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Colostrum intake: Influence on piglet performance and factors of variation
Abstract
Failure of piglets to achieve an adequate intake of colostrum is the underlying cause for the majority of piglet deaths occurring within the first days of post-natal life. From the most recent findings, it can be estimated that 200 g of colostrum per piglet during the first 24 h after birth is the minimum consumption to significantly reduce the risk of mortality before weaning, provide passive immunity and allow a slight weight gain. A consumption of 250 g could be recommended to achieve good health and pre- and post-weaning growth. On this basis, at least one-third of sows do not produce enough colostrum to fulfil the needs of their litter. Various ways to increase colostrum intake by piglets must be considered, such as increasing the ability of piglets to suckle, reducing within-litter variation in birth weight, and increasing the quantity of colostrum that sows produce. Research on sow nutrition during gestation has led to promising results, especially on piglet vitality at birth and on the acquisition of passive immunity. Approaches focusing on nutrition or genetic selection are also expected to increase litter uniformity at birth. Finally, it is evident that ways to increase sow colostrum production need to receive further attention. One area which has been neglected but which warrants more research is the potential impact of mammary development on colostrum yield. Focus in the future should be given on the impacts of sow hormonal status and nutrition during the prepuberal period and during the last days of pregnancy on the production of colostrum by sows.
... Concentrations of Igs are the highest in colostrum for the first hours postpartum and constantly decline after 6 h; however, the decrease in IgG concentration is faster than the decrease in IgA and IgM concentrations [6,18,19]. Colostrum also has higher concentrations of dry matter, proteins, vitamins, minerals (e.g., zinc, copper, iron, and iodine), and hormones; however, lactose and fat are present in lower concentrations compared to those in mature milk [18,[20][21][22]. The milk reaches its mature composition between the seventh and tenth day of lactation and then remains almost stable until the rest of lactation [6]. ...
... The milk reaches its mature composition between the seventh and tenth day of lactation and then remains almost stable until the rest of lactation [6]. The epitheliochorial placenta of the sow does not allow the transfer of maternal antibodies and immune cells to the fetus; therefore, piglets rely on their natural immune system and the passive immunity received from the sow via the colostrum [20]. Transfer of Igs from sow plasma to the mammary glands starts before farrowing (approximately 10 days pre-farrowing), increases 3-4 days before farrowing, and is maximal on the farrowing day [23]. ...
... Mortality of piglets in the first few days is mostly caused by inadequate colostrum intake. The recommendation for colostrum intake is 200-250 g per piglet [20], which influences piglet survival before weaning [27]. Unfortunately, the amount of colostrum is limited in large litters; therefore, some piglets may not obtain enough. ...
Over the last few decades, the productivity of sows has improved tremendously, especially in terms of litter size. Colostral immunoglobulins (Igs) are essential for the early protection of piglets against pathogens. We hypothesized that with the increase in sows’ productivity, the Ig content of colostrum has declined. The research results reviewed confirmed a negative trend in the case of IgG and IgA. The sows’ blood IgG and IgM concentrations decreased from late gestational levels, confirming the transfer from serum (with most of them not synthesized in the mammary gland). This connection was also confirmed by our correlation analyses. Colostrum Ig levels correlate well with the piglets’ blood Ig concentrations, proving the importance of colostral Ig intake. The most effective feed supplements are antioxidants and arginine to improve the Ig content of the blood (about 30 to 70%) and colostrum (about 10 to 70%). Pre- and probiotics and other feed supplements express only a modest (about +10 to 20%) but positive effect.
... На каждого дополнительного поросенка средняя масса при рождении снижается на 35 -43 г, что приводит к ухудшению од-нородности приплода [21,22,23]. Многоплодие напрямую связано с высокой смертностью в первые три дня после опороса [24]. Поросята могут быть легковесными на любой стадии производства [25,26], но наиболее критические приходятся на периоды лактации и отъема, когда происходит преимущественная часть задержки роста [13]. ...
... Плохое единообразие помета влечет за собой снижение выработки молозива и неравномерное его распределение между поросятами [30]. Неоднородность приплода при рождении, как правило, сохраняется и при отъеме от матери [24,31]. ...
... Гипотрофным поросятам свойственно более длительное время приступания к первому сосанию [36,37,38], ограниченная способность массировать, стимулировать соски [39] и глотать молозиво [40], являющаяся одной из причин плохого его усвоения [24]. Чем больше помет, тем меньше молозива доступно на одного поросенка [41,42]. ...
Анализ доступной отечественной и зарубежной литературы, начиная с 50-х годов ХХ столетия до 21 года ХХ1 века, показывает, что при разведении свиней используются разные комплексы селекционных признаков, но наиболее сложной проблемой остается отбор по воспроизводительным качествам, базирующимся на многоплодии, продуктивности свиноматок по численности и качеству потомства, лактационной способности, возрасте хозяйственного использования и количестве опоросов. Многоплодие свиней - один из основных репродуктивных и производственных показателей, отражающих современную гиперплодовитую модель ведения свиноводства и экономическую эффективность отрасли. Однако с увеличением количества поросят в приплоде уменьшается однородность и масса гнезда. При этом вес поросят при рождении является важным функциональным и производственным тестовым критерием жизнеспособности (выживаемости) в подсосное время, сохранности в предотъемный и постотъемный возрастные периоды, конверсии корма среднесуточными приростами и совокупной потенциальной продуктивности. Особую актуальность решение этих вопросов приобрело в условиях интенсификации свиноводства на промышленной основе. В приплоде свиней обнаруживаются нормотрофные (полноценные, крупноплодные), гипотрофные (низковесные, маловесные, мелковесные) и мертворожденные поросята. По нашим наблюдениям между плодовитостью и количеством гипотрофных поросят выявлена прямая тесная положительная корреляция (r = + 0,98). Чем больше поросят в приплоде, тем сильнее нарастает численность мелковесных. Количество маловесных поросят меньше, когда новорожденных в гнезде насчитывается 2-6 (3,7±2,08%), но достоверно увеличивается с укрупнением приплода при 7-11 (13,3±1,17%) и 12-16 (18,0±1,39%) поросятах, а при 17-21 они занимают более трети приплода (31,7±7,27%).
Analysis of available fatherland and foreign literature, starting from the 50-th years of the ХХ century to the 21 years of the XXI century, shows that different complexes of selection features are used in the breeding of pigs, but the most difficult problem remains the selection of reproductive qualities based on multiple fertility, productivity of sows in terms of number and quality of litter, lactation ability, age of economic use and number of farrowings. The multiplication of pigs is one of the main reproductive and production indicators reflecting the modern hyper-fertile model of pig breeding and the economic efficiency of the industry. However, with an increase in the number of piglets in the litter, the uniformity and mass of the littering decreases. At the same time, the weight of piglets at birth is an important functional and production test criterion for viability (survival) in sucking time, preservation in the pre-weaning and post-weaning age periods, feed conversion by average daily increases and total potential productivity. The special of these issues has acquired particular relevance in the conditions of intensification of pig production on an industrial basis. In the litter of pigs are found normotrophic (full-, large-fruited), hypotrophic (low-weight, low-weight, small-weight) and stillborn piglets. According to our observations, a direct close positive correlation (r = + 0.98) was revealed between fertility and the number of hypotrophic piglets. The more piglets in the litter, the stronger the number of small-weighted ones increases. The number of low-weight piglets is the smallest, when the number of newborns in the litter is 2-6 (3.7 ±2.08%), but significantly increases with the enlargement of the litter at 7-11 (13.3 ±1.17%) and 12-16 (18.0± 1.39%) piglets, and at 17-21 - they occupy more than a third of the litter (31.7± 7.27%).
... However, the introduction of prolific sows into the global swine industry presents a significant challenge with regard to the immune systems of both sows and piglets . Several factors, including nutrition, hormone levels and management practices, have an impact on the levels of immunoglobulins in colostrum (Foisnet et al. 2010;Quesnel et al. 2012). Oliviero et al. (2019) identified a positive relationship between the IgG concentration in colostrum within 0-3 h after the start of farrowing and the plasma concentration of insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) in prolific sows during the 3-9 days before farrowing. ...
... The escalating demand for prolific sow genetics has prompted the importation of new genetic strains, particularly from European countries, with Denmark emerging as a prominent source (Udomchanya et al. 2019; Thongkhuy et al. 2020). However, it is imperative to emphasize that piglets necessitate a minimum of 250 g of colostrum to mitigate pre-weaning mortality rates and ensure optimal daily weight gain before weaning (Quesnel et al. 2012). In our current study, the average colostrum yield from sows was documented at 5.5 kg, resulting in an average piglet colostrum intake of 335 g. ...
... As a result, within the contemporary swine industry, a substantial litter size could potentially hinder the establishment of passive immunity in piglets . The risk of inadequate colostrum intake in neonatal piglets also escalates with larger litters (Devillers et al. 2011;Quesnel et al. 2012;Juthamanee and Tummaruk 2021). Therefore, an in-depth exploration of factors linked to colostrum yield in sows within tropical environments is imperative to ensure the optimal transfer of passive immunity to newborn piglets. ...
The aim of this study was to explore the factors contributing to colostrum production and the levels of colostrum immunoglobulins (IgG and IgA) in contemporary highly productive sows within a tropical climate. We focused on variables such as parity number, litter size, sow body condition score (BCS), the timing of sample collection following the commencement of farrowing and the use of carbetocin during the birthing process. A total of 100 colostrum samples were collected from a group of 50 Danish Landrace × Yorkshire crossbred sows. These samples were taken at two distinct time intervals: right after farrowing (0 h) and 6 h later. The colostrum samples were classified according to the sows' parity numbers, with 33 samples originating from primiparous sows and 67 from multiparous ones. Additionally, the number of live-born piglets were categorized into three groups: 7–13, 14–17 and ≥ 18 piglets per litter. Moreover, the samples were categorized based on the use of carbetocin during the birthing process, with 34 sows experiencing natural farrowing and 66 sows receiving carbetocin. The sow's BCS was assessed through visual evaluation and palpation. The piglet colostrum consumption and the amount of colostrum produced by the sows were determined. The concentrations of IgG and IgA were determined by using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) technique. On average, the colostrum production averaged 5.5 ± 1.7 kg, with IgG and IgA concentrations averaging 54.9 ± 24.6 mg/ml and 7.6 ± 3.5 mg/ml, respectively. Primiparous sows exhibited a significant 25.2% decrease in IgG concentration within 6 h of parturition (P < 0.05), whereas no such decline was observed in multiparous sows. Furthermore, multiparous sows displayed higher colostrum yields (6.2 ± 1.5 kg and 4.3 ± 1.5 kg, respectively, P < 0.001) and IgA concentrations compared to primiparous sows (8.3 ± 3.8 mg/ml and 6.3 ± 2.6 mg/ml, respectively, P = 0.002). Furthermore, a positive correlation was observed between IgA concentrations in colostrum and the sow's BCS at both the 0-h and 6-h post-farrowing time points (r = 0.425, P = 0.002 and r = 0.315, P = 0.031, respectively). The administration of carbetocin did not yield a significant impact on the concentrations of IgG and IgA in the sows' colostrum (P > 0.05). In conclusion, during the initial 6 h after birth, colostrum IgA levels remained stable, whereas there was a noticeable decline in IgG levels, particularly among primiparous sows. The production volume of colostrum and the concentration of IgA in sows within tropical conditions were influenced by both parity number and body condition score.
... Inadequate colostrum consumption is a primary cause of piglet preweaning mortality [5,6], as colostrum is crucial for energy and immunity in newborn piglets [7]. Colostrum contains immunoglobulins vital for the immune system, growth, and weight gain of piglets [8,9]. ...
... The colostrum yield and colostrum IgG concentration in sows can exhibit significant variability among individual animals, as reported in previous studies [8,33]. In our current investi gation, the average colostrum yield from sows was 5.5±1.1 kg, and there were no discernible differences between the various groups. ...
