013). ...
Roasting plays a critical role in the production process of cocoa liquor and chocolate. Besides desirable changes in color and moisture content, flavor development is one of the most important reasons to roast cocoa. By means of a convective and/or conductive heat transfer, cocoa and nutty flavors are generated within the roasted beans, while the bitter taste and astringent mouthfeel are reduced. Roasting via a convective and/or conductive heat transfer is easy applicable and therefore also commonly used. However, these roasting techniques are lately questioned due to the long roasting times needed to sufficiently heat the core of the beans. Therefore, a growing interest is encountered to search for optimal roasting conditions and/or alternative roasting techniques, with the development of a desirable flavor profile as primary criterion. Within this research a comparison was made between conventional and microwave-assisted roasting with the main focus on flavor. The impact of varying roasting conditions (i.e. time, temperature and power input) on the flavor profile of cocoa liquor and chocolate was investigated via both instrumental (i.e. HS-SPME-GC-MS, UPLC-HRMS) and sensory (i.e. trained panel, consumer panel) techniques. Results confirmed that microwave-assisted roasting has the potential to be used as alternative technique.
... Another example, frequently promoted in health claims, is that of flavonoid polyphenols derived from cocoa that are present in high amounts in dark chocolate. These PC exhibit high antioxidant and antiinflammatory properties [77], and have been shown to exert beneficial effects by preventing neurodegeneration and mood impairment [78]. Jackson et al. [79] analyzed the US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) data of dietary intake during 2007-2008 and 2013-2014, observing that dark chocolate intake associated with reduced depressive symptoms. ...
Background: The importance of foods or food constituents in mental health is increasingly recognized, and “nutritional psychiatry” is a growing discipline. Objective: This narrative review aims to present work supporting associations between food or food constituents and
mental health, specifically depressive disorders. Methods: The data presented is derived from preclinical and clinical work, including in vitro and in vivo assays, as well as observational studies and randomized clinical trials of dietary interventions. The focus of the review is the mediation of inflammatory processes and oxidative stress by dietary constituents that are an integral part of a healthy diet, such as the Mediterranean diet and similar. Results and Discussion: We present evidence for the role of the diet in prevention and management of depressive disorders, beyond the effect of individual nutrients. The findings indicate that among the dietary components with higher degree of evidence to influence depressive disorders are long chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (EPA and DHA), and various dietary bioactive compounds, especially plant-derived secondary metabolites represented by polyphenols such as flavonoids and resveratrol. Conclusion:
Diet exerts an important role on mental health, and evidence indicates that some dietary constituents contribute to the prevention of depressive disorders.
... Finally, further research is needed, in which more factors, related with the chocolate choice should be included. This is because such factors as craving [43,44] or feeling depressed [45] can lead to changes of the chocolate choice. ...
The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of different origin (Venezuela, Ghana, Peru) dark chocolates on emotions induced for consumers, and to analyse the relationships among overall acceptability (OA), emotions, and physicochemical attributes of the chocolate (fatty acids (FAs) and volatile compounds (VC)). Chocolate-elicited emotions were measured with FaceReader 8 software, scaling 10 emotion patterns (neutral, happy, sad, angry, surprised, scared, disgusted, contempt, valence, arousal). The OA was carried out by using a 10-point hedonic scale, ranging from 1 (extremely dislike) to 10 (extremely like). The obtained results showed that, among all chocolate-elicited emotions, the intensity of “happy” was the highest. In most cases, the influence of the different origin chocolate on the emotions induced for consumers was significant (except on emotions “neutral”, “scared”, and “disgusted”). Significant differences between the tested chocolates OA were not found. The origin of chocolate had a significant effect on most of the identified VC and the content of the main FAs (methyl palmitate, methyl stearate, cis,trans-9- oleic acid methyl ester, and methyl linoleate). Significant correlations between chocolate-elicited emotions and separate FAs and VC were found. Finally, this study showed that the origin of dark chocolate significantly influenced most of chocolate-elicited emotions and physicochemical attributes of chocolate, while separate FAs or VC can be used as chocolate quality indicators related to the chocolate OA, as well as chocolate-elicited emotions.
... Assim, o chocolate pode ser uma alternativa saborosa e prática além de minimizar a falta de prazer na alimentaçãosaudável.Os benefícios da utilização do chocolate amargo para a saúde são largamente conhecidos, são boas fontes de flavonóides e seu consumo está associado com a diminuição do risco de morte por doenças cardiovasculares, diminuição da pressão arterial e inibição da agregação plaquetária(Djousséet al.,2011).Não obstante, o mercado de chocolates com esse perfil ainda é pequeno, as prateleiras ainda estão cheias de produtos com alto teor de gorduras, açúcares e baixa concentração de cacau e polifenóis(Titton, Schumacher & Dani, 2014).O cacau (Theobroma cacao) é um fruto abundantena região Sul da Bahia-Brasil, utilizado como base para o chocolate, tem grande importância cultural e econômica para a região.Além do cacau, outras plantas brasileiras possuem efeitos benéficos, destacando aqui a Mansoa hirsuta DC, uma planta do semi-árido do Brasil, rico em ácidos triterpênicos.Apesar de estar presente em inúmeras plantas, a obtenção desses dois ácidos geralmente é feita através do seu isolamento de cascas de maçã, um processo oneroso(Siani et al., 2014). No entanto, recentemente, esses mesmos compostos foram extraídos e isolados da Mansoa hirsuta DC, uma planta do semi-árido do Brasil, em um processo de extração e isolamento realizadossob depósito de patente nº BR 1020150081804, os quais serão utilizados nesse trabalho.Um chocolate com adição de novas substâncias, como os ácidos ursólico e oleanólico, poderia potencializar seus efeitos e traria grandes vantagens à população, visto que é um alimento popular, que apresenta inúmeros benefícios à saúde e consumido mundialmente(Scholey & Owen, 2013). Algumas pesquisas foram realizadas com o intuito de verificar os efeitos do consumo de chocolate na saúde dos indivíduos (Bohannon, Koch, Obtenção dos ácidos ursólico e oleanólico O ácido ursólico e seu isômero o ácido oleanólico, isolados e extraídos das folhas da planta Mansoa hirsuta DC, em um processo de extração e isolamentorealizadossob depósito de patente nº BR 1020150081804, foram fornecidos pelo Laboratório de Farmacognosia do curso de Farmácia da Universidade Estadual do Sudoeste da Bahia, com autorização do autor da patente.Foram desenvolvidas duas formulações de chocolate; uma contendo os ácidos triterpênicos para ser utilizada em ensaio clínico de grupo teste; outra não contendo ácidos triterpênicos, para ser utilizada em ensaio clinico em grupo placebo.Tamanho médio das partículas foi determinado por meio da utilização de um micrômetro digital, com escala de 0-25 μm, de acordo comSampaio (2011).Foi realizada análise qualitativa para verificar a presença dos ácidos nas amostras de chocolate, por meio da metodologia de cromatografia em camada delgada, utilizando para fins comparativos os padrões dos ácidos ursólico e oleanólico, nas seguintes condições: ...
... Dark chocolate contain at least 15% cocoa liquor but may contain as much as 60%, rich in polyphenols such as monomer flavanols (epicatechin and catechin) as well as procyanidins, especially dimer procyanidin B2 and B1 which are abundant phytochemicals in cocoa [2]. Accumulating epidemiological evidences suggest that polyphenol plays an important role in the prevention of chronic disease such as cardiovascular disease (CVD), cancer, diabetes, obesity and neurodegenerative disease [3][4][5][6][7][8]. Different preventive mechanisms have been proposed due to its high antioxidant properties (free radical scavenging and metal chelating) of polyphenol although the regulatory mechanism involved still unknown. ...
There was variety of chocolate in the market nowadays. Chocolate constituents such as cocoa liquor, cocoa butter, types of sugar and other additional ingredients were determined its potential as healthy chocolate. Supporting with historically records and recent scientific data shown that cocoa the main ingredient of chocolate, is rich in polyphenols that have been shown potential antioxidant which contribute to improve health and prevent degenerative disease. The study was carried out to examine the effect of two formulations high antioxidant dark chocolate on serum glucose and cholesterol level in Sprague-Dawley rats. Forty rats were divided into four groups (n=10) and received: normal diets (group C); normal diets+control dark chocolate, normal diets+chocolate F1 (group F1) and normal diets+chocolate F2 (group F2) for four weeks. There is an increased of body weight in control diabetic rats, dark chocolate and high antioxidant F1 chocolate groups. Small decreasing pattern were showed in % normality of serum glucose level in rats given high antioxidant chocolate F1 and F2 compare to control diabetic rats and rats given dark chocolate. Almost no changes in % normality of serum cholesterol level in all groups of diabetic rats. As conclusion, existing high antioxidant dark chocolate is not suitable to be consume among diabetic people and new high antioxidant dark chocolate formulation must be developed for better diabetic people consumption.
... Sadness processing was examined during sad mood induction and subsequent mood repair either via watching a comic film clip (Ruch, 1993) or consuming chocolate (Macht & Mueller, 2007). Mood repair has been associated with both watching comedy (e.g., Fredrickson & Levenson, 1998) and indulging in "comfort" foods, including chocolate (see Scholey & Owen, 2013, for a review). Based on abovementioned findings of blunted SNS processing associated with depression-relevant traits (Bibbey et al., 2013), we predicted that relative to controls, youths at familial risk for depression would display blunted SNS reactivity to sadness induction. ...
Youths at high risk for depression have been shown to have problems in repairing their own sad mood. Given that sympathetic arousal has been implicated both in the experience and regulation of affect, an atypical pattern of arousal may be one of the factors that contribute to mood repair problems. In the current study, we measured sympathetic arousal of never‐depressed youths at high (n = 56) and low (n = 67) familial risk for depression during sad mood induction and instructed mood repair. Sympathetic arousal was indexed by skin conductance level (SCL) and cardiac pre‐ejection period (PEP); mood repair outcome was indexed by self‐rated affect. High‐risk youths demonstrated increased SCL during sadness induction, which persisted during mood repair; low‐risk youths evidenced increased SCL only during mood repair. Shortened PEP was evident only among high‐risk youths and only during mood repair. Furthermore, shortened PEP during mood induction predicted less successful mood repair in the low‐risk but not in the high‐risk group. The findings suggest that: (a) depression‐prone youths differ from control peers in patterns of sympathetic responses to emotional stimuli, which may impair their ability to relieve sadness, and (b) activation patterns differ across subsystems (SCL vs. PEP) of sympathetic activity, in conjunction with depression risk status. Difficulties in attenuating sadness (i.e., mood repair deficits) appear to be risk factors for depression. It is, therefore, important to understand better how physiological processes facilitate or hinder successful mood repair. In the present study, never‐depressed youths at high familial risk for depression and low‐risk control youths differed in sympathetic activation during sadness processing; sympathetic activation may, therefore, play a role in mood repair deficits.
... Together with minor alkaloids, some other minor compounds present in cocoa, such as biogenic amines are reported to contribute to the mood-enhancing effect of cocoa. The top level represents the unique orosensory properties of cocoa (level 4), since presumably the mood and cognition are not only affected by pharmacological actions, but also through flavor (Scholey & Owen, 2013). The authors suggested that the role and interaction of the major and minor compounds affecting mood and cognition should be further investigated by a more detailed phytochemical analysis of cocoa and other cocoa samples. ...
The mood pyramid of cocoa, which was previously proposed as a new concept, consists of four levels (flavan-3-ols, methylxanthines, minor compounds and orosensory properties). Roasting is a crucial process for flavor development in cocoa but is likely to have a negative impact on the phytochemicals. We investigated the effect of roasting time (10 – 50 min) and temperature (110 – 160 °C) on the potential mood-enhancing compounds corresponding to the distinct mood pyramid levels. Phytochemicals were analyzed using UPLC-HRMS, while the flavor was mapped via aroma (HS-SPME-GC-MS) and generic descriptive analysis (trained panel). Results revealed that roasting at 130 °C for 30 min did not significantly affect the levels of epicatechin, procyanidin B2 and theobromine, while salsolinol significantly increased. Moreover, bitterness and astringency were reduced and the desired cocoa flavor was developed. Thus, through selection of appropriate roasting time and temperature conditions phytochemicals of interest could be retained without comprising the flavor.
... Research suggests that emotion regulation can derive from some foods, which are often high in fat and sugar and may be understood as "comfort foods" (Macht and Mueller 2007), temporarily diminishing negative mood and evoking a state of pleasure (e.g. Scholey and Owen 2013;Wansink et al. 2003). For example, Macht and Dettmer (2006) found participants reported a positive mood after eating chocolate in comparison with those eating an apple or nothing. ...
Foods high in fat and sugar can often act as emotional regulators during negative emotional states, and regularly engaging in such behaviour can contribute towards weight gain. The present study investigated whether using mindful construal diaries (MCD) adapted with the element of self-distancing could improve state mindfulness, attenuate negative affect, and reduce chocolate intake. One hundred twenty participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions, self-immersed, self-distanced, and control, and after evoking a negative state affect through a film excerpt, participants were served chocolate. The findings suggested there were no significant differences in improving state mindfulness or state negative affect across the three conditions. However, participants in the control condition did consume significantly more chocolate than those in the self-immersed and self-distanced conditions. Whilst there were no significant differences in chocolate intake between the two experimental conditions, those in the self-distanced condition did consume the least amount of chocolate. The concept of self-distancing may be beneficial in improving emotional eating behaviours further in mindful and attentive eating interventions. Limitations and recommendations for future research are discussed.
... From the health point of view, taking small-moderate amounts of chocolate may have a number of health benefits (Latif 2013). Some researchers stated that chocolate may potentially possess anti-depressant effects and prevent cognitive dysfunction (Walcutt 2009;Latif 2013) while others did not find the relevant evidence (Scholey and Owen 2013;Veronese et al. 2019). Further investigation manifested that the consumption of chocolate enhanced positive mood, especially when it was eaten mindfully (Meier et al. 2017). ...
With the dramatic development of source and detector components, terahertz (THz) spectroscopy technology has recently shown a renaissance in various fields such as medical, material, biosensing and pharmaceutical industry. As a rapid and noninvasive technology, it has been extensively exploited to evaluate food quality and ensure food safety. In this review, the principles and processes of THz spectroscopy are first discussed. The current state-of-the-art applications of THz and imaging technologies focused on foodstuffs are then discussed. The advantages and challenges are also covered. This review offers detailed information for recent efforts dedicated to THz for monitoring the quality and safety of various food commodities and the feasibility of its widespread application. THz technology, as an emerging and unique method, is potentially applied for detecting food processing and maintaining quality and safety.
... It follows that a higher score means better quality. Note that criterion 8 has been modified from "Was the intervention at a therapeutic dose?" to "Was the amount administered documented?", as in Scholey and Owen (2013). ...
A transient improvement in cognitive performance can be observed following the ingestion of a glucose drink, a phenomenon known as the ‘glucose facilitation effect’. The effect has been studied thoroughly in the last three decades, but its neural underpinnings remain a matter of speculation. A systematic review was conducted to evaluate the current evidence from studies applying neuroimaging or neurophysiological methods to investigate the glucose enhancement effect. Eleven studies met the inclusion criteria of using neuroimaging in conjunction with cognitive outcomes. Six studies employed electroencephalography (EEG), four used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and one employed functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). All but one study reported modulation of neurophysiology or neuroimaging markers following glucose, while only five studies reported significant changes in cognitive outcomes. The evidence suggests that glucose administration enhances neurocognitive markers of episodic memory and attentional processes underpinned by medial temporal and frontal activation, sometimes in the absence of measurable behavioural effects. Further exploration of glucose facilitation using neuroimaging measures with increased sample sizes is warranted to replicate these findings.
... Chocolate is known to have mood-enhancing properties, mostly due to its orosensory properties, psychoactive ingredients, and the activation of neural reward pathways [55]. The consumption of chocolate may be associated with an improvement in the mood state, the attenuation of negative moods, or reduced odds of clinically relevant depressive symptoms [55,56]. ...