... In our current investi gation, the average colostrum yield from sows was 5.5±1.1 kg, and there were no discernible differences between the various groups. This lack of distinction may be attributed to the fact that the colostrum yield at this particular farm is already con sidered quite satisfactory, as evidenced by previous research [8,34,35]. Consequently, it could be challenging to observe further improvements in colostrum yield in this context. It would be of particular interest to assess the treatment's effec tiveness in a farm characterized by a lower colostrum yield. ...
Objective:
This study evaluated the effect of A. paniculata supplementation in sow diet before and after farrowing on the sow and piglets' performances during early postpartum period and on sows' backfat and longissimus muscle losses during lactation.
Methods:
Seventy Landrace × Yorkshire sows and their offspring (1,186 piglets) were distributed into three groups: control (n=31), treatment-250 (n=18), and treatment-1000 (n=21). From 110.2±0.7 days of gestation until farrowing (5.8 days) and throughout the lactation period (25.2 days), sows in the control group were given the conventional lactation diet, while sows in the treatment-250 and treatment-1000 groups received supplements of 250 ppm and 1,000 ppm of A. paniculata, respectively.
Results:
In sows with parity 3-5, piglets from the treatment-1000 group had higher colostrum intake than the control and treatment-250 groups (p<0.05), but not in sows with parity 6-9. Colostrum IgG increased in treated sows versus controls for parity 6-9 (p<0.05), but was consistent for parity 3-5. Piglet performance until day 3 postnatal was similar across groups (p>0.05). Treatment-250 sows had higher feed intake post-farrowing than treatment-1000 sows (p<0.05). Longissimus loss was less in both treatment groups than control (p<0.05), but backfat loss was similar across groups (p>0.05). Post-partum complications were consistent across groups (p>0.05). Farrowing duration and piglet birth intervals in sows with parity 6-9 were prolonged in the treatment-1000 group.
Conclusion:
Supplementing with 1,000 ppm A. paniculata for 5.8 days pre-farrowing and 25.2 days post-farrowing enhanced sow colostrum IgG and piglet colostrum intake, while also reducing longissimus loss in sows. However, for sows of parity 6-9, this supplementation led to prolonged farrowing, increased intervals between piglet births, increased stillbirth, and reduced piglet birth weight. These effects should be considered when using A. paniculata supplementation.
... Decaluwé et al. [28] state that sow body condition has a direct influence on colostrum production (Table 3); however, these factors were not different between the evaluated groups (p > 0.05). Additionally, colostrum production, as well as its composition, are influenced by external factors such as environmental stress and by those inherent to the sow such as nutritional status [29], circulating hormones, immune status, characteristics of the litter itself, especially birth vitality [30], and total litter weight [31]. The interactions between these factors are complex and make it difficult to elucidate their respective influences on colostrogenesis. ...
... The greater colostrum production observed determined a higher intake of colostrum by piglets during the first 18 h of life (Table 3), which is a condition that has determining effects on their health [23,29,32,33]. In this perspective, piglets consuming 20% of their birth weight in colostrum are satisfactorily supplied with energy and nutrients to increase their body mass and maintain homeothermy [34]. ...
... Immunoglobulins in colostrum are derived from maternal blood, and their blood concentrations at the end of gestation explain 36% of the observed variability in colostrum concentrations at parturition [41]. This statement supports the predicted immunomodulatory action of βG-(1,3) [7,10,11,14], which was administered to the feed of sows starting at day 85 of gestation, and is in line with a large number of studies that regularly evaluate dietary supplementation with various ingredients (e.g., fish oil, fermented liquid feed, mannanoligosaccharides) that presumably have immunomodulatory effects on colostrum immunoglobulin content or piglet immune status [29,31,35,41,42]. ...
Simple Summary
Beta-glucan (βG) has been widely employed in animal diets, acting as a tool for intestinal health, improving immune status, and promoting enhanced performance. However, its origin can be from cereal grains, fungi, and algae, and in this context, its glycosidic linkages (1,3), (1,4), or (1,6) directly influence its functions in animal organisms. In general, it was observed that supplementing sow feed with 200 g of βG-(1,3) derived from the algae Euglena gracilis per ton, starting from the 85th day of gestation, resulted in enhancements in both colostrum production and the concentrations of immunoglobulins A, G, and M. This suggests a potential role as an immunomodulatory agent. This supplementation can become a tool to quantitatively and qualitatively enhance the colostrum provided to piglets.
Abstract
The effects of supplementing the diet of sows with βG-(1,3) derived from Euglena gracilis algae were assessed regarding quality and amount of colostrum as well as performance of piglets. A total of 120 sows (first (nulliparous) to sixth parity (multiparous)) from D85 of gestation until weaning were divided into two groups: the control diet group (n = 60) and the βG-(1,3) diet group (n = 60). Sows receiving βG-(1,3) exhibited an average increase of 870 g (24.9%) in colostrum production, leading to a 25.17% higher intake of colostrum by piglets. Furthermore, piglets in the βG-(1,3) group showed significantly superior weight gain of 34 g (50%) compared to the control group 18 h after birth (p < 0.05). Sows fed with βG-(1,3) produced colostrum with significantly higher concentrations of IgG (5.914 mg/mL, 16.16%) and IgM (0.378 mg/mL, 16.29%) than the control group (p < 0.05). Similarly, serum concentrations of IgG (13.86 mg/mL, 51.25%), IgA (17.16 mg/mL, 120.19%), and IgM (13.23 mg/mL, 144.78%) were significantly higher in sows fed with βG-(1,3) than in the control group (p < 0.05). Supplementing sows with βG-(1,3) derived from the Euglena gracilis algae resulted in increased colostrum production and consumption, along with greater weight gain in piglets during the first 18 h after birth. Additionally, both the colostrum produced by the sows and the blood serum of the piglets exhibited higher concentrations of immunoglobulins.
... Piglets with a low birth weight in large litters are at a greater risk of not obtaining at least 200-250 g of colostrum [49][50][51]. This amount is crucial for achieving adequate levels of immunoglobulins and promoting optimal growth [52], providing the energy necessary for thermoregulation, and stimulating intestinal growth and maturation [49]. ...
... Piglets with a low birth weight in large litters are at a greater risk of not obtaining at least 200-250 g of colostrum [49][50][51]. This amount is crucial for achieving adequate levels of immunoglobulins and promoting optimal growth [52], providing the energy necessary for thermoregulation, and stimulating intestinal growth and maturation [49]. Consequently, inadequate colostrum intake by newborn piglets is considered the major underlying cause of piglet deaths in the first 24 h after birth [49,53]. ...
... This amount is crucial for achieving adequate levels of immunoglobulins and promoting optimal growth [52], providing the energy necessary for thermoregulation, and stimulating intestinal growth and maturation [49]. Consequently, inadequate colostrum intake by newborn piglets is considered the major underlying cause of piglet deaths in the first 24 h after birth [49,53]. Incorporating a strategy that promotes the mammary glands' growth during both gestation and lactation is essential to enhance milk production [54]. ...
Simple Summary
Genetic advancements have increased litter size, resulting in lower birth weights due to intrauterine nutrient competition. Low-birthweight piglets have higher mortality rates and face growth and reproductive challenges. Birth weight and litter size uniformity are crucial factors in commercial swine production, as they affect postnatal growth and piglet survival. Prolonged farrowing duration, associated with large litter size, contributes to stillborn piglets. A recent study developed a feeding technology in the late gestation period in sows to improve reproductive performance, farrowing behavior, and piglets’ growth performance during the lactation period. The findings of this study provide valuable information for optimizing sow nutrition and improving swine production efficiency.
Abstract
The late gestation period is crucial for fetal growth and development, impacting swine enterprises’ profitability. Various nutritional strategies have been explored to enhance reproductive performance in sows, but findings regarding birth weight and litter size have been inconsistent. This study investigated the effects of increased feeding allowance during the late gestation period on the reproductive performance and farrowing behavior of primiparous and multiparous sows. A total of 28 sows (Landrace × Yorkshire) were used in this experiment, and fed 2.50 kg/d or 3.50 kg/d from 84 days of gestation until farrowing. Farrowing behavior was monitored using a DeepEyesTM M3SEN camera. The data were analyzed using the 2 × 2 factorial within Statistical Analysis System (SAS, 2011, Version 9.3) software. The results indicated that regardless of the parity number, sows fed a high diet exhibited a numerical increase in the total number of born piglets and a significant increase in milk yield (p = 0.014) and piglet birthweight (p = 0.023). Backfat thickness loss was significantly higher in sows with a 2.50 kg feeding allowance (p = 0.022), and the total number of piglets born, live births, and litter size were numerically higher in sows fed 3.50 kg per day. Moreover, stillborn piglets, mortality rate, and re-estrus days were numerically lower in sows with a high feeding allowance. The diet and parity did not individually affect the average duration of farrowing and farrowing intervals. However, the duration of postural changes in sows after farrowing was significantly reduced (p = 0.012). The principal component analysis revealed 81.40% and 80.70% differences upon partial least-squares discriminant analysis. Therefore, increasing feeding allowance during the late gestation period, regardless of parity, could positively influence sows’ reproductive performance and piglets’ growth performance during the lactation phase.
... Variation in colostrum intake between individual piglets is very high, with reported intakes ranging from almost none to around 600 g (Quesnel et al. 2012), which is similar to data from our own research (100-700 g per piglet, Trouw Nutrition data, unpublished). Given the importance of colostrum intake outlined above, it can be expected that the variation in colostrum intake is associated with differences in piglets in terms of neonatal viability and development. ...
... Interestingly, in terms of passive immunity in the form of IgG acquired from colostrum intake, there is a similar threshold of 200-250 g, above which plasma IgG at 24 h after birth plateaus. Piglets with higher colostrum intakes did not benefit in terms of their plasma IgG, and it was suggested that colostrum intake in excess of 250 g mainly occurs after gut closure (Quesnel et al. 2012). Most piglets consume two-thirds of their total colostrum intake within 12 h from birth. ...
This review discusses the biological significance of colostrum intake for neonatal development in pigs, and discusses the variation in colostrum intake in relation to piglet and sow factors. Lack of or insufficient colostrum intake reduces the odds of survival and compromises immunity, development of the gastrointestinal tract and other organs in neonate piglets. Colostrum intake is linearly related to pre‐weaning gain. It is estimated that 10%–30% of piglets consume insufficient colostrum (< 250 g). Colostrum intake is less in piglets from larger litters, in piglets born later in the birth order, in piglets with low birth weight, and in piglets mildly or severely affected by asphyxia. Colostrum yield by sows peaks between parity two and five and then declines again, and is probably related to mammary gland tissue mass and endocrine factors involved in colostrogenesis. Before farrowing, the decline in progesterone facilitates and the increase in prolactin initiates secretion of colostrum, and the changes in both these hormones are related to colostrum yield. Feeding level and fibre may accelerate the decline in progesterone and in that way increase colostrum yield. Earlier during the third trimester of pregnancy, proper management of energy intake and sow body condition is important to optimise mammary gland development. Specific amino acids may be involved in mammary gland development, potentially through IGF‐1.
... Specifically, sows that produce larger and more consistent litters are linked to increased piglet output per sow annually (Da Silva et al., 2016) [15] . Moreover, uniform litters are correlated with reduced mortality rates before weaning (Quesnel et al., 2012) [65] and enhanced growth rates after weaning. Nonetheless, these reproductive traits are not highly heritable and are influenced by a myriad of genetic and environmental elements (Quesnel et al., 2014) [66] . ...
... Specifically, sows that produce larger and more consistent litters are linked to increased piglet output per sow annually (Da Silva et al., 2016) [15] . Moreover, uniform litters are correlated with reduced mortality rates before weaning (Quesnel et al., 2012) [65] and enhanced growth rates after weaning. Nonetheless, these reproductive traits are not highly heritable and are influenced by a myriad of genetic and environmental elements (Quesnel et al., 2014) [66] . ...
Producers are encouraged to optimize the reproductive capacity of sows throughout their lifespan to
mitigate production costs and enhance economic efficiency within commercial breeding herds. Due to
their early maturity, shorter generation intervals, high fecundity, superior feed conversion efficiency, and
nutritional value, pigs are well-suited for intensive farming with minimal maintenance. While pig
farming is often regarded as a highly profitable livestock enterprise, it faces numerous productivity
challenges. These include issues such as suboptimal reproductive performance, susceptibility to diseases
and parasites, and the high costs associated with animal feeds and veterinary drugs. Given that the
primary factors contributing to profitability in pig farming are largely related to reproduction, including
high prolificacy and a short generation interval, addressing concerns over poor reproductive performance
becomes crucial. Various factors serve as key indicators of the reproductive performance of selected
animals within a breeding herd. These indicators can be broadly categorized as sow-level and litter-level
factors, aiding in the prediction of an animal's future performance in their herd. Given that reproductive
traits have low heritability, retaining animals with subpar performance can burden farmers, diminishing
economic viability and overall profitability of the farm. Therefore, the meticulous evaluation and
selection of animals within breeding herds are crucial, complemented by effective management practices.
... To ensure postnatal survival, piglets must perform crucial landmark behaviors, such as moving to the udder and suckling colostrum. Several studies have proposed that piglets must ingest at least 200 mL of colostrum [5,[48][49][50]. Colostrum provides more than just energy; it also plays a critical role in piglet immunological defense by supplying immunoglobulins [51][52][53]. ...
... Colostrum provides more than just energy; it also plays a critical role in piglet immunological defense by supplying immunoglobulins [51][52][53]. Additionally, colostrum supports the maturation of the gut, which is crucial in the first few hours after birth [29,50]. Our findings indicate that NBW piglets move to the udder, find a functional teat, and start suckling quickly after birth. ...
Simple Summary
Our study examined the challenges newborn piglets face, comparing those born with growth restriction, those born with low body weight, and those of normal body weight. We aim to understand if their start in life is related to their physical characteristics and whether this affects their chances of survival. We categorized newborn piglets based on their size and physical characteristics immediately after birth. Over three hours, we assigned vitality scores, measured body temperature, and described behaviors such as seeking sow’s milk. We found that piglets with growth restrictions had more difficulty keeping warm and feeding than their counterparts with a low and normal body weight at birth. Consequently, they faced a higher mortality rate within the first 24 h after birth. This suggests they need special care to improve their survival and health. Our research highlights the importance of recognizing and addressing the needs of specifically intra-uterine growth-restricted piglets early on to improve the welfare of these growth-restricted piglets.
Abstract
This observational study explored the early-life challenges of intra-uterine growth restricted (IUGR), low birth body weight (LBW), and normal birth body weight (NBW) piglets. The aim was to understand the impact of birth weight and intra-uterine growth restriction phenotype on neonatal survival and behavior. Based on weight and phenotype, piglets were classified as IUGR (n = 32), LBW (n = 34), and NBW (n = 29) immediately after birth. The piglets were litter- and sex-matched. Vitality scores were assigned based on motor activity and breathing and complemented with an assessment of umbilical cord condition, rectal temperature, crown–rump length (CRL), time to reach the udder, time to suckle, colostrum intake, and weight gain over 24 h. Beyond the lower birth weight, reduced CRL, and higher mortality rate, IUGR piglets faced several other challenges compared with LBW and NBW piglets. Growth-impaired piglets often struggled to engage in early feeding behaviors and displayed consistently lower rectal temperatures at 1, 3 and 24 h after birth. IUGR piglets showed inadequate colostrum intake and weight loss, which were also observed for LBW counterparts. In contrast, no significant differences were observed in vitality scores and umbilical cord conditions across the groups. In conclusion, our findings underscore the impact of intra-uterine growth restriction on neonatal piglets, emphasizing the need for specialized care strategies to improve survival and health outcomes in IUGR.
... Durante a lactogênese, a produção de leite se torna independente do fornecimento de nutrientes, mobilizando as reservas corporais para essa produção, sendo o balanço energético negativo [7]. O tecido mamário, para a produção de leite, é preparado 90 dias aproximadamente antes do parto, sendo, assim, a primeira fase da lactogênese e a segunda a partir do parto, pois é nesse momento que ocorre a síntese dos nutrientes no processo de produção de leite [8]. ...
... As fêmeas suínas lactantes possuem seus aminoácidos limitantes, destacando-se a lisina, que contribui na resposta reprodutiva nos partos subsequentes [5,14]. Aminoácidos insuficientes na ração levam a matriz à mobilização de tecido muscular do corpo, refletindo em falhas reprodutivas [8]. ...
Nos últimos anos, os estudos vêm se aprofundando em medidas estratégicas para o consumo de ração e o valor nutricional em animais de produção, aprimorando, assim, os índices zootécnicos. As fêmeas suínas, em sua fase de lactação, possuem grandes demandas em suas exigências nutricionais, onde o consumo de ração deve ser adequado para favorecer a mantença e produção de leite. A redução no consumo resulta em mobilização de reservas corporais, levando a falhas reprodutivas, condição corporal inadequada, tempo de vida útil reduzido das fêmeas, principalmente quando expostas a temperaturas ambientais elevadas. Tais fatores também contribuem negativamente na leitegada, prejudicando seu desempenho durante a lactação e no desmame. A estratégia da inclusão de lipídios nas dietas de fêmeas lactantes com o intuito de concentrar energeticamente a ração é uma alternativa para atender às demandas nessa fase. O presente trabalho trata-se de uma revisão bibliográfica visando qualificar o desempenho reprodutivo e produtivo com inclusão de óleo de pescados em dietas de fêmeas suínas lactantes. Os autores afirmaram que o uso de óleo de pescados como fonte alternativa foi benéfico para performance produtiva e reprodutiva das fêmeas suínas em lactação, apresentando, principalmente, leitegada com baixo índice de mortalidade e melhoria no desempenho reprodutivo.
... In consequence, detecting possible disorders can be delayed. For example, inadequate colostrum intake is one of the significant reasons for neonatal piglets' mortality and may negatively influence piglets' weight gain [2,3]. ...
... Therefore, we hypothesised that the PF can be successfully employed for more diagnostics purposes, such as early assessment of porcine neonates' immunological status. Due to the epitheliochorial structure of the porcine placenta, the colostrum represents the sole source of passive immunity for piglets; the concentration of IgG in the piglets' plasma at the age of 24 h is strongly correlated with colostrum intake [2]. Ig are crucial in conferring protection to piglets by the time they develop their immunity, so from an immunological point of view, they are the essential component of porcine colostrum. ...
Background
Blood sampling from neonatal piglets is related to multiple disadvantages. Therefore, a new, alternative matrix is required to assess piglets’ early immune status efficiently. The present study aimed to assess the usefulness of processing fluid for determining selected piglets’ immune parameters. 264 pigs − 31 sows, 146 male piglets, and 87 female piglets from commercial indoor farrow-to-finish pig herd were included in this study. 264 serum, 31 colostrum, and 146 processing fluid samples were collected. Serum was collected from all animals, colostrum was collected from sows, and processing fluid was collected from male piglets only. Using commercial ELISA tests, the concentration of various immunoglobulins, cytokines, and acute phase proteins was assessed in each matrix. Statistical analyses were employed to determine differences in the concentration of measured indices between piglets’ serum and processing fluid and correlations in the concentration of tested indices between particular sets of matrices.
Results
Statistical analyses did not reveal significant differences in the IgG, IgA, IL-1β, IL-4, IL-6, and IFN-γ concentration between piglets’ serum and processing fluid (p > 0.05). A positive correlation (p < 0.05) regarding the concentration of some indices between processing fluid and samples collected from sows was also observed.
Conclusions
Processing fluid can be considered a promising alternative to blood for assessing some immunological indices in piglets, such as IgG, IgA, IL-1β, IL-4, IL-6, and IFN-γ, and, possibly, in the indirect assessment of some indices in lactating sows, including IgA, IL-1β, IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, IFN-γ, or Pig-MAP.
... Colostrum intake is the most important factor in piglet survival, providing energy and immune protection, and has potential long-term effects on piglet growth and immunity [58]. According to the latest research, 200 g of colostrum per piglet in the first 24 h after birth was considered the minimum to significantly reduce mortality before weaning, to ensure passive immunity and to allow for weight gain [59]. To achieve good health and growth before and after weaning, a consumption of 250 g is recommended [59]. ...
... According to the latest research, 200 g of colostrum per piglet in the first 24 h after birth was considered the minimum to significantly reduce mortality before weaning, to ensure passive immunity and to allow for weight gain [59]. To achieve good health and growth before and after weaning, a consumption of 250 g is recommended [59]. A total of 11.3% of the control group and 8.87% of the experimental group of suckling piglets consumed less than 200 g of colostrum, while 70.3% of the control group and 75.6% of the experimental group of suckling piglets had an estimated colostrum intake of more than 250 g of colostrum. ...
Simple Summary
The use of by-products such as rye bran in sow diets is interesting in terms of functional ingredients, cost, and sustainability. Rye bran has many positive properties for the intestinal health of sows, so its use in their diet is appropriate. In this study, the effects of rye bran in a compound feed for lactating sows were investigated with regard to performance in terms of loss of body weight and backfat thickness in the sow as well as weight gains in piglets. There was no significant effect of rye bran on the performance of sows concerning the above parameters. The daily weight gains of the piglets also showed no differences.
Abstract
From a cost and sustainability perspective, the use of by-products such as rye bran in sow diets is of particular interest. Rye bran has valuable ingredients that have potential benefits for the gut health of sows. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of including 15% rye bran in the sows’ feed on the performance of sows and piglets. The feeding started one week before the farrowing date and ended at weaning. Performance was evaluated by measuring sow (n = 175) and piglet body weight (n = 1372) and sows’ backfat thickness (n = 80). These data were additionally used to calculate the colostrum intake of the suckling piglets and the sows’ milk production. It was found that there were no differences in the performance parameters between the experimental and control groups. However, this study showed that the piglets with light birth weight (LBW (<1000 g)) and medium birth weight (MBW (1000–1500 g) consumed more colostrum when the sows were fed rye bran (LBW: C/R 203.0 ± 39.2 g/214.3 ± 35.9 g; MBW: 291.3 ± 39.0 g/298.5 ± 36.4 g). It can be concluded that including 15% rye bran in the feed of lactating sows has no obvious negative effects on the performance of sows and piglets. Further studies are needed to evaluate the possible positive effects of rye bran.
... The piglets' intake of colostrum is significantly influenced by the sow's ability to produce sufficient colostrum (Quesnel et al., 2012). The current research illustrated that by increasing colostrum yield by 0.5 kg, the average intake of colostrum by piglets in the treatment 2 group exceeded that of both the control and treatment 1 groups by 40 g. ...
... In litters with high BA, piglets with lower birth weight may receive less colostrum due to competition with their littermates for limited colostrum resources. This finding aligns with Quesnel et al. (2012), who reported that piglets in larger litters have a lower chance of consuming enough colostrum, especially if they have a low birth weight. In the present study, there were no significant differences in colostrum IgG levels and the Brix index among the BA groups, suggesting that BA did not have an impact on these parameters. ...
... It would be worth adding that, according to the findings of other authors, caffeine treatment cannot replace colostrum intake, as colostrum is a valuable energy resource that is essential to thermoregulate, increase vitality, and obtain the therapeutic effect of caffeine [57]. Moreover, apart from colostrum and caffeine dose, birthweight highly influences the effect that this drug has on newborn piglets [27]. ...
... OCU reflects the sympathetic influence on the surface temperature because it is a region where blood supply from the infra-orbital artery is mediated by sympathetic fibers from the facial nerve. Therefore, the change in the thermal response could be an indirect way to assess sympathetic activation [20,57], as shown in bovines [64] and canids [65]. On the other hand, NOSE temperature is related to the respiratory activity of piglets, keeping a positive correlation with respiratory rate and heat loss-or the amount of heat radiated through this thermal window [66,67]. ...