Migraine is a chronic disorder with episodic attacks, and patients with a migraine often report that certain factors can trigger their headache, with chocolate being the most popular type of food-based trigger. Many studies have suggested a link between chocolate and headaches; however, the underlying physiological mechanisms are unclear. As premonitory symptoms may herald migraine attacks, a question arises regarding whether eating chocolate before a headache is a consequence of a food craving or indeed a real trigger. Here, we aim to summarize the available evidence on the relationship between chocolate and migraines. All articles concerning this topic published up to January 2020 were retrieved by searching clinical databases, including EMBASE, MEDLINE, PubMed, and Google Scholar. All types of studies have been included. Here, we identify 25 studies investigating the prevalence of chocolate as a trigger factor in migraineurs. Three provocative studies have also evaluated if chocolate can trigger migraine attacks, comparing it to a placebo. Among them, in 23 studies, chocolate was found to be a migraine trigger in a small percentage of participants (ranging from 1.3 to 33), while all provocative studies have failed to find significant differences between migraine attacks induced by eating chocolate and a placebo. Overall, based on our review of the current literature, there is insufficient evidence that chocolate is a migraine trigger; thus, doctors should not make implicit recommendations to migraine patients to avoid it.
... Dark chocolate contains a group of phytochemicals known as flavonoids, which naturally occur in many fruits and vegetables. The consumption of flavonoids and flavonoid-rich foods has been associated with numerous health benefits, and reviews of the literature indicate that cocoa flavonoids are associated with benefits to cardiovascular health [1] and cognitive function [2,3]. For example, chronic trials ranging from 8 weeks to three months show that daily consumption of flavonoid-rich cocoa is associated with positive effects on working memory and executive function in healthy older adults [4][5][6]. ...
There is good evidence that cocoa flavonoids can acutely improve cognitive function in humans, possibly via mechanisms such as increased cerebral blood flow. To date, much of the evidence is based on measures of executive function with extracts and cocoa-based interventions with a high flavonoid content. The aim of the present study was to explore whether benefits to episodic verbal memory and mood are observed two hours post consumption of a commercially available dark chocolate (DC) bar relative to a 35 g white chocolate bar (WC). Ninety-eight healthy young adults (n = 57 females) aged 18–24 years consumed either a 35 g DC bar or a calorie-matched low flavonoid WC bar. Verbal episodic memory and mood were assessed pre consumption and 2 h post consumption. An ANOVA analysis showed that the DC was associated with better verbal memory performance for several outcome measures of the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test relative to the WC, however, there were no effects on mood. These findings lend support to the notion that everyday available portions of dark chocolate can confer benefits to the brain in healthy consumers.
... Se han encontrado evidencias sobre el efecto beneficioso de un patrón de dieta saludable sobre el estado cognitivo (7,8). También hay evidencias del efecto beneficioso de ciertos nutrientes como la vitamina D y los flavonoides sobre el estado mental (9)(10)(11). El chocolate es un alimento con gran contenido en flavonoides y metilxantinas. ...
... Consuming chocolate is identified to not only improve mood but also increase blood glucose level and therefore productivity [11,12]. Before the recruitment period started for each trial, all residents and senior surgeons received chocolate gifts with printed information about the trials. ...
Background:
The success of a clinical trial depends on its recruitment of eligible patients; therefore, the recruitment period requires special attention. We hypothesized that with a new approach focused on continuous information and gratification, resident motivation to participate in scientific work will increase and recruitment rates will improve.
Methods:
Our new recruitment approach was applied to the recruitment phase of two prospective randomized trials (registered at the German Clinical Trials Register). Randomization of these trials was performed first using blinded envelopes; later a soft drink machine was used as the delivery tool of randomization as a lighthearted motivation to join scientific work and to reward the resident with free soft drinks for each recruitment. Residents were informed about the trial via a lecture and by mail. To increase interest everyone received Swiss chocolate. With a multiple choice survey we investigated the success of our actions at 6 and 12 months. Recruitment rates of the trials were evaluated and associated with the motivational approaches.
Results:
Our residents rated their awareness of the trials with median 9 (IQR 7;9) during the first and 8 (IQR 5;9) during the second survey and their interest in scientific work with median 7 (IQR 4;8) and 6 (IQR 5;8). The percentage of residents feeling highly motivated improved from 58% to 70%. The recruitment rates stayed stably high over time with 73% and 72% in trial 1 and 90% and 85% in trial 2; 24% of residents stated their motivation could be increased by gratifications.
Conclusions:
After implementation of our new recruitment approach we found positively motivated residents and high recruitment rates in the corresponding trials. We propose this procedure may help to ensure the successful initiation of clinical trials. Larger studies testing this approach are warranted.
... Cocoa is another polyphenol-rich food studied for its effects on cognition (91)(92)(93). In a recent review (94) cognitive benefits were noted following acute treatment with cocoa flavanols, but conflicting results were seen in longer trials. ...
The aging population is expanding, as is the prevalence of age-related cognitive decline (ARCD). Of the several risk factors that predict the onset and progression of ARCD, 2 important modifiable risk factors are diet and physical activity. Dietary patterns that emphasize plant foods can exert neuroprotective effects. In this comprehensive review, we examine studies in humans of plant-based dietary patterns and polyphenol-rich plant foods and their role in either preventing ARCD and/or improving cognitive function. As yet, there is no direct evidence to support the benefits of a vegetarian diet in preventing cognitive decline. However, there is emerging evidence for brain-health-promoting effects of several plant foods rich in polyphenols, anti-inflammatory dietary patterns, and plant-based dietary patterns such as the Mediterranean diet that include a variety of fruits, vegetables, legumes, nuts, and whole grains. The bioactive compounds present in these dietary patterns include antioxidant vitamins, polyphenols, other phytochemicals, and unsaturated fatty acids. In animal models these nutrients and non-nutrients have been shown to enhance neurogenesis, synaptic plasticity, and neuronal survival by reducing oxidative stress and neuroinflammation. In this review, we summarize the mounting evidence in favor of plant-centered dietary patterns, inclusive of polyphenol-rich foods for cognitive well-being. Randomized clinical trials support the role of plant foods (citrus fruits, grapes, berries, cocoa, nuts, green tea, and coffee) in improving specific domains of cognition, most notably frontal executive function. We also identify knowledge gaps and recommend future studies to identify whether plant-exclusive diets have an added cognitive advantage compared with plant-centered diets with fish and/or small amounts of animal foods.
In recent years, gut microbiota as an immune organ has gradually become the mainstream of research. When the composition of the gut microbiota was changed significantly, which may affect human health. This review details the major microbiota composition and metabolites in the gut, and discusses chronic diseases based on gut dysbiosis, including obesity, liver injury, colon cancer, atherosclerosis, central nervous system diseases. Comprehensively summarizes changes in abundance of relevant gut microbiota by ingesting different diet components, such as food additives, dietary polyphenols, polysaccharides, fats, proteins, and influence on microbial quorum sensing (QS) system, thereby regulating related diseases. We believe that QS can be used as a new entry point to explain the mechanism of ingesting dietary components to improve gut microbiota and thereby regulate related diseases. This review hopes to provide a theoretical basis for future research on improving disease symptoms by ingesting functional foods containing dietary components. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
Background and aims
Previous studies have reported a high prevalence of mental disorders among military organizations. Depression and anxiety are among the most important mental disorders, and depression, suicidal ideation, and violence have been found to be negatively associated with happiness and social support. Therefore, improving mood and increasing happiness can reduce the prevalence of mental disorders in military centers. Diet can improve happiness through specific molecular mechanisms and change our mood by affecting the chemical composition of the brain. Therefore, the present study examined the relationship between the quality and quantity of macronutrients in soldiers' diets with their mood and happiness.
Methods
In the current cross-sectional study, 300 healthy soldiers were selected. Food intake data was collected using 168-item semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire during the last year of their military training 2-year period. Then, we calculated the quality and quantity of macronutrients. Mood was assessed using the Profile of Mood States (POMS) questionnaire and happiness with the Oxford Happiness Questionnaire (OHQ).
Results
The mean ± standard deviation of participants' age was 23.70 ± 1.76 years. A significant relationship was observed between mood score and carbohydrate quantity (OR: 0.32, 95% CI: 0.12-0.88, P-value for trend = 0.03). This suggests that increasing carbohydrate intake improved the participants’ mood. No association was found between mood score with protein quantity (OR: 2.15, 95% CI: 0.80-5.75; P-value for trend = 0.12), and gram of fat intake (OR: 1.95, 95% CI: 0.74-5.13; P-value for trend = 0.15). None of the indicators related to macronutrient quality were significantly associated with happiness and mood scores in young soldiers (P ≥0.05).