Simple Summary
Intrapartum mortality reaches high figures in piglets, and it has been seen that those born with low weight and those with low or failed vitality scores are the most prone. Caffeine is used to reduce cardiorespiratory problems in neonates, both humans and animals. For this reason, the decision was made to use different doses of caffeine in newborn piglets in this study, to define if its oral administration would help reduce this problem and what would be the optimal dose and time of administration. The following blood gas parameters were evaluated: pH, pO2, pCO2, HCO3, Ca++, glucose, and lactate, as well as superficial and rectal temperature at 1 h, 6 h, and 24 h after birth. It was concluded that the optimal dose of caffeine to improve the vitality score and reduce possible cardiorespiratory problems is 30 mg/kg orally.
Abstract
Intrapartum asphyxia, fetal hypoxia, and their consequences (e.g., acidosis, hypercapnia, hypoglycemia, and hypothermia) are the main factors related to physio-metabolic imbalances that increase neonatal mortality in piglets, particularly in piglets with low birthweight and low vitality scores. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of three different doses of caffeine (10, 20, and 30 mg/kg) administered orally to 480 newborn piglets with low birthweight and low vitality scores. Blood gas parameters (pH, pO2, pCO2, and HCO3⁻), physio-metabolic profile (Ca⁺⁺, glucose, and lactate), and the thermal response assessed through infrared thermography in four thermal windows (ocular, auricular, snout, and hindlimb) and rectal temperature were evaluated during the first 24 h of life. Doses of 30 mg/kg resulted in significant differences at 24 h for all evaluated parameters, suggesting that caffeine administration improved the cardiorespiratory function and metabolic activity of piglets by reducing acidosis, restoring glycemia, and increasing surface and rectal temperature. In conclusion, caffeine at 30 mg/kg could be suggested as an appropriate dose to use in piglets with low birthweight and low vitality scores. Future research might need to study the presentation of adverse effects due to higher caffeine concentrations.
... The gilts generate less colostrum than multiparous sows, and as a result, their litters can require more care than those of older sows (Kirkwood et al., 2021). The amount of colostrum produced by a herd can range anywhere from 1.5 to 6 kg, and it is predicted that one-third of sows may not produce enough colostrum to meet the minimum 250g required for each piglet to have the best chance of survival (Quesnel et al., 2012). As was indicated earlier, increasing the feed allowance, or even feeding sows ad libitum during the transition phase can help improve colostrum production (Kirkwood et al., 2021). ...
... In get-away pens, for instance, a stronger or faster reactivity of sows towards squealing piglets was seen than in single-or crate-housed sows, resulting in decreased piglet crushing losses and total piglet losses in get-away pens (Grimberg-Henrici et al., 2016). However, a number of research on the incidence of piglet crushing and the behavior of sows and piglets in systems without crates have been documented (Quesnel et al., 2012;Zhang et al., 2021). In addition, sows in loose-farrowing pens terminated more nursing episodes and nursed for a shorter duration than sows in farrowing crates, according to Wiechers et al. (2022). ...
In an effort to increase profitability, sows have been systematically selected for higher litter sizes. That may have led to an increase in pre-weaning mortality. To improve new-born survival, sows should be taken cared of stringently, especially the housing system and the sows’ nutritional management in both the gestation and the farrowing houses. Additionally, the sows’ reluctance to drink water after giving birth and the sow induction at the farrowing house can negatively affect both the new-born piglets and farrowed sows. Also inevitable is the extended farrowing duration associated with exceptionally large litters. Therefore, assistance during farrowing time is essential. The importance of colostrum intake should also be emphasized and that piglets should be fostered, if needed, to ensure that they have teats to suckle on. Moreover, milk replacer and creep feeding are also helpful options to aid in piglet’s nutrition requirement. Last but not least, farm caretakers who look after the piglets should be well-trained. This study looked into some strategies to improve piglet survivability by pointing out details in the routine activities at the farm
... According to a previous study, serum IgG levels in piglets at 24 h are directly correlated with colostrum intake [19]. A higher immunocrit ratio in the group of piglets with a higher colostrum intake might be related to a higher Ig concentration in colostrum and is therefore linked to a higher body weight [39]. Similarly, in studies by Peters et al. [21] and Vande Pol et al. [40], who reported a tendency for serum immunocrit ratios to increase with newborn piglets body weight, the highest immunocrit ratios were obtained in newborn piglets with higher body weights. ...
... Similarly, in studies by Peters et al. [21] and Vande Pol et al. [40], who reported a tendency for serum immunocrit ratios to increase with newborn piglets body weight, the highest immunocrit ratios were obtained in newborn piglets with higher body weights. This suggests that heavier newborn piglets consume proportionally more colostrum than lighter littermates [39]. Moreover, heavier newborn piglets were more competitive at feeding time when compared to lighter piglets from the same litter [37]. ...
A sustainable increase in livestock productivity cannot be achieved without the use of sustainable animal feed. Due to the growing awareness of the long-term benefits of sustainability, there is an increasing interest in replacing traditional feed resources with the most sustainable feedstuffs in pig production. Rye production is relatively sustainable compared to wheat. This farm study investigated whether the newborn body weight as well as antibody transfer in piglets (serum immunoglobulin immunocrit) are affected by feeding rye instead of wheat grain to transition sows. A total of 237 sows and their piglets (n = 711) from three farms located in northern Germany participated in this study. During the transition period, the sows were fed either a wheat-based diet used as the control diet (CON) or a 30% rye diet (RYE) for 7 days before the calculated farrowing date. On the day of farrowing, piglet body weights within 24 h post-natal (PN) were recorded, and blood samples were taken from the lightest, medium, and heaviest piglets in each litter to determine the quantification of immunoglobulins in the piglets. Feeding rye-based diets to the sows showed no differences in the body weight of the newborns (within 24 h) compared to the CON group in all body weight categories, except on Farm C in light and medium piglets, where high BW were observed in the CON group. The immunocrit ratio did not show any differences between both feeding groups. A relationship between newborn body weight and immunocrit ratios in the CON and the RYE groups was observed only on farm A. Overall, this study showed that including amounts of rye up to 30% in sows’ diets during the transition period had no negative effects on newborn piglet body weight or on antibody transfer and therefore can be considered an adequate replacement for wheat (up to 30%) in diets for transition sows. However, future research is needed to determine whether a higher proportion of rye may be used.
... Regression analysis showed a positive linear relationship between IgG concentrations measured by two different methods (Figure 4). The determination of IgG concentration in colostrum is crucial for the assessment of colostrum quality and important in terms of the impact on pig production due to piglet survival [60]. Several authors have used the Brix refractometer as an effective tool for estimating the immunoglobulin G (IgG) concentration in the colostrum and compared its accuracy with traditional methods such as radial immunodiffusion (RID) [20,61], the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) [22,30,62], the colostrometer [63] and infrared (IR) spectroscopy [64]. ...
The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of genotype (GT) and seasonality (NP) on the quality parameters of sow colostrum and evaluate the efficiency of the radial immunodiffusion (RID) analysis and the Brix refractometer in determining the IgG concentration. This study was conducted on 240 sows that originated from two genotypes, namely GT1 (TOPIGS, n = 120) and GT2 (Pig Improvement Company, n = 120), during the three farrowing periods: the winter farrowing period (WNP, n = 80), the summer farrowing period (SMP, n = 80) and the spring farrowing period (SSP, n = 80). The significant interaction effect was observed for protein (p < 0.0001), lactose (p < 0.05) and non-fat solids (SNT) (p < 0.001). At the same time, the interaction effect influenced the IgG concentration measured with the Brix refractometer (p < 0.0001) and RID (p < 0.0001). Pearson's correlation coefficient showed that Brix percentage was positively correlated with RID results (r = 0.52, p < 0.0001), while the Bland-Altman plots indicated a mean bias of −1.93. Partial eta-squared analysis (η 2) showed that the genotype explained the largest proportion of variance in fat content (η 2 = 0.136) and IgG concentration (η 2 = 0.164), while interaction effects were largest for protein (η 2 = 0.072). The results of this study show that genotype and seasonality influence sow colostrum quality, which indicates the importance of genotype−seasonality interactions in breeding programs for optimizing the colostrum quality and piglet survival.
... Similarly, maternal supplementation with plant-derived bioactive components like Lonicera flos and Sucutellaria baicalensis has been found to improve milk composition [26]. As the sole nutrient source, colostrum and milk intake are vital for piglet growth and development [27,28]. Milk fat provides energy for thermoregulation and body growth in newborn piglets [29], while milk immunoglobulins help develop passive immunity [30]. ...
Background
Maternal nutrition significantly influences offspring development. This study investigated the effects of maternal or post-weaning cinnamaldehyde (CA) supplementation in sows and their offspring on reproductive performance and health. Sixty sows, selected based on body condition score and parity, were randomly allocated to control or CA (500 mg/kg) diets from d 107 of gestation to d 24 of lactation. At weaning, 128 piglets were assigned to four groups ( n = 8) based on weight and source litter for a 21-d experiment. The four groups were CON-CON (both sow and piglet on CON), CON-CA (sow on CON, piglet on CA), CA-CON (sow on CA, piglet on CON), and CA-CA (both sow and piglet on CA).
Results
Maternal CA supplementation tended to improve body weight (+ 15%, P = 0.09) and average daily gain (+ 21%, P = 0.07) of suckling piglets, along with increased levels of milk IgG ( P = 0.01) and IgM ( P = 0.02), colostrum crude fat ( P = 0.01), and plasma glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) activity ( P = 0.02) at farrowing. Moreover, maternal CA supplementation significantly improved plasma antioxidant capacity, expressions of intestinal barrier and anti-inflammatory genes, and gut microbiota structure of piglets at the end of suckling. Additionally, maternal CA supplementation increased the apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of crude protein ( P < 0.01), gross energy (GE; P = 0.03), and dry matter ( P = 0.01), improved jejunal sucrase activity ( P < 0.01), villus height ( P = 0.03), the ratio of villi height to crypt depth ( P = 0.02), and the expressions of intestinal barrier and anti-inflammatory genes in post-weaning piglets. Furthermore, post-weaning CA supplementation tended to decrease diarrhea scores of piglets during d 14–21 and increased the ATTD of GE ( P = 0.02), activities of jejunal sucrase ( P = 0.02), plasma catalase ( P = 0.01), and total superoxide dismutase ( P < 0.01) in piglets.
Conclusion
Maternal CA supplementation tended to increase the growth rate and weaning weight of suckling piglets, associated with improved antioxidant capacity and milk composition. Moreover, maternal CA supplementation or post-weaning CA supplementation improved nutrient digestibility, redox status, and intestinal function-related parameters of weaned piglets.
... Piglets were subjected to assisted colostrum intake, similar to previous studies [48,49]. Each piglet was monitored to ensure it successfully reached a teat and consumed colostrum immediately after birth. ...
Clostridioides difficile is an anaerobic bacterium that causes disease in both animals and humans. Despite the known significance of this agent, there are no commercial vaccines available for humans, and only one immunogen is marketed for swine. However, no studies have evaluated this vaccine. Background/Objectives: Therefore, the aim of this study was to assess the potency of the first commercial vaccine for C. difficile infection in piglets and to compare the humoral response in rabbits and sows. Methods: Pregnant sows were divided into two groups: a vaccinated group (n = 12), receiving two doses before farrowing, according to the manufacturer’s recommendation, and an unvaccinated control group (n = 6). Blood samples were taken from sows and also from piglets up to two days after birth. In addition, two groups of New Zealand rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) received either a half-dose (G1) or a full-dose (G2) of the vaccine, with a control group receiving sterile saline (0.85%). Rabbits were vaccinated twice, 21 days apart, with blood samples collected before each dose and 14 days after the final dose. A serum neutralization assay in Vero cells was performed to evaluate the titers of neutralizing antibodies. Results: The vaccine demonstrated immunogenicity by stimulating the production of neutralizing antibodies in both rabbits and sows. Additionally, these antibodies were passively transferred to piglets through colostrum, reaching levels comparable to those found in sows. Furthermore, vaccinated rabbits developed antibody titers that do not significantly differ from those obtained in sows and piglets. Conclusions: The tested vaccine can induce a humoral immune response against C. difficile A/B toxins in sows and these antibodies are passively transferred to neonatal piglets through colostrum. Also, the vaccination of rabbits might be a useful alternative for evaluating the potency of vaccines against C. difficile.
... Sows have been selected for larger litter sizes, but their nursing capacity has not kept pace (1,2), resulting in more piglets than they can care for, which lowers weaning weights and increases mortality (3,4). Providing milk replacer (MR) to neonatal piglets is a strategy to ensure adequate nutrition intake and piglets growth (5). It has been found that piglets fed MR had higher weaning weights than those fed sow milk (SM), with this weight advantage being maintained throughout the nursery period (6). ...
Along with the increasing litter sizes in pig industry, using milk replacer (MR) as a nutrient supplement has been widely practiced, yet the effects of replacing sow milk (SM) with MR on growth and development of piglets remain unclear. This study evaluated the differential effects of MR versus SM on growth performance, body composition, muscle fiber types, and intestinal health of piglets during the neonatal and nursery periods. Forty 2-day-old piglets, selected from 10 healthy sows, were randomly divided into two groups receiving either SM or MR ad libitum until postnatal day 23 (PND 23), then transitioned to be fed with nursery diet until PND 37. Blood, muscle, and intestinal tissues, along with colonic digesta and carcass samples, were collected on PND 12 (n = 10) and PND 37 (n = 10) for analysis of parameters related to intestinal function, microbiota composition and muscular development. The results showed that MR-fed piglets had lower average daily gain (ADG) and higher diarrhea index during the neonatal period. During the nursery period, however, MR-fed piglets had significantly higher average daily feed intake (ADFI) and ADG. Compared to SM-fed piglets, MR-fed piglets had a lower percentage of fast twitch fibers, but a higher percentage of slow twitch fibers on PND 12, along with lower body fat content on both PND 12 and PND 37. In addition, MR-fed piglets had significantly deeper crypt depth, increased mRNA expressions of inflammatory genes, and lower alpha diversity on PND 12. On PND 37, however, MR-fed piglets had higher villus height, increased sucrase activity and alpha diversity. On PND 12, likewise, MR-fed piglets were enriched with Prevotella associated with diarrhea, while SM-fed piglets were enriched with Lachnospiraceae associated with body fat deposition. In contrast, on PND 37, MR-fed piglets were enriched with commonly recognized beneficial bacteria, such as f_Muribaculaceae, g_Prevotellaceae_NK3B31_group, f_Oscillospiraceae and f_Rikenellaceae. These findings indicate that piglets fed MR experienced temporary growth check and intestinal complications in neonatal period, but intriguingly MR piglets had higher feed intake, compensatory growth, and recovery of intestinal function during the nursery period.
... Constituent elements like lactose begin to form approximately 4 days before farrowing (Hartmann et al., 1984). Colostrum secretion is constant during the first 2-4 h after the onset of farrowing, but decreases in frequency until 12-36 h postpartum (Fraser and Rushen, 1992;Quesnel et al., 2012) as production transits toward normal milk (Theil et al., 2014). Ferrari et al. (2014) explored the factors that influence colostrum production by sows and intake by piglets and evaluated colostrum quality in PS and MS (parities 2-6) and the effect of colostrum ingestion on the performance of their piglets. ...
Several authors have noted that a sow’s parity has a significant impact not only on her own productivity but also on the performance of her piglets. Analyzing all the factors related to sows and their neonates at each birth event is an effective tool for improving management and reproductive performance on production units. Multiparous sows exhibit cortisol levels up to 38% higher than those of primiparous sows at peripartum, but the latter have prolactin levels 54-70% lower that reduce colostrum production. In addition, the weaning-to-estrous period is 3 days longer in primiparous sows, and their farrowing intervals up to 8 days longer. Farrowing performance is significantly affected, as litter size tends to increase in multiparous sows, thus extending duration. Piglets are also influenced by parity: those born to multiparous sows have higher weights, up to 2.21 kg more in total litter weight (up to 200 g/piglet). Their thermoregulation capacity is better as they show temperatures up to 1.6ºC higher, greater overall vitality, and higher growth rates than the neonates of primiparous sows, which also suffer higher mortality rates. Given the obvious performance differences among sows of different parity and their offspring, swine breeders must determine the precise effects of this factor. This review details the key differences related to parity in the events surrounding farrowing in sows and the early lives of their offspring.
... Different handling strategies such as early management intervention of piglets and the promotion of colostrum intake has proven effective during the first days of life with the purpose of ameliorating piglet survival and further development [7][8][9]. Romero et al. [10,11] recently reported long-term effects of neonatal care and split suckling provided immediately after birth with consequences on carcass and meat quality characteristics. Furthermore, different responses to neonatal treatments according to birth weight (BW) were observed. ...
Fifty-eight litters (16 from primiparous gilts and 42 from multiparous sows) were used, with a total number of 750 piglets involved in the study. Birth weight was stratified into three groups: low (<1.02 kg; LBW), normal (1.02–1.62 kg; NBW), and high (>1.62 kg; HBW). A creep feeding diet was offered to piglets in a creep feeder in 29 litters from day 7 until their weaning. Piglet mortality was recorded daily. Traceability was ensured up to the point of carcass splitting and subsequent meat analysis. Each carcass was eviscerated and weighed individually. Sixty-nine piglets were selected for the microbiome analysis (35 from the control group and 34 from the creep feeding group). Feces samples from the rectum were obtained at three time points (three days prior weaning, a week after weaning, and before the slaughtering of the pigs). Mortality during lactation was influenced by birth weight, with LBW piglets exhibiting a six-fold higher mortality rate than HBW. Creep feeding did not impact piglet mortality. Heavier piglets demonstrated greater weight gain when subjected to creep feeding, while the growth potential of lighter piglets was reduced. Variation in creep feeding consumption based on birth weight also affected microbiome composition, with high-birth-weight piglets displaying higher alpha diversity than low- and normal-birth-weight piglets seven days after lactation. Alpha diversity is indicative of gut health, with higher values suggesting greater stability and adaptability to different feed sources. In conclusion, the immediate impacts of creep feeding appear to be most prominent during lactation and potentially early postweaning. These short-term effects are modulated by birth weight, with HBW piglets demonstrating the greatest benefits from the implementation of creep-feeding practices.
... After being exposed to the external environment and pathogens, it is essential for piglets to consume colostrum at the appropriate time in order to get adequate nutrients and passive immunoglobulins from the sow (Le Dividich et al., 2005). Colostrum contains more immunoglobulins (Ig) and carries less amount of lactose and lipids than milk (Quesnel et al., 2012). IgG is a common antibody present in blood circulation which play an important role in immune system of animal. ...
... For example, in a previous report, a mean concentration of IgG of 24.4 mg/mL was found in colostrum whereas concentrations of IgG in milk were 1.77 mg/mL [2,3]. IgG intake during the first few hours is essential for the growth and survival of piglets, as they are born agammaglobulinemic due to epitheliochorial placentation in pigs, while immunoglobulin A (IgA) is required throughout lactation to regulate the piglet intestinal microbiome, which is essential for proper digestive function [4,5]. ...
Simple Summary
The colostrum and milk of sows may contain substances that could be used to evaluate immunity and welfare in pigs. This study aimed to quantify in these fluids four analytes associated with immunity: total adenosine deaminase (tADA) and its isoenzymes, myeloperoxidase (Mpx), calprotectin (S100A8/A9) and calgranulin (S100A12) and two analytes which are linked to welfare: alpha-amylase and cortisol. In addition, it aimed to evaluate how these analytes change during lactation and how they relate to each other and to immunoglobulin G (IgG) and immunoglobulin A (IgA). All the assays tested were able to quantify the analytes in a precise and accurate way. In addition, the analytes showed different dynamics through lactation, with adenosine deaminase being more concentrated in colostrum than in milk, while myeloperoxidase was more active in mature milk than in colostrum. Alpha-amylase was correlated with both IgG and IgA and S100A8/A9 was correlated with S100A12 and Mpx. Overall, the immune system and welfare analytes of this study can be measured in sow colostrum and milk samples and could have a potential use as biomarkers in these fluids.
Abstract
Colostrum is a mammary secretion released from the time of farrowing to 36 h post-farrowing. After this time and during all the rest of lactation, the mammary secretion is considered milk. The objectives of this study were: (1) to perform an analytical validation in the colostrum and milk of sows of assays for four analytes related to immunity: total ADA (tADA) and its isoenzymes (ADA1 and ADA2), myeloperoxidase (Mpx), calprotectin, and calgranulin, and two analytes related to welfare: cortisol and alpha-amylase. (2) To evaluate the changes in these analytes during lactation (3) To assess the correlations between these new analytes, as well as with IgG and IgA. In the analytical validation, all the assays were precise and accurate. When changes during lactation were evaluated, the concentration of tADA and ADA2 was found to be higher in colostrum than in milk (p < 0.02), while the activity of Mpx was observed to be higher in mature milk than in colostrum (p < 0.03). Furthermore, cortisol and alpha-amylase activity were found to be higher in colostrum compared to mature milk (p < 0.04 and p < 0.0001, respectively). Regarding the relation between analytes, alpha-amylase showed a significant correlation with both IgG and IgA and calprotectin was correlated with calgranulin and Mpx. Further studies should be performed to elucidate the possible practical application of the analytes evaluated in this study as biomarkers of colostrum and milk in sows.
... Second, the transfer of Se through colostrum resulted in increased Se delivery to the offspring. Quesnel et al [40] reported that the minimum colostrum intake for newborn piglets is 250 grams. Based on Se content in the colostrum per piglet, the Se intake for each treatment group can be calculated as follows: Control group, 0.032 mg; ISOS30 group, 0.042 mg; ISOS50 group, 0.065 mg. ...
Objective: This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of organic and inorganic selenium mixes in pregnant sows on piglet growth, selenium levels in serum and milk, and selenium deposition in newborn piglet tissues.Methods: A total of 44 multiparous sows (Yorkshire×Landrace) with average body weight (BW), backfat thickness, and parity were assigned to one of the three treatments with 14 or 15 sows per treatment in a completely randomized design. The treatments were as follows: i) Control, corn-soybean meal-based diet with no addition of selenium premix; ii) ISOS (mixed inorganic selenium and organic selenium) 30, a basal diet supplemented with 0.15 ppm of inorganic Se and 0.15 ppm of organic Se; iii) ISOS50, a basal diet supplemented with 0.25 ppm of inorganic Se and 0.25 ppm of organic Se.Results: At day 21 of lactation, supplementing a high level of mixed Se at 0.50 ppm resulted in higher piglet BW and weight gain than adding a low level of mixed Se at 0.30 ppm (p<0.05). Selenium concentration of colostrum in sows fed ISOS50 diet was significantly higher than those in sows fed ISOS30 diet (p<0.05). Selenium concentrations in the serum at days 90 and 110 of gestation and 24 hours postpartum were highest when sows were fed ISOS50 diet (p<0.05). Additionally, increasing levels of mixed Se led to an increase in piglet serum Se concentration at 24 hours postpartum (p<0.05). Before ingesting colostrum, piglets from sows fed a mixed selenium (Se) diet had significantly higher kidney Se concentrations compared to those from the control group, with the ISOS50 treatment showing the most significant difference (p<0.05).Conclusion: Supplementation of the gestation diet with 0.5 ppm of mixed Se may improve piglet growth performance, increase Se concentrations in milk, and enhance Se status in the serum of sows, as well as in the serum and tissues of their offspring.
... The growth performance and early mortality of piglets are related to milk production and compositions of nutrients in milk, mainly including protein, fat and lactose [29,30]. Colostrum contains a large number of immunoglobulins (IgG, IgA, IgM), which can provide immediate immune protection for newborn piglets [13]. ...