Conclusions
Findings presented in this study showed that increased carbohydrate intake was significantly associated with better mood. However, mood is not related to the amount of proteins and fats and none of the parameters of macronutrient quality. Also, there was no significant relationship between the quantity and quality of macronutrients with happiness score.
Propagation by somatic embryogenesis in Theobroma cacao has some issues to be solved, as many morphologically abnormal somatic embryos that do not germinate into plants are frequently observed, thus hampering plant production on a commercial scale. For the first time the methylome landscape of T. cacao somatic embryogenesis was examined, using whole-genome bisulfite sequencing technique, with the aim to understand the epigenetic basis of somatic embryo abnormalities . We identified 873 differentially methylated genes (DMGs) in the CpG context between zygotic embryos, normal and abnormal somatic embryos, with important roles in development, programmed cell death, oxidative stress, and hypoxia induction, which can help to explain the morphological abnormalities of somatic embryos. We also identified the role of ethylene and its precursor 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate in several biological processes, such as hypoxia induction, cell differentiation and cell polarity, that could be associated to the development of abnormal somatic embryos. The biological processes and the hypothesis of ethylene and its precursor involvement in the somatic embryo abnormalities in cacao are discussed.
Propagation by somatic embryogenesis in Theobroma cacao has some issues to be solved, as many morphologically abnormal somatic embryos that do not germinate into plants are frequently observed, thus hampering plant production on a commercial scale. For the first time the methylome landscape of T. cacao somatic embryogenesis was examined, using whole-genome bisulfite sequencing technique, with the aim to understand the epigenetic basis of somatic embryo abnormalities . We identified 873 differentially methylated genes (DMGs) in the CpG context between zygotic embryos, normal and abnormal somatic embryos, with important roles in development, programmed cell death, oxidative stress, and hypoxia induction, which can help to explain the morphological abnormalities of somatic embryos. We also identified the role of ethylene and its precursor 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate in several biological processes, such as hypoxia induction, cell differentiation and cell polarity, that could be associated to the development of abnormal somatic embryos. The biological processes and the hypothesis of ethylene and its precursor involvement in the somatic embryo abnormalities in cacao are discussed.
Eating disorders (EDs) and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) commonly co-occur, but the mechanisms driving this co-occurrence are not well understood. The current study explored the relationships between symptoms of ED and PTSD in a sample of male and female undergraduate students in order to identify pathways that may maintain the comorbidity. Network analysis was conducted in a sample of 344 first year undergraduates to visualize partial correlations between each symptom in the comorbidity. Core symptoms, bridge symptoms, and direct pathways between ED and PTSD symptoms were identified. The PTSD symptoms negative emotions (strength = 1.13) and negative beliefs (strength = 1.11) were the strongest symptoms in the network. The strongest bridge nodes were the ED symptoms restriction (bridge strength = 3.32) and binge eating (bridge strength = 2.63). The strongest edges between ED and PTSD nodes were between binge eating and concentration (part r = .16), restriction and sleep (part r = .14), and binge eating and positive emotions (part r = .11). Findings suggest that PTSD symptoms related to negative alterations in cognitions and mood may be highly influential in the ED-PTSD network due to their relatedness to all other symptoms. The pathway between binge eating and inability to experience positive emotions suggest that the comorbidity may be partially maintained through an affect regulation function of binge eating. (Word count: 219)
Dark chocolate has long been recognized for its mood-altering properties; however, the evidence regarding the emotional effects of daily dark chocolate intake is limited. Therefore, we aimed to investigate the effects of dark chocolate intake on mood in everyday life, with special emphasis on the gut-brain axis. Two different dark chocolates (85% and 70% cocoa content) were tested in this study. In a randomized controlled trial, healthy adults (20-30 y) consumed either 30 g/d of 85% cocoa chocolate (DC85, n = 18); 70% cocoa chocolate (DC70, n = 16); or no chocolate (control group, CON; n = 14); for 3 weeks. Mood states were measured using the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS). Daily consumption of dark chocolate significantly reduced negative affect in DC85, but not in DC70. To assess the association between the mood-altering effects of dark chocolate and the gut microbiota, we performed fecal 16S rRNA sequencing analysis for the DC85 and CON groups. Gut microbial diversity was significantly higher in DC85 than CON (p < 0.05). Blautia obeum levels were significantly elevated and Faecalibacterium prausnitzii levels were reduced in DC85 compared to CON (p < 0.05). Furthermore, we found that the observed changes in negative affect scores were negatively correlated with diversity and relative abundance of Blautia obeum (p < 0.05). These findings indicate that dark chocolate exerts prebiotic effects, as evidenced by its ability to restructure the diversity and abundance of intestinal bacteria; thus, it may improve negative emotional states via the gut-brain axis.
Compulsive eating is a common symptom of different conditions, including obesity, binge eating disorder and bulimia. One hypothesis is that contemporary food products promote compulsive eating via addiction-like mechanisms. However, what is the addictive substance in food, and what is the phenotypic overlap between obesity / eating disorders and addiction are questions that remain unresolved. In this review, we applied a multilevel framework of addiction, which encompasses the 'drug' (certain foods), the person's mindset, and the context, to improve understanding of compulsive eating. Specifically, we reviewed evidence on the addictive properties of specific foods, the neurocognitive systems that control dietary choices, and their interaction with physical, emotional and social contexts. We focused on different target groups to illustrate distinct aspects of the proposed framework: the impact of food and contextual factors were examined across a continuum, with most studies conducted on healthy participants and subclinical populations, whereas the review of neurocognitive aspects focused on clinical groups in which the alterations linked to addictive and compulsive eating are particularly visible. The reviewed evidence suggest that macronutrient composition and level of processing are associated with the addictive properties of food; there are overlapping neuroadaptations in reward and decision-making circuits across compulsive eating conditions; and there are physical and social contexts that fuel compulsive eating by exploiting reward mechanisms and their interaction with emotions. We conclude that a biopsychosocial model that integrates food, neurobiology and context can provide a better understanding of compulsive eating manifestations in a transdiagnostic framework.
Kunyit merupakan tanaman yang memiliki aktivitas biologi salah satunya dapat berfungsi sebagai antibakteri, antiinflamasi dan antidepresan. Coklat masuk ke Indonesia pada zaman Belanda dan menjadi minuman yang digemari oleh masyarakat Indonesia. Senyawa yang terkandung dalam coklat seperti flavonoid, epitaken, katekin, kafein dll. Manfaat coklat sebagai antioksidan, antidepresi dll. Beberapa penelitian melaporkan bahwa senyawa metabolit skunder yang sering dijadikan sebagai indikator aktivitas biologi tanaman adalah flavonoid, alkaloid dan tanin. Pada penelitian menggunakan rimpang kunyit yang berusia 9 bulan dan biji coklat (kakao) yang telah di panen. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk uji kualitatif flavonoid, alkaloid dan tanin dari kunyit, coklat dan kombinasi kunyit coklat (1:1). Kunyit dan coklat tersebut di maserasi dengan menggunakan pelarut etanol 96%. Sampel yang di ekstraksi dengan perbandingan 1:10 , serbuk halus kunyit sebanyak 1000 gram dan didapatkan Ekstrak kental etanol 52,9% serbuk halus biji coklat sebanyak 1000 gram dan didapatkan 38,7% ekstrak kental etanol. Hasil uji kualitatif ekstrak etanol Coklat mengandung senyawa alkaloid, flavonoid dan tanin. Ekstrak etanol Kunyit positif mengandung senyawa flavonoid, tanin dan tidak mengandung senyawa alkaloid. kombinasi coklat kunyit (1:1) positif flavonoid, tanin dan negatif alkaloid.