Simple Summary
Studies have shown that dietary arginine supplementation can promote placental growth and vascular development in pregnant sows, increase litter size and improve the reproductive performance of sows. However, there are few studies on the optimal arginine and arginine to lysine ratio in sows during pregnancy. In this study, we investigated the optimal standardized ileal digestible arginine to lysine (SID Arg: Lys) ratio on the reproductive performance, immune response, and biochemical parameters of sows during gestation, as well as the colostrum composition and performance of their offspring. Our results indicate that an appropriate dietary SID Arg: Lys ratio can increase the number of piglets born alive, reduce the birth interval, and promote milk fat synthesis.
Abstract
The aim of this study was to determine the optimal SID Arg: Lys ratio for maximizing the reproductive performance, immunity and biochemical parameters of sows during gestation, the colostrum composition, and the performance of their offspring. A total of 174 multiparous sows were randomly allocated to five treatment groups varying in dietary SID Arg: Lys ratios (0.91, 1.02, 1.14, 1.25 and 1.38) through modification of the levels of Arg or alanine supplementation (the total level of nitrogen was the same in all treatments). The results showed that increasing the dietary SID Arg: Lys ratio increased the number of piglets born alive (p < 0.05, linear and quadratic). The number of stillborn piglets, the birth weight variation of born alive piglets, the birth interval (p < 0.05, linear and quadratic) and the number of mummies (p < 0.05, quadratic) reduced with increasing the dietary SID Arg: Lys ratio. Broken-line regression analysis indicated that the optimal SID Arg: Lys ratio requirement for gestating sows to maximize the number of piglets born alive was 1.25. The content of non-fat solid, total solid, protein, and energy in colostrum increased linearly and quadratically (p < 0.05) with increasing dietary SID Arg: Lys ratio. Additionally, when increasing the dietary SID Arg: Lys ratio, the concentration of IgA (p < 0.05, quadratic) and IgM (p < 0.05, linear and quadratic) of plasma increased at day 90 of gestation; IgG (p < 0.05, linear and quadratic) concentration increased at day 110 of gestation of sows. The dietary SID Arg: Lys ratio had an increasing effect (p < 0.05, linear and quadratic) on plasma insulin levels at day 90 of gestation. Furthermore, there were increases in plasma concentrations of nitric oxide and ornithine at day 110 of gestation, Arg at day 90 and 110 of gestation (p < 0.05, linear and quadratic) and total protein at day 110 of gestation (p < 0.05, linear) with increasing dietary SID Arg: Lys ratio. The results of our study indicated that increases in the dietary SID Arg: Lys ratio during gestation resulted in an increase in the number of piglets born alive, a decrease in birth intervals, and an improvement in immunity and colostrum composition. The optimal SID Arg: Lys ratio for gestating sows to maximize the number of piglets born alive was 1.25.
... Our study findings demonstrated that the supplementation of 0.2% ATC resulted in increased fat and total solid (TS) content in the sow milk on day 21 postpartum. Milk fat is a highly variable component in pig milk and is particularly responsive to changes in the sow's dietary nutrition [11]. PRL and its receptor can activate intracellular tyrosine kinase (JAK2), thereby regulating the expression of milk fat synthesis-related enzyme genes through the JAK-STAT signaling pathway. ...
This study aimed to determine the effects of different doses of Acremonium terricola culture (ATC) on lactation performance, immune function, antioxidant capacity, and intestinal flora of sows. Forty-five Landrace sows (3–6 parity) were randomly assigned to the following three treatments from 85 days of gestation to 21 days after farrowing: a control diet (CON, basal diet), a low-dose Acremonium terricola culture diet (0.2% ATC, basal diet + 0.2% ATC), and a high-dose Acremonium terricola culture diet (0.4% ATC, basal diet + 0.4% ATC). Compared with the CON group, the supplementation of 0.2% ATC increased the average daily milk yield of sows by 4.98%, increased milk fat, total solids, and freezing point depression on day 1 postpartum (p < 0.05), increased serum concentration of Triiodothyronine, Thyroxin, and Estradiol on day 21 postpartum (p < 0.05). Compared with the CON group, the supplementation of 0.4% ATC increased the average daily milk yield of sows by 9.38% (p < 0.05). Furthermore, the supplementation of 0.2% ATC increased serum concentration of IgG, IgM, and IFN-γ, CD4 on day 1 postpartum (p < 0.05) and increased serum concentration of immunoglobulin A ( IgA), immunoglobulin G (IgG), immunoglobulin M ( IgM), complement 3 (C3), cluster of differentiation 4 (CD4), cluster of differentiation 8 (CD8), interferon-γ (IFN-γ) on day 21 postpartum (p < 0.05), while the supplementation of 0.4% ATC reduced serum concentration of IL-2 on day 21 postpartum (p < 0.05). Moreover, the supplementation of 0.4% ATC significantly increased serum concentration of catalase (CAT) (p < 0.05). Additionally, the supplementation of ATC affected the relative abundance of the intestinal flora at different taxonomic levels in sows and increased the abundance of beneficial bacteria such as in the norank_f__Eubacterium_coprostanoligenes group, Eubacterium_coprostanoligenes group, and Lachnospiraceae_XPB1014 group of sows, while reducing the abundance of harmful bacteria such as Phascolarctobacterium and Clostridium_sensu_stricto_1. These data revealed that the supplementation of ATC during late gestation and lactation can improve lactation performance, immune function, antioxidant capacity, and the gut microbiota. Compared with supplementation of 0.4% ATC, 0.2% ATC enhances the levels of thyroid-related hormones, specific antibodies, and cytokines in serum, promotes the diversity of beneficial gut microbiota, beneficial bacteria in the intestine, reduces the population of harmful bacteria, and thereby bolsters the immunity of sows. Hence, 0.2% ATC is deemed a more optimal concentration.
... Piglet colostrum intake influences growth through to weaning [56][57][58] . Colostrum production is approximated by litter weight gain on day 1 of lactation 59,60 . Very few studies established that colostrum production depends dimensions two and three ( >|0.3|) of the multiblock analysis for the three litter gains (Y) explained by the 100 maternal variables grouped into 11 blocks: farrowing performance and environment including age of sow at maternity entrance (Age), the % of MS piglet in a litter (%MS), and pen location in maternity (A and B, X 1 ), body reserves with proteins content (Proteins) and weight (Body weight, X 2 ), teat quality including teat interval (irregular) and length of teats (large, X 3 ), reactivity at entrance including reactivity at entering the pen (PenEntry_0: observe before enter, X 4 ), reactivity at farrowing including sow aggressive towards piglet (Aggression(piglets), X 5 ), standing activity-Before D0 including the time to resume eating (Intercept_before) and the time spent drinking (Drink_before, X 6 ), standing activity-D0 including time spent doing something other than eating and drinking when sow are standing (Something other_D0, X 7 ), standing activity-After D0 including time spent doing something other than eating and drinking when sow are standing (Something other_after D0, X 8 ), postural activity-before D0 including time spent lateral lying with udder exposed (LLU_ before D0), time spent sternal lying (SL_before D0, X 9 ), postural activity-D0 including time spent lateral lying (LL_D0), sternal lying (SL_D0), and standing (ST_D0, X 10 ) and postural activity-After D0 including time spent sternal lying (SL_after D0, X 11 ). ...
Large White and Meishan sows differ in maternal ability and early piglet growth. We investigated the relationships between 100 maternal traits, grouped into 11 blocks according to the biological function they describe and litter growth over three successive periods after birth (D0–D1, D1–D3 and D3–D7; D0 starting at the onset of farrowing), as a measure of sow investment in early piglet production. Within- and between-breed variation was exploited to cover a maximum of the variability existing in pig maternal populations. The objective was to quantify the contribution of maternal traits, including functional traits and behavioural traits, to early litter growth. Multivariate analyses were used to depict correlations among traits. A partial least square multiblock analysis allowed quantifying the effect of maternal traits on early growth traits. Partial triadic analyses highlighted how sow behaviour changed with days, and whether it resulted in changes in litter growth. Several behavioural traits (standing activity, reactivity to different stimuli, postural activity) and functional traits (body reserves, udder quality) at farrowing contributed substantially to litter growth from D0 to D7. Sow aggression towards piglets and time spent standing at D0 were unfavourably correlated to D1–D3 litter growth. Time spent lying with udder exposed at D0 was favourably correlated to D1–D3 litter growth. The farrowing duration was negatively correlated to D0–D1 and D1–D3 litter growth. Furthermore, D3–D7 litter growth was positively correlated to feed intake in the same period. Several behavioural traits and some functional traits influence early litter growth. The contribution of sow behaviour was greater in the critical period around farrowing than in later days.
... In general, studies with feed supplementation, especially amino acids during gestation, provide an improvement in the productive and reproductive performance of pigs, leading to the recognition of the amino acids arginine and glutamine as essential for gestation (13) . ...
Selection and genetic progress have led to the modification of the female profile, and prolificacy has become the main trait. Consequently, fetal development was affected by the increased number of piglets, resulting in higher uterine competition for nutrients and space. This study aimed to analyze the effects of glutamine and vitamin A supplementation on embryonic and fetal survival and their influence on the reproductive and productive performance of females. We selected 71 females from Large White X Landrace X Meishan X Jianjing crosses from different orders of parturition for uniform distribution between treatments, divided into two groups. Glutamine and vitamin A supplementation during periods considered critical for gestation was effective in terms of placental color, resulting in darker placentas, which could mean higher vascularization. The inclusion of glutamine and vitamin A influenced less variability in stillborn per litter and intra-litter birth weight of liveborn piglets. The treatment did not influence the mean birth weight of piglets but supplementation reduced the percentage of light piglets (≤ 1000 g) in high and low prolificacy females.
... Heritable factors do not primarily influence the survival and performance of pigs in the nursery phase; instead, they are related to environmental factors such as nutrition, health, management, and facilities [1]. The imposed challenges can cause intestinal dysbiosis, which leads to lower performance due to diarrhea and facilitates infections with opportunistic pathogens [2]. ...
Simple Summary
Determining whether adding butyric acid and lauric acid glycerides to pigs’ diets would replace the growth promoters was our goal. The additives fulfilled their purpose, resulting in great growth performance and lower therapeutic interventions. The additives increased the immunoglobulins and decreased the acute phase proteins, which reflects a lower inflammatory response.
Abstract
(1) Background: This study determined whether adding butyric acid and lauric acid glycerides in nursing pigs’ feed would improve growth performance, proteinogram, biochemical parameters, and antioxidant status. (2) Methods: Ninety male pigs were divided into five groups with six repetitions per group: NC, negative control (no additive); TRI-BUT, addition of tributyrin in the basal ration; MDT-BUT, addition of mono-, di-, and triglycerides of butyric acid in the basal feed; MDT-LAU, the addition of mono-, di-, and triglycerides of lauric acid in the basal feed; and PC, positive control (addition of gentamicin in the basal feed). (3) Results: PC, TRI-BUT, and MDT-LAU resulted in a high average daily WG from days 1 to 39 (p < 0.01). MDT-LAU, MDT-BUT, and PC resulted in a greater feed:gain from days 1 to 39 than the NC (p = 0.03). Great concentrations of the gamma globulin fraction in all groups were observed than in the NC (p = 0.01). Ceruloplasmin, haptoglobin, and C-reactive protein concentrations were lower in all groups than in the NC (p < 0.05). Higher serum glutathione S-transferase activity was observed in the TRI-BUT and MDT-BUT than in the PC (p = 0.04). (4) Conclusions: The addition of butyric acid and lauric acid glycerides in the diet of pigs in the nursery phase can replace growth promoters since the products improve the growth performance, reduce acute-phase proteins, and increase gamma globulin concentrations.
... Furthermore, adequate consumption of colostrum has been associated with favourable effects on piglet postweaning adaptability (Sola-Oriol and Gasa 2017). Despite the aforementioned advantages, it has been shown by Quesnel et al. (2012) and Decaluwe et al. (2013) that approximately 30% of hyperprolific sows do not produce enough colostrum to meet the needs of piglets. This presents an immediate challenge and therefore split suckling becomes a second step in ensuring piglet survival. ...