Çalışmanın amacı, tüketici ruh halinin tüketilen üründen alınan haz ve ürüne ödenmek istenen bedel (fiyat) arasındaki ilişkileri açıklamak ve bu süreçte kişilik boyutlarından biri olarak „hislere/deneyime açıklığın“ nasıl etki ettiğini ortaya koymaktır. Bu kapsamda veriler, kolayda örnekleme yöntemi kullanılarak 400 kişilik örneklem üzerinden yüz yüze anket yardımıyla toplanmıştır. Kişilerin ruh halini olumlu yönde etkileyen, kişiyi iyi hissettiren hedonik ürün olarak çikolata tercih edilmiştir. Bulgulara göre, araştırmada çikolatanın tüketiminden alınan haz kişinin ruh haline göre farklılaşmaktadır. Aynı zamanda olumsuz ruh hali durumunda çikolata ürününe yönelik ödenmek istenen bedel (fiyat), olumlu ruh haline göre daha yüksektir. Ruh halinin üründen alınan haz ve ürüne yönelik ödenmek istenen bedel (fiyat) üzerindeki etkisi, kişinin hislere/deneyime açıklığına göre değişmemektedir. Ancak, hislere/deneyime açıklık kişinin olumlu ruh halinde ürüne yönelik ödenmek istenen fiyat üzerindeki etkisinde istatiksel açıdan anlamı değişime neden olmaktadır.
Šimić, N., Valerjev, P., & Nikolić Ivanišević, M. (Eds.). (2020). Mozak i um: Od električnih potencijala do svjesnog bića [Brain and Mind: From Electric Potentials to the Conscious Being]. Zadar: Sveučilište u Zadru.
Iz recenzija: Mozak i um: od električnih potencijala do svjesnog bića“ se bavi pitanjem odnosa mozga i uma, odnosno, pitanjem kako moždana aktivnost stvara mentalna stanja. Ovo pitanje predstavlja jednu od najvećih neriješenih misterija i izazova za znanost u 21. stoljeću. U zadnjih četrdesetak godina, razvojem različitih tehnika za oslikavanje moždane aktivnosti, akumulirano je mnogo novih spoznaja o ovom fascinantnom pitanju. Stoga je od izuzetne važnosti napraviti pregled najvažnijih dostignuća i usmjeriti čitaoce ka proučavanju relevantne literature. Prof. dr. sc. Dražen Domijan Knjiga donosi pregled odabranih relevantnih i suvremenih tema iz neuroznanosti i znanstvene psihologije. Na taj način čitatelju omogućuje vrlo dubok uvid u mozak i um, od osnovnih spoznaja o anatomiji i fiziologiji živčanog sustava i pregleda suvremenih istraživačkih tehnika u njegovu proučavanju, preko raskrinkavanja ukorijenjenih mitova o mozgu i prikaza evolucije mozga, do vrlo zanimljivih recentnih znanstvenih spoznaja o neurofiziološkoj pozadini jezika, prostornog vida, deklarativnog pamćenja, svijesti, ljubavi i seksa, te političkog djelovanja. … Pri tome je uredništvo uspjelo u nakani da ovu, vrlo kompleksnu materiju, predstavi na jasan i razumljiv način, prilagođen visokoškolskom udžbeniku. Izv. prof. dr. sc. Ana Slišković Riječ je o moderno koncipiranom udžbeniku u kojem su odabrane teme iz područja neuroznanosti opisane na razumljiv način. S obzirom na rastuću važnost nalaza u različitim granama neuroznanosti i njihovoj sve većoj primjeni u raznim sferama ljudskog djelovanja (medicini, obrazovanju, upravljanju ljudskim potencijalima itd.) ovakve su teme itekako relevantne, a dodano je znanje iz tih područja sve traženije u raznim studijskim programima. Doc. dr. sc. Ivana Hromatko
This study tested the effects of 10 min of aerobic exercise, a chocolate snack, or guided imagery as a means of reducing the learned helplessness effects due to the experience of an unsolvable task. It was hypothesized that exposure to unsolvable tasks would lead to a higher level of anxiety, engagement in more task-irrelevant cognitions, and a poorer performance on a solvable test task. Intervention with either chocolate, 10 min of aerobic exercises, or guided imagery would reduce anxiety, reduce task irrelevant cognitions, and prevent performance decrement. Five groups of subjects (n = 100) were tested on a visual search task after experiencing an unsolvable task. Results indicated that the experience of the unsolvable task led to a higher level of anxiety arousal compared to a group that did not experience the unsolvable task. The intervention of either aerobic exercise, chocolate, or guided imagery led to a reduction in anxiety to the level of the control group that had not experienced an unsolvable task. Task-irrelevant cognitions were found to be higher in the classic nonintervention learned helplessness group and in the guided imagery group. The only group to suffer a performance decrement on the test task was the classic learned helplessness group without intervention. All three interventions were found to be equally effective in preventing performance decrement. Results are discussed in terms of an irrelevant defensive cognition/anxiety model as well as in terms of a controllability model.
Over the past four or five decades, there has been increasing interest in the neurochemical regulation of cognition. This field received considerable attention in the 1980s, with the identification of possible cognition enhancing agents or "smart drugs". Even though many of the optimistic claims for some agents have proven premature, evidence suggests that several metabolic agents may prove to be effective in improving and preserving cognitive performance and may lead to better cognitive aging through the lifespan. Aging is characterized by a progressive deterioration in physiological functions and metabolic processes. There are a number of agents with the potential to improve metabolic activity. Research is now beginning to identify these various agents and delineate their potential usefulness for improving cognition in health and disease. This review provides a brief overview of the metabolic agents glucose, oxygen, pyruvate, creatine, and L-carnitine and their beneficial effects on cognitive function. These agents are directly responsible for generating ATP (adenosine triphosphate) the main cellular currency of energy. The brain is the most metabolically active organ in the body and as such is particularly vulnerable to disruption of energy resources. Therefore interventions that sustain adenosine triphosphate (ATP) levels may have importance for improving neuronal dysfunction and loss. Moreover, recently, it has been observed that environmental conditions and diet can affect transgenerational gene expression via epigenetic mechanisms. Metabolic agents might play a role in regulation of nutritional epigenetic effects. In summary, the reviewed metabolic agents represent a promising strategy for improving cognitive function and possibly slowing or preventing cognitive decline.
The combination of theobromine and caffeine, methylxanthines found in chocolate, has previously been shown to improve mood and cognition. However, it is unknown whether these molecules act synergistically. This study tested the hypothesis that a combination of caffeine and theobromine has synergistic effects on cognition, mood and blood pressure in 24 healthy female subjects. The effects of theobromine (700 mg), caffeine (120 mg) or the combination of both, or placebo were tested on mood (the Bond-Lader visual analog scale), psychomotor performance (the Digit Symbol Substitution Test (DSST)) and blood pressure before and at 1, 2 and 3 h after administration. Theobromine alone decreased self-reported calmness 3h after ingestion and lowered blood pressure relative to placebo 1 h after ingestion. Caffeine increased self-reported alertness 1, 2 and 3h after ingestion and contentedness 1 and 2 h after ingestion, and increased blood pressure relative to placebo (at 1 h). The combination of caffeine+theobromine had similar effects as caffeine alone on mood, but with no effect on blood pressure. There was no treatment effect on DSST performance. Together these results suggest that theobromine and caffeine could have differential effects on mood and blood pressure. It was tentatively concluded that caffeine may have more CNS-mediated effects on alertness, while theobromine may be acting primarily via peripheral physiological changes.
Cocoa flavanols (CF) influence physiological processes in ways that suggest their consumption may improve aspects of neural function, and previous studies have found positive influences of CF on cognitive performance. In this preliminary study we investigated whether visual, as well as cognitive, function is influenced by an acute dose of CF in young adults. We employed a randomized, single-blinded, order counterbalanced, crossover design in which 30 healthy adults consumed both dark chocolate containing 720mg CF and a matched quantity of white chocolate, with a one week interval between testing sessions. Visual contrast sensitivity was assessed by reading numbers that became progressively more similar in luminance to their background. Motion sensitivity was assessed firstly by measuring the threshold proportion of coherently moving signal dots that could be detected against a background of random motion, and secondly by determining the minimum time required to detect motion direction in a display containing a high proportion of coherent motion. Cognitive performance was assessed using a visual spatial working memory for location task and a choice reaction time task designed to engage processes of sustained attention and inhibition. Relative to the control condition, CF improved visual contrast sensitivity and reduced the time required to detect motion direction, but had no statistically reliable effect on the minimum proportion of coherent motion that could be detected. In terms of cognitive performance, CF improved spatial memory and performance on some aspects of the choice reaction time task. As well as extending the range of cognitive tasks that are known to be influenced by CF consumption, this is the first report of acute effects of CF on the efficiency of visual function. These acute effects can be explained by increased cerebral blood flow caused by CF, although in the case of contrast sensitivity there may be an additional contribution from CF induced retinal blood flow changes.