... More studies are needed to understand the underlying mechanisms behind these findings as the present study lacks data to elucidate it clearly. Consistently, vitality at birth has been considered as a key factor influencing colostrum intake (Declerck et al., 2017;Devillers et al., 2007;Quesnel et al., 2012). The higher vitality suggests an increased capacity to reach the udder and suckle in the piglets born later from ESP, which may explain the increased average colostrum intake per piglet in this group. ...
The effects of feeding sows at onset of farrowing supplemental energy (blend of carbohydrates and glycerol) on farrowing kinetics and piglet vitality, Animal (2024), doi: https://doi. Highlights • Sows were fed an energy supplement to alter farrowing kinetics and piglets' traits • Energy supplementation at onset of farrowing can decrease farrowing duration • Shorter farrowing not always results in less stillbirth piglets • Piglets born from supplemented sows had increased colostrum intake • Piglets born from supplemented sows had better vitality throughout the farrowing Abstract Delivering piglets is one of the most energy demanding activities sows undergo in their lifetime. Sows can have myometrial contractions from two to 12 hours before the first piglet is expelled as well as a nest building behavior. Thus, when the first piglet is delivered the female has already used part of her energy supply. When the sow gets exhausted due to lack of energy, the farrowing process can be interrupted, causing damage to the viability and vitality of the piglets. In the present study, we evaluated the effects of feeding sows an energy supplement at onset of farrowing on farrowing kinetics and piglet vitality. The energy supplement consisted of a blend of carbohydrates and glycerol which provides 43,9 kJ of metabolizable energy per kg of metabolic weight. A total of 180 sows were used. At onset of farrowing, sows were assigned to one of the following treatments: sows that were not supplied energy at the onset of farrowing, serving as controls (CON, n = 85); sows fed the energy supplement at the onset of farrowing (ESP, n = 95). Farrowing kinetics, blood glucose concentration, and piglet vitality were recorded for each sow. Blood glucose concentration was assessed by puncturing the auricular vein and using a portable 2 glucometer at four different time points: after the birth of the 1 st piglet (T0), and at 20 (T20), 40 (T40), 80 (T80), and 180 (T180) minutes after the birth of the 1 st piglet. The vitality of the 1 st , 6 th , 12 th , 17 th , and 20 th piglet born was evaluated using the Apgar score. Piglet birth weight and average colostrum intake were measured. The farrowing duration was 20 min shorter (P < 0.05) for ESP sows in comparison with CON sows. Sows from ESP treatment had higher (P ≤ 0.05) blood glucose concentration at T20 and T40 compared to the CON sows. The inter-piglet birth interval was shorten (P < 0.05) by 14 min between the 1 st and 2 nd piglet for the ESP treatment. The 17th and 20th piglets born from ESP sows had higher (P < 0.05) Apgar score compared to piglets of the same birth order from CON sows. Colostrum intake was higher (P < 0.01) for piglets born from ESP sows. Litter growth performance did not differ (P > 0.05). In conclusion, feeding a blend of carbohydrates and glycerol as energy supplement for farrowing sows improved farrowing kinetics and piglet vitality score. Implications The sow can get exhausted due to lack of energy, even before the expulsive stage of the farrow start. This can result in decreased uterine contractions or even interruptions in the farrowing process, which can in turn jeopardize farrowing outcomes. Sows were fed an innovative energy supplement which was efficient in decreasing farrowing duration and improve piglets' colostrum intake and overall vitality. Supplying sows' extra at the onset of farrowing is a feasible solution to accelerate piglets delivery that can better endure the challenges of birth and adapt to extra-uterine life.
... Therefore, colostrum remains one of the most crucial factors for a healthy development of piglets [13]. For instance, the mortality of piglets ingesting less than 100 g of colostrum during the first 24 h is over 60%, whereas that of piglets ingesting more than 200 g is merely 10% or less [14]. Although sows used in the present work were negative for elt1 gene, the existing evidence on the importance of colostrum was applied to our infection method. ...
Enterotoxigenic Escherichia Coli (ETEC) remains the main pathogen associated with post-weaning diarrhea in piglets. Here, we introduce a reliable method to develop an ETEC-infected weaned piglet model. For the first 24 h post-birth, neonatal piglets were separated from dams so that they did not receive colostrum. Afterwards, piglets were returned to the care of their mothers, until weaning (21-day-old). On days 25, 26 and 27 post-birth, piglets were orally challenged with 1011 Colony-Forming Units (CFU) of virulent ETEC strain incubated in colony-forming antigen medium and delivered in chitosan-coated capsules. In all infected piglets, severe diarrhea and typical body weight loss were observed post-infection. To simplify the work, for the newly developed method, the number of challenging ETEC cells was lowered to 1010 CFU/head and the incubation medium was changed to tryptic soy. These modifications influenced neither the diarrheal defecation ratio nor the body weight loss in piglets. To induce experimentally ETEC infection in future work, we recommend that 1010 CFU/head of ETEC cell grown in tryptic soy broth be delivered in chitosan-coated capsules to colostrum restricted piglets, because this methodology stably caused 100% diarrheal defecation and growth reduction.
... Lactation function by the sow is a continuation of the maternal contribution to the growth and development of the piglet beyond the fetal stage. The critical importance of colostrum and milk for the newborn piglet has been well documented (Le Dividich et al., 2005;Quesnel et al., 2012;Theil et al., 2014; see also Chapter 8; Quesnel et al., 2015). The rapid development of the neonate coincides with the rapid changes in composition of mammary secretions consumed by the suckling piglet. ...
... The requirement for a newborn piglet is 200 g of colostrum as a minimum (Quesnel, Farmer, and Devillers, 2012), but IUGR piglets only ingest half of the amount,~100 g of colostrum (Amdi et al., 2013). The reduced intake of colostrum, in combination with an abnormal metabolism, a decreased intake of antibodies from the sow, and reduced nutrition available for the development of immune function, leaves the piglet more vulnerable to infection and sepsis (Wu et al., 2006). ...
Introduction: Insufficient prenatal nutrition can affect fetal development and lead to intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR). The aim of this study was to investigate hepatic transcriptional responses and innate immune function in piglets suffering from IUGR compared to normal-sized piglets at 3 days of age and explore whether the provision of an energy-rich supplement at birth could modulate these parameters.
Methods: A total of 68 piglets were included in the study. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells were harvested for LPS stimulation, and organs were harvested post-mortem to quantify relative weights. Liver tissue was utilized for RNA sequencing coupled with gene-set enrichment analysis.
Results: IUGR resulted in increased expression of genes such as PDK4 and substantial alterations in transcriptional pathways related to metabolic activity (e.g., citric acid and Krebs cycles), but these changes were equivalent in piglets given an energy-rich supplement or not. Transcriptomic analysis and serum biochemistry suggested altered glucose metabolism and a shift toward oxidation of fatty acids. IUGR piglets also exhibited suppression of genes related to innate immune function (e.g., CXCL12) and pathways related to cell proliferation (e.g., WNT and PDGF signaling). Moreover, they produced less IL-1β in response to LPS stimulation and had lower levels of blood eosinophils than normal-sized piglets.
Discussion: Taken together, our results indicate that IUGR results in early-life alterations in metabolism and immunity that may not be easily restored by the provision of exogenous energy supplementation.
... Em decorrência da não transferência de fatores imunes via placenta da fêmea suína, o colostro exerce função primordial ao realizar a transmissão passiva de imunoglobulinas maternas nos primeiros dias de vida. Logo, a principal forma de se evitar a mortalidade neonatal e de doenças na fase de maternidade é realizar um manejo adequado de colostro no início da vida do leitão (Quesnel et al., 2012). Além do papel imunológico, o colostro é fonte de energia para a termorregulação e apresenta fatores de crescimento para o leitão (Cabrera et al., 2012;Miguel et al., 2021) O colostro constitui a primeira secreção produzida pelas glândulas mamárias, possui as imunoglobulinas como as principais proteínas para o desempenho da função imune, sendo a imunoglobulina G (IgG) a de maior concentração (Craig et al., 2019). ...
... Colostrum intake was lower in ULL litters; however, when considering the intake by kg of birth weight (relative CI), the mean values observed in ULL litters were similar or even higher than those observed in the other litter types. Despite those differences, all mean values for CI were higher than the 200 g per piglet during the first 24 h, a value considered by Quesnel et al. [16] as the minimum consumption to significantly reduce the risk of mortality before weaning, provide passive immunity and allow a slight weight gain or even the 250 g of CI in the same period to achieve all the above and also good health and pre-and post-weaning growth. These reference values were based on estimated CI with Devillers's equation [26] because Theil's equation [27] was not yet published. ...
Simple Summary
Piglet survival and performance until weaning are key features of sow productivity and, therefore, swine production efficiency. The genetic improvement of the last decades has led to larger litters but also to more heterogenous ones, with an increased number of low birthweight piglets that are more prone to die before weaning due to their lower capacity to ingest colostrum and milk in the competitive environment with their littermates. Some studies show that more uniform litter can be beneficial to piglet survival; however, selection for litter uniformity can lead to smaller litter or birth weight reduction. In this study, we aimed to check the influence of different mean weights of uniform litters on piglet survival and performance. As main conclusions we observed lower pre-weaning mortality in uniform than in heterogenous litters, the colostrum yield (CY) of sows is dependent on the total weight of the litter and litter weight gain in the first day after farrowing is a good marker for CY. The mean weight of piglets of uniform litter influences their colostrum intake and the weaning weight but not their survival. According to the present results, selection for litter uniformity is advisable due to its beneficial effects on sow productivity.
Abstract
This study aimed to determine the effects of uniform litters of different mean birth weights on colostrum production of sows and piglets performance. The study involved 98 multiparous sows from a commercial lean genotype and their piglets. Simultaneous farrowing were supervised and the piglets were divided into experimental litters of 12 piglets each of heterogenous litters (HET, CV = 23.8%, n = 20), uniform light litters (ULL, CV = 9.8%, n = 27), uniform average litters (UAL, CV = 8.2%, n = 23) or uniform heavy litters (UHL, CV = 8.6%, n = 28) piglets and allowed to suckle. Piglets were re-weighed at 24 h and 21 d of life and deaths registered. Colostrum intake (CI) of the piglets and sow’s colostrum yield (CY) was estimated using two prediction equations. Significant differences (p < 0.001) were observed in the CY of sows being higher in UHL, lower in ULL and intermediary in HET and UAL litters. CY was positively related to litter total weight at birth and litter weight gain in the first 24 h (p < 0.001). The CI differ between litter type being higher in UHL litters and lower in ULL litters. The coefficient of variation of CI in HET litters was higher than in uniform litters, regardless of their type. The mortality rate of piglets until 21 d was globally 9.6% and it was significantly higher in HET than in UAL (p = 0.033) and tended to be higher than in UHL litters (p = 0.052). No differences in piglet survival were observed between uniform litters. Results show the beneficial effect of uniformity in piglet survival and that the mean weight of uniform litter influences colostrum intake and piglet performance.
... Research on influenza vaccine-induced maternally-derived immunity (MDI) in piglets has important commercial relevance. Colostrum (predominantly as immunoglobulins) is the piglet's only source of MDI [1,2] and consumption in the first hours of life is essential for piglet survival [3]. In the United States, the majority of breeding herds are vaccinated against influenza A viruses of swine (IAV-S) [4,5] to protect breeding females (gilts and sows), and through MDI, to confer protection to offspring [6][7][8][9][10]. ...