While type 2 diabetes is well-known to be associated with poorer cognitive performance, few studies have reported on the association of metabolic syndrome (MetS) and contributing factors, such as insulin-resistance (HOMA-IR), low adiponectin-, and high C-reactive protein (CRP)-levels. We studied whether these factors are related to cognitive function and which of the MetS components are independently associated. The study was embedded in an ongoing family-based cohort study in a Dutch population. All participants underwent physical examinations, biomedical measurements, and neuropsychological testing. Linear regression models were used to determine the association between MetS, HOMA-IR, adiponectin levels, CRP, and cognitive test scores. Cross-sectional analyses were performed in 1,898 subjects (mean age 48 years, 43% men). People with MetS had significantly higher HOMA-IR scores, lower adiponectin levels, and higher CRP levels. MetS and high HOMA-IR were associated with poorer executive function in women (P = 0.03 and P = 0.009). MetS and HOMA-IR are associated with poorer executive function in women.
Cocoa flavanols (CF) positively influence physiological processes in ways that suggest their consumption may improve aspects of cognitive function. This study investigated the acute cognitive and subjective effects of CF consumption during sustained mental demand. In this randomized, controlled, double-blinded, balanced, three period crossover trial 30 healthy adults consumed drinks containing 520 mg, 994 mg CF and a matched control, with a three-day washout between drinks. Assessments included the state anxiety inventory and repeated 10-min cycles of a Cognitive Demand Battery comprising of two serial subtraction tasks (Serial Threes and Serial Sevens), a Rapid Visual Information Processing (RVIP) task and a 'mental fatigue' scale, over the course of 1 h. Consumption of both 520 mg and 994 mg CF significantly improved Serial Threes performance. The 994 mg CF beverage significantly speeded RVIP responses but also resulted in more errors during Serial Sevens. Increases in self-reported 'mental fatigue' were significantly attenuated by the consumption of the 520 mg CF beverage only. This is the first report of acute cognitive improvements following CF consumption in healthy adults. While the mechanisms underlying the effects are unknown they may be related to known effects of CF on endothelial function and blood flow.
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a dementing neurological disorder that results in progressive memory loss and cognitive decline thought to be associated with buildup of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in the brain. Vascular Dementia (VaD) is another common dementing disorder characterized by decreased brain perfusion. Together, AD and VaD constitute mixed dementia, an extremely common type of dementia associated with aging. Neuroimaging research suggests that brain vascular atrophy results in mild cognitive impairment (MCI), a possible precursor for AD. Additionally, literature suggests that attention to cardiovascular risk factors such as hypertension could reduce or delay the incidence of mixed dementia. Furthermore, foods and beverages rich in natural antioxidant flavanoids (i.e. epicatechin and catechin) are currently being advocated as possible preventative agents for a number of pathological conditions ranging from coronary heart disease to dementia. Experimental evidence is mounting that oxidative stress is involved in the pathophysiology of AD, and numerous studies are indicating that polyphenolic antioxidants found in fruits and vegetables can be useful in countering this and blocking neuronal death. More specifically, several cocoa studies suggest that daily intake of cocoa flavanols leads to cardiovascular benefits including vasodilatation via a nitric oxide mechanism and increased brain perfusion. The following text will consider an important question that thus arises regarding the potential of flavanols as effective agents for the prevention and delay of the onset of brain vascular atrophy and subsequently MCI and AD. It will also review the molecular mechanisms through which flavanols operate to accomplish their protective effects.
The cognition-enhancing effects of glucose administration to humans have been well-documented; however, it remains unclear whether this effect preferentially targets episodic memory or other cognitive domains.
The effect of glucose on the allocation of attentional resources during memory encoding was assessed using a sensitive dual-attention paradigm.
One hundred and twenty volunteers (mean age 21.60, SD 4.89, 77 females) took part in this randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel groups study where each consumed a 25-g glucose drink or a placebo. Half of the participants in each drink condition attempted to track a moving on-screen target during auditory word presentation. The distance between the cursor and the tracking target was used as an index of attentional cost during encoding. Effects of drink and tracking on recognition memory and drink on tracking performance were assessed. Self-rated appetite and mood were co-monitored.
Co-performing the tracking task significantly impaired memory performance irrespective of drink condition. In the placebo-tracking condition, there was a cost to tracking manifest as greater deviation from target during and immediately following word presentation. Compared with placebo, the glucose drink significantly improved tracking performance during encoding. There were significant time-related changes in thirst and alertness ratings but these were not differentially affected by drink or tracking conditions.
Tracking but not memory was enhanced by glucose. This finding suggests that, under certain task conditions, glucose administrations does not preferentially enhance memory performance. One mechanism through which glucose acts as a cognition enhancer is through allowing greater allocation of attentional resources.
Cerebral ischemia is a common, morbid condition accompanied by cognitive decline. Recent reports on the vascular health benefits of flavanol-containing foods signify a promising approach to the treatment of cerebral ischemia. Our study was designed to investigate the effects of flavanol-rich cocoa (FRC) consumption on cerebral blood flow in older healthy volunteers.
We used transcranial Doppler (TCD) ultrasound to measure mean blood flow velocity (MFV) in the middle cerebral artery (MCA) in thirty-four healthy elderly volunteers (72 +/- 6 years) in response to the regular intake of FRC or flavanol-poor cocoa (FPC).
In response to two weeks of FRC intake, MFV increased by 8% +/- 4% at one week (p = 0.01) and 10% +/- 4% (p = 0.04) at two weeks. In response to one week of cocoa, significantly more subjects in the FRC as compared with the FPC group had an increase in their MFV (p < 0.05).
In summary, we show that dietary intake of FRC is associated with a significant increase in cerebral blood flow velocity in the MCA as measured by TCD. Our data suggest a promising role for regular cocoa flavanol's consumption in the treatment of cerebrovascular ischemic syndromes, including dementias and stroke.
Central stimulant actions of 10 methylxanthines in mice correlate with affinities for adenosine receptors labeled with N6-[3H]cyclohexyladenosine. Affinities of methylxanthines for adenosine receptors are consonant with central levels attained at behaviorally effective doses. The much higher concentrations of methylxanthines required to influence benzodiazepine receptor binding do not correlate with behavioral potency. N6-(L-Phenylisopropyl)adenosine (L-PIA), a metabolically stable analog of adenosine with high affinity for adenosine receptors, is an extremely potent behavioral depressant, reducing locomotor activity of mice at doses as little as 0.05 mumol/kg. The D isomer, which has much less affinity for adenosine receptors, is much less active as a central depressant. Theophylline stimulates locomotor activity and reverses depressant effects of L-PIA. Caffeine or 1,7-dimethylxanthine, when administered alone, elicits biphasic effects, with locomotor depression at lower doses and stimulation at higher doses. When administered with L-PIA, even low doses of caffeine produce marked stimulation. 3-Isobutyl-1-methylxanthine given alone elicits only behavioral depression. However, like theophylline and caffeine, isobutylmethylxanthine reverses the L-PIA-evoked depression, converting it into pronounced locomotor stimulation. The data strongly suggest that the behavioral stimulant effects of methylxanthines involve a blockade of central adenosine receptors.
It has been suggested that the quality of clinical trials should be assessed by blinded raters to limit the risk of introducing bias into meta-analyses and systematic reviews, and into the peer-review process. There is very little evidence in the literature to substantiate this. This study describes the development of an instrument to assess the quality of reports of randomized clinical trials (RCTs) in pain research and its use to determine the effect of rater blinding on the assessments of quality. A multidisciplinary panel of six judges produced an initial version of the instrument. Fourteen raters from three different backgrounds assessed the quality of 36 research reports in pain research, selected from three different samples. Seven were allocated randomly to perform the assessments under blind conditions. The final version of the instrument included three items. These items were scored consistently by all the raters regardless of background and could discriminate between reports from the different samples. Blind assessments produced significantly lower and more consistent scores than open assessments. The implications of this finding for systematic reviews, meta-analytic research and the peer-review process are discussed.
HOLTZMAN (1974, 1975) was the first to report that the pure opioid receptor antagonist, naloxone, significantly reduced food consumption in rats. At first these unexpected results were difficult to interpret. However, following the discovery of endogenous opioid peptides, these data could be explained in terms of the antagonism of endogenous opioid activity (SANGER 1981; MORLEY and LEVINE 1982; COOPER and SANGER 1984). The suppressant effects of naloxone and other opioid receptor antagonists on feeding behaviour were described initially using food-deprived rats and mice (e.g. HOLTZMAN 1974; ROGERS et al. 1978; MARGULES et al. 1978; BRANDS et al. 1979; BROWN and HOLTZMAN 1979). Naloxone also reduced free-feeding and drinking in rats (COOPER 1980), as well as eating induced by tail pinch (Lowy et al. 1980; MORLEY and LEVINE 1980), by 2-deoxY-D-glucose (SEWELL and JAWAHARLAL 1980), and by electrical stimulation of the brain (CARR and SIMON 1983).
Caffeine is widely consumed and has widespread physiological effects. We review evidence that the acute alerting and associated psychomotor performance effects of caffeine experienced by frequent caffeine consumers represent withdrawal reversal rather than a net benefit for functioning, and that avoidance of withdrawal is an important motive for caffeine consumption. On the other hand, tolerance develops to the anxiogenic effect of caffeine even in susceptible individuals, and while caffeine raises blood pressure, tea and coffee consumption are not associated with increased risk of vascular disease. Indeed, consumption of these drinks appears to reduce risk of cognitive decline in older age, possibly because of beneficial actions of other compounds present in tea and coffee, and the sensitization of the neuroprotective action of adenosine resulting from caffeine intake. The example of caffeine demonstrates the challenge of finding ingredients for foods or drinks that could be used effectively to acutely enhance mood, alertness and/or cognitive function.
Despite the popular belief that chocolate adversely affects young children's behaviour, there have been no direct investigations into the behavioural response to chocolate consumption. This study investigated the effect of chocolate ingestion on the behaviour of 26 preschool children. Dried fruit was consumed in a separate condition to control for nonspecific factors, such as excitement and novelty, associated with the effects of receiving positive substances. Children were observed while they listened to a short story, immediately before and 30 minutes after they ate chocolate or fruit. The children's behaviours were videotaped and scored by two blind raters who coded their behaviours according to six objective and two subjective measures. There were no significant behavioural changes due to consumption of either chocolate or fruit on subjective and objective ratings. These findings raise questions about the popular perception that chocolate promotes poor attention and increased activity in preschool children.
Although certain commonalities exist between eating and drug use (mood effects, external cue-control of appetites, reinforcement, etc.), it is argued that the vast majority of cases of (self-reported) food craving and food “addiction” should not be viewed as addictive behavior. An explanation is proposed that instead gives a prominent role to the psychological processes of ambivalence and attribution, operating together with normal mechanisms of appetite control, the hedonic effects of certain foods, and socially and culturally determined perceptions of appropriate intakes and uses of those foods. Ambivalence (e.g., “nice but naughty”) about foods such as chocolate arises from the attitude that it is highly palatable but should be eaten with restraint. Attempts to restrict intake, however, cause the desire for chocolate to become more salient, an experience that is then labelled as a craving. This, together with a need to provide a reason for why resisting eating chocolate is difficult and sometimes fails, can, in turn, lead the individual to an explanation in terms of addiction (e.g., “chocoholism”). Moreishness (“causing a desire for more”) occurs during, rather than preceding, an eating episode, and is experienced when the eater attempts to limit consumption before appetite for the food has been sated.
Summary The reputed benefits of moderate caffeine consumption include improvements in physical endurance, cognitive function, particularly alertness and vigilance, mood and perception of fatigue. In contrast, there are concerns that excessive intakes increase the risks of dehydration, anxiety, headache and sleep disturbances. This paper is a review of double-blind, placebo-controlled trials published over the past 15 years to establish what range of caffeine consumption would maximise benefits and minimise risks for cognitive function, mood, physical performance and hydration. Of the 41 human studies meeting the inclusion criteria, the majority reported benefits associated with low to moderate caffeine intakes (37.5 to 450 mg per day). The available studies on hydration found that caffeine intakes up to 400 mg per day did not produce dehydration, even in subjects undergoing exercise testing. It was concluded that the range of caffeine intake that appeared to maximise benefit and minimise risk is 38 to 400 mg per day, equating to 1 to 8 cups of tea per day, or 0.3 to 4 cups of brewed coffee per day. The limitations of the current evidence base are discussed.
Exercise studies have suggested that the presence of carbohydrate in the human mouth activates regions of the brain that can enhance exercise performance but direct evidence of such a mechanism is limited. The first aim of the present study was to observe how rinsing the mouth with solutions containing glucose and maltodextrin, disguised with artificial sweetener, would affect exercise performance. The second aim was to use functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to identify the brain regions activated by these substances. In Study 1A, eight endurance-trained cyclists ( 60.8 ± 4.1 ml kg−1 min−1) completed a cycle time trial (total work = 914 ± 29 kJ) significantly faster when rinsing their mouths with a 6.4% glucose solution compared with a placebo containing saccharin (60.4 ± 3.7 and 61.6 ± 3.8 min, respectively, P= 0.007). The corresponding fMRI study (Study 1B) revealed that oral exposure to glucose activated reward-related brain regions, including the anterior cingulate cortex and striatum, which were unresponsive to saccharin. In Study 2A, eight endurance-trained cyclists ( 57.8 ± 3.2 ml kg−1 min−1) tested the effect of rinsing with a 6.4% maltodextrin solution on exercise performance, showing it to significantly reduce the time to complete the cycle time trial (total work = 837 ± 68 kJ) compared to an artificially sweetened placebo (62.6 ± 4.7 and 64.6 ± 4.9 min, respectively, P= 0.012). The second neuroimaging study (Study 2B) compared the cortical response to oral maltodextrin and glucose, revealing a similar pattern of brain activation in response to the two carbohydrate solutions, including areas of the insula/frontal operculum, orbitofrontal cortex and striatum. The results suggest that the improvement in exercise performance that is observed when carbohydrate is present in the mouth may be due to the activation of brain regions believed to be involved in reward and motor control. The findings also suggest that there may be a class of so far unidentified oral receptors that respond to carbohydrate independently of those for sweetness.
Patients with seasonal affective disorder (SAD) selectively eat more carbohydrates (CHO), particularly sweets but also starch-rich foods, during their depression in winter. The Dutch Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (DEBQ) was administered to female SAD patients, healthy female controls, and female medical students to determine their eating style, together with the modified Seasonal Pattern Assessment Questionnaire (SPAQ+). SAD patients showed higher values for “emotional” (EMOT) eating than the students, and these in turn had higher values than the controls. In comparison to controls, SAD patients and students had high values for the factor “external” (EXT) eating, but there was no difference between the groups with respect to “restraint” (REST) eating. This is in strong contrast to patients with bulimia and anorexia nervosa, who are high REST eaters, indicating that SAD patients do not have a similar eating disorder. Additional items showed that SAD patients selectively eat sweets under emotionally difficult conditions (when depressed, anxious, or lonely). Configural frequency analysis showed that seasonal body weight change (SBWC) is high in subjects with high EMOT and REST eating together with a high body mass index (BMI). This result is in accordance with the concept of disinhibition of dietary restraint in extreme emotional situations, e.g., the depressive state.
Extensive research indicates a strong relationship between endogenous opioid peptides (EOPs) and food intake. In the present paper, we propose that food cravings act as an intervening variable in this opioid-ingestion link. Specifically, we argue that altered EOP activity may elicit food cravings which in turn may influence food consumption. Correlational support for this opioidergic theory of food cravings is provided by examining various clinical conditions (e.g. pregnancy, menstruation, bulimia, stress, depression) which are associated with altered EOP levels, intensified food cravings, and increased food intake.
The pleasure response to palatable foods, notably those rich in sugar and fat, may be mediated through the endogenous opioid peptide system. In a recent study, infusions of the opioid antagonist naloxone were shown to reduce taste preferences for sugar-fat mixtures and to decrease the consumption of sweet and high-fat foods. The effects were more pronounced among women characterized as compulsive ‘binge-eaters’ than among control subjects. Cravings by obese or bulimic women for chocolate and other sweet, fat-rich desserts may be under opioid control.
In a randomized, double-blind placebo controlled trial, 63 middle-aged volunteers aged between 40 and 65 years were administered a daily chocolate drink containing 250 mg or 500 mg cocoa flavanols versus a low cocoa flavanol (placebo) drink over a 30-day period. Participants were tested at baseline as well as at the end of the treatment period on a test of Spatial Working Memory. Steady State Probe Topography (SST) was used to assess neurocognitive changes associated with cocoa flavanol supplementation during the completion of the Spatial Working Memory task. SST is an electrophysiological technique which utilizes a 13 Hz diffuse visual flicker in order to generate a steady state visually evoked potential (SSVEP). Changes in the amplitude and phase of the SSVEP response after 30 days were compared between treatment groups. Behavioral measures of accuracy and reaction time were not found to be significantly different between treatment groups, while average SSVEP amplitude and phase differences at a number of posterior parietal and centro-frontal sites were found to be significantly different between groups during memory encoding, the working memory hold period and retrieval. In the absence of significant behavioral effects, these differences in brain activation can be interpreted as evidence of increased neural efficiency in spatial working memory function associated with chronic cocoa flavanol consumption.
In concert with growing public interest in complementary and alternative medicine (CAM), these therapies and products have been increasingly studied over the past two decades for the treatment of sleep disorders. While systematic reviews have been conducted on acupuncture and valerian in the treatment of insomnia, to date no comprehensive review has been conducted on all major CAM treatments. We sought to address this via a rigorous systematic review of hypnotic CAM interventions, including herbal and nutritional medicine, acupuncture, acupressure, yoga, tai chi, massage, aromatherapy and homoeopathy. The electronic databases MEDLINE (PubMed), CINAHL, PsycINFO, and The Cochrane Library were accessed during late 2009 for CAM randomized controlled trials (RCTs) in the treatment of chronic insomnia. Sixty-four RCTs were identified, of which 20 studies involving eight CAM interventions met final inclusion criteria. Effect size calculations (where possible) and a quality control analysis using a modified Jadad scale were undertaken. Many RCTs lacked methodological rigor, and were commonly excluded due to small sample size or an inadequate control condition. Among the studies that met inclusion criteria, there was evidentiary support in the treatment of chronic insomnia for acupressure (d=1.42-2.12), tai chi (d=0.22-2.15), yoga (d=0.66-1.20), mixed evidence for acupuncture and L-tryptophan, and weak and unsupportive evidence for herbal medicines such as valerian. Surprisingly, studies involving several mainstream CAM therapies (e.g., homoeopathy, massage, or aromatherapy) were not located or did not meet basic inclusion criteria. If CAM interventions are to be considered as viable stand-alone or adjuvant treatments for sleep disorders, future researchers are urged to use acceptable methodology, including appropriate sample sizes and adequate controls. RCTs evaluating other untested CAM therapies such as massage, homoeopathy, or osteopathy are encouraged, as is the exploration of using CAM therapies adjuvantly with conventional therapies.
Cognitive decline and dementia both place a heavy burden on patients and their relatives, and any means of preventing such age-related changes are worthy of consideration. Those who have the metabolic syndrome with or without diabetes suffer more often from dysexecutive problems and slower psychomotor speed than do other patients. In epidemiological studies, diabetes has appeared to be a risk factor for all types of dementia, including vascular dementia, although the role of the metabolic syndrome in the risk of Alzheimer's disease is still a matter of debate. The possible mechanisms of cognitive alterations are multiple, and may differ according to age group and duration of diabetes or the metabolic syndrome. Drug interventional trials addressing the prevention of cognitive decline through action on the metabolic syndrome are disappointing-albeit scarce at this time. Lifestyle interventions in middle-aged or younger-elderly subjects should also be implemented in the general population.
During the 1990s, both the European chocolate industry and the cocoa butter industry have become increasingly centralised.
Today only a handful of companies in each segment control the production of intermediate goods and massmarketed brands. The
cocoa sectors of the major producing countries in West Africa have at the same time been liberalised and privatised due to
the dismantling of state marketing boards. This paper examines the relationship between the new raw material requirements
(both in qualitative and quantitative terms) of the processing industry in Europe and restructuring processes in the cocoa
sectors of major African producer countries.
Dietary preferences influence basal human metabolism and gut microbiome activity that in turn may have long-term health consequences. The present study reports the metabolic responses of free living subjects to a daily consumption of 40 g of dark chocolate for up to 14 days. A clinical trial was performed on a population of 30 human subjects, who were classified in low and high anxiety traits using validated psychological questionnaires. Biological fluids (urine and blood plasma) were collected during 3 test days at the beginning, midtime and at the end of a 2 week study. NMR and MS-based metabonomics were employed to study global changes in metabolism due to the chocolate consumption. Human subjects with higher anxiety trait showed a distinct metabolic profile indicative of a different energy homeostasis (lactate, citrate, succinate, trans-aconitate, urea, proline), hormonal metabolism (adrenaline, DOPA, 3-methoxy-tyrosine) and gut microbial activity (methylamines, p-cresol sulfate, hippurate). Dark chocolate reduced the urinary excretion of the stress hormone cortisol and catecholamines and partially normalized stress-related differences in energy metabolism (glycine, citrate, trans-aconitate, proline, beta-alanine) and gut microbial activities (hippurate and p-cresol sulfate). The study provides strong evidence that a daily consumption of 40 g of dark chocolate during a period of 2 weeks is sufficient to modify the metabolism of free living and healthy human subjects, as per variation of both host and gut microbial metabolism.
The purpose was to test the hypothesis that a multifaceted 11 weeks randomized controlled intervention would have a significant influence of functional abilities in old nursing home residents. Participants were 121 old (>65 years) residents in seven Danish nursing homes. The intervention consisted of nutrition (chocolate, homemade oral supplements), group exercise (moderate intensity) and oral care. Measurements taken were weight, body mass index (BMI), energy and protein intake, and functional abilities (activities of daily living=ADL, cognitive performance, and social engagement). The results showed that the nutrition and exercise were well accepted. After 11 weeks the change in % weight (1.3 vs. -0.6%, p=0.005), % BMI (0.4 vs. -0.2%, p=0.003), energy intake (0.7 vs. -0.3 MJ/day, p=0.084) and protein intake (5 vs. -2g/day, p=0.012) was higher in the intervention group than in the control group. Also, after 11 weeks, social and physical function had decreased in the control group but was unchanged in the intervention group. The difference between groups was significant in relation to social engagement (p=0.009). After the end of the intervention both groups had lost weight and physical function. Cognitive performance did not change, at any time. In conclusion, it seems possible to maintain social (and physical) functional abilities in old nursing home residents by means of a multifaceted intervention.
In this paper we argue that compulsive overeating has compelling similarities to conventional drug addiction. Our case is based on their comparable clinical features, the biological mechanisms they have in common, and on evidence that the two disorders have a shared diathesis. In making the argument for overeating as an addictive behaviour, it is clearly not appropriate to include all cases of excessive food consumption in this taxon. Nor are we claiming that obesity and addiction are one and the same. However, it is proposed that Binge Eating Disorder (BED) is a phenotype particularly well-suited to such a conceptualization, and that sound clinical and scientific evidence exists to support this viewpoint. We have provided some recommendations for treatment modifications that recognize the similarities between treating drug dependence and compulsive overeating.
We studied the psychological stress-reducing effect of chocolate enriched with gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), on stress induced by an arithmetic task using changes of heart rate variability (HRV) and salivary chromogranin A (CgA). Subjects ingested 10 g chocolate enriched with 28 mg GABA (GABA chocolate); 15 min after the ingestion, subjects were assigned an arithmetic task for 15 min. After the task, an electrocardiogram was recorded and saliva samples were collected. HRV was determined from the electrocardiogram, and the activity of the autonomic nervous system was estimated through HRV. The CgA concentration of all saliva samples, an index for acute psychological stress, was measured. From HRV, those taking GABA chocolate made a quick recovery to the normal state from the stressful state. The CgA value after the task in those taking GABA chocolate did not increased in comparison with that before ingestion. From these results, GABA chocolate was considered to have a psychological stress-reducing effect.