Simple Summary
Vaccinated mother pigs can pass vaccine protection (immunity) onto their offspring, but in the case of influenza, the benefit is not clear. Influenza viruses evolve rapidly and can sometimes change their appearance to the point of becoming a new stain that evades a pig’s immune defenses. It is believed that matching the vaccine to the virus is important for protection. To predict if a vaccine is protective it is, therefore, also important to know how closely it matches the influenza strain or strains circulating in the herd. For the first time, we apply the methods of evidence-based medicine to understand if vaccinating sows results in the protection of their piglets from influenza. We were only interested in studies where the researcher knew if the vaccine matched the infecting virus. These types of studies are called challenge trials because researchers controlled both the vaccines used in the mother pigs and the strain of influenza viruses used to infect the piglets. We looked at scientific studies published over twenty years and considered many ways to measure protection. We found piglets from vaccinated sows took a little bit longer to shed the virus if they became infected and that less virus was found in piglets where their mother’s vaccine matched the virus used to infect the piglet. In modern commercial farms, however, piglets are often exposed back-to-back or at the same time to the same, or more often, to more than one strain of influenza. Also, viruses behave differently in herds than they do in small studies because the number of pigs in a herd is many times greater. Because most studies involved simple exposures in small groups of pigs and only one small study looked at a back-to-back exposure with the same strain of influenza, it is difficult to know if our findings can be further extended into the real world. Despite this, the body of research was useful to show the importance of matching. We also learned that additional research is still needed and importantly, that there is room for improvement in how influenza vaccine studies in pigs are reported. Influenza vaccine research is complex in pigs and it is important to understand the type or types of virus strains involved in each study. Future research is needed where researchers are able to identify all infecting strains of influenza and the piglets experience real-world influenza virus exposures.
Abstract
It is unclear if piglets benefit from vaccination of sows against influenza. For the first time, methods of evidence-based medicine were applied to answer the question: “Does vaccine-induced maternally-derived immunity (MDI) protect swine offspring against influenza A viruses?”. Challenge trials were reviewed that were published from 1990 to April 2021 and measured at least one of six outcomes in MDI-positive versus MDI-negative offspring (hemagglutination inhibition (HI) titers, virus titers, time to begin and time to stop shedding, risk of infection, average daily gain (ADG), and coughing) (n = 15). Screening and extraction of study characteristics was conducted in duplicate by two reviewers, with data extraction and assessment for risk of bias performed by one. Homology was defined by the antigenic match of vaccine and challenge virus hemagglutinin epitopes. Results: Homologous, but not heterologous MDI, reduced virus titers in piglets. There was no difference, calculated as relative risks (RR), in infection incidence risk over the entire study period; however, infection hazard (instantaneous risk) was decreased in pigs with MDI (log HR = −0.64, 95% CI: −1.13, −0.15). Overall, pigs with MDI took about a ½ day longer to begin shedding virus post-challenge (MD = 0.51, 95% CI: 0.03, 0.99) but the hazard of infected pigs ceasing to shed was not different (log HR = 0.32, 95% CI: −0.29, 0.93). HI titers were synthesized qualitatively and although data on ADG and coughing was extracted, details were insufficient for conducting meta-analyses. Conclusion: Homology of vaccine strains with challenge viruses is an important consideration when assessing vaccine effectiveness. Herd viral dynamics are complex and may include concurrent or sequential exposures in the field. The practical significance of reduced weaned pig virus titers is, therefore, not known and evidence from challenge trials is insufficient to make inferences on the effects of MDI on incidence risk, time to begin or to cease shedding virus, coughing, and ADG. The applicability of evidence from single-strain challenge trials to field practices is limited. Despite the synthesis of six outcomes, challenge trial evidence does not support or refute vaccination of sows against influenza to protect piglets. Additional research is needed; controlled trials with multi-strain concurrent or sequential heterologous challenges have not been conducted, and sequential homologous exposure trials were rare. Consensus is also warranted on (1) the selection of core outcomes, (2) the sizing of trial populations to be reflective of field populations, (3) the reporting of antigenic characterization of vaccines, challenge viruses, and sow exposure history, and (4) on the collection of non-aggregated individual pig data.
... The uptake and oxidation of lactose and fat in colostrum provide energy for piglets and influence their survival and constant body temperature [43]. However, sow colostrum is characterized by a high immunoglobulin content and a low lactose and fat content [44]. In this study, dietary YC supplementation improved the low lactose and fat content of colostrum in sows. ...
Simple Summary
Compared with multiparous sows, primiparous sows have poor reproductive performance and insufficient nutritional reserves, resulting in a decreased growth performance in their offspring, which affects the efficiency of pig production. Yeast culture (YC) is rich in nutrients, and the supplementation of yeast culture in gestation and lactation diets is beneficial to improving the nutritional level of primiparous sows. Therefore, the objective of this experiment was mainly to investigate the effects of supplementing 0.5% and 0.8% yeast cultures into diets during gestation and lactation on the reproductive performance and intestinal health of primiparous sows, and the nutrient content of their colostrum and milk. The results showed that the dietary yeast cultures improved reproductive performance, improved the intestinal environment and energy metabolism, and increased the nutrient content of colostrum from primiparous sows. This study provides a theoretical basis for improving the performance of primiparous sows, and also provides a reference for the application of yeast cultures in sow production.
Abstract
The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of yeast culture (YC) on reproductive performance, gut microbiota, and milk composition in primiparous sows. A total of 60 primiparous sows were randomly assigned to the control group (CON) and YC group (0.5% YC during gestation and 0.8% YC during lactation) consisting of 30 replicates, with one sow in each. The results showed that dietary YC supplementation increased the piglet birth weight and backfat thickness at 28 d of lactation (p < 0.05). Dietary YC supplementation increased the apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of gross energy and calcium during lactation, the content of acetic acid and propionic acid at 110 d of gestation, and the content of acetic acid and butyric acid at 28 d of lactation in feces (p < 0.05). Furthermore, dietary YC supplementation decreased the abundance of Firmicutes, Lachnospiraceae_XPB1014_group, and Terrisporobacter (p < 0.05), and increased the abundance of Prevotellaceae_NK3B31_group and Rikenellaceae_RC9_gut_group (p < 0.05). Compared to the control group, dietary YC supplementation increased the fat and lactose content of the colostrum (p < 0.05). Metabolomics analysis showed that YC increased 26 different metabolites in the colostrum. Among them were mainly pantothenic acid, proline, isoleucine, phenylalanine, acylcarnitine, and other metabolites. In conclusion, these results suggested that dietary YC supplementation improves reproductive performance and gut health and increases the nutrient content in the colostrum of primiparous sows.
... Newborn piglets compete for access to the teats and the most intense fights usually happen at the very beginning of lactation (de Passille and Rushen, 1989), when colostrum is produced. Competition for colostrum could be of vital importance (Quesnel et al., 2012), so stronger competitors (i.e., heavier and more vital) have a better chance of getting early immunoglobin-rich colostrum (Skok and Škorjanc, 2014). In fact, the number of fights for a teat that a piglet wins on the first day of lactation has been positively related to subsequent weight gain (de Pasillé et al., 1988). ...
Piglets with low birth weight present low vitality after farrowing, often leading to impaired weight gain during lactation. A recessive missense variant (C>T) for increased appetite and fatness in the porcine leptin receptor gene (rs709596309) causes a negative maternal effect on the weight of piglets at weaning. However, it is not known whether this variant already exerts an effect on the birth weight and vitality of newborn piglets and on their growing capacity during lactation. An experiment was conducted using 668 purebred Duroc piglets (131 CC, 311 CT, and 226 TT) from 74 multiparous sows (9 CC, 43 CT, and 22 TT) and 14 boars (1 CC, 10 CT, and 3 TT). All piglets were individually weighed at birth and tested for vitality, which was assessed on a scale from 1 (low vitality) to 3 (high vitality) based on behavioral observations, including the status of the piglet immediately before the test. Only non-adopted piglets were considered for piglet performance at weaning. Inferences on the effect of the genotype on birth and weaning traits were done on a Bayesian setting based on 2-trait bivariate models including the effects of the piglet and the litter, as well as the genotype of the sow and the piglet, the sex of the piglet, and the parity number. Vitality and the status of the piglet before the test were analyzed using a liability threshold (probit) model. As compared to other genotypes, TT newborn piglets were 28 g heavier, were more vital (the probability of being scored as highly vital was 6.5% higher) and were more often found suckling before the test (the probability of being suckling at test was 6.5% higher). As a result, they grew more during lactation (153 g) and were heavier at weaning (169 g) than littermates of the two other genotypes, thus partly compensating for the limited maternal capacity of TT sows. Our findings provide evidence that appetite-influencing genes, such as the leptin receptor gene, have developmental implications from very early life stages.
... Neonatal mortality is a major cause of pre-weaning losses and the first 24h after birth are the most critical period [35], accounting for 28% of preweaning mortality [36]. The present study showed that piglet mortality 24h after farrowing is negatively associated to the piglet's birth weight. ...
Background
Prolonged farrowing and more piglets born with low birth weight are undesirable consequences of genetic selection for increased litter size. The objective of the present observational study was to evaluate the relationship between piglets’ survivability and farrowing kinetics in hyperprolific sows. A total of 58 sows of different parities and 1190 piglets were included. The entire farrowing process was monitored and the following parameters were recorded: inter-piglet birth interval, birth order, total born, live born, dead born, and mummified piglets, obstetric intervention, weight at birth and 24h, colostrum yield and intake.
Results
The sows included in this study had on average 20.6 ± 0.6 total piglets born, of which 16.4 ± 0.6 were live born, 3.3 ± 0.4 were stillborn and 0.9 ± 0.2 were mummified piglets. The average farrowing duration and average birth interval were 411.3 ± 31.6 and 20.6 ± 1.7 min, respectively. Farrowing duration was positively associated ( p < 0.05) with parity, number of stillborn and mummified piglets. Piglet mortality 24h after birth was negatively affected ( p < 0.01) by birth weight and positively affected ( p < 0.01) by cumulative birth interval. The last tercile of piglets born (birth order ≥ 17) had the highest ( p < 0.01) inter-piglet birth interval (IPBI) (43.4 ± 4.17 min) compared to piglets born in the first (birth order between 2 and 7) (26.5 ± 3.8 min) and second (birth order between 8 and 16) terciles (21.9 ± 3.8 min). Cumulative birth interval, birth weight, occurrence of stillborn piglets and manual intervention were positively associated ( p < 0.05) with IPBI. Piglet birth weight was also positively associated ( p < 0.01) to individual colostrum intake. Piglets ingesting more colostrum had lower ( p < 0.01) mortality from 24h after birth until weaning. Sow’s parity and cumulative birth interval were positively associated with the presence of stillborn piglets ( p = 0.02 and p < 0.01, respectively).
Conclusion
Reducing farrowing duration may be crucial to decrease stillbirth rate and neonatal mortality in hyperprolific sows. Moreover, special care must be provided to the lighter piglets within a litter to increase their colostrum intake and minimize piglet’s mortality throughout lactation.
... Adrenaline is released into the blood stream in low viability piglets, being essential for glycogenolysis and increasing glucose levels (Herpin et al., 1996;Alonso-Spilsbury et al., 2005). Piglets with low viability have a delay between birth and first suckling and decreased colostrum consumption, leading to low immune status (Quesnel et al., 2012). Moreover, the blood glucose concentration in newborn piglets is related to growth performance before weaning. ...
Monitoring the serum biochemical parameters of sows' blood, colostrum, and milk during and after calving aims to guide and understand the physiological, nutritional, and health status of peri-calving sows. Thus, this study aimed to analyze and correlate serum biochemical parameters and the composition of colostrum and milk of lactating sows. Colostrum, milk, and blood from 13 sows were collected after the birth of the first calf before suckling (M1) and 72 hours after M1 (M2). Crude protein (CP), fat content (FAT), lactose (LAC), nonfat solids (NFS), total solids (TS), and gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT) activity concentrations were determined in colostrum and milk samples. The blood biochemical profiles analyzed were GGT, glucose (GLU), total cholesterol (COL), triglycerides (TRI), creatine kinase (CK), total protein (TP), albumin (ALB), globulins (GLO), and the albumin/globulin ratio (A/G). Descriptive and correlation analyses were performed using the SAS statistical program (9.3). Significant differences were observed in the composition of colostrum and milk. COL and CK in the blood showed significant differences between M1 and M2. There was no correlation (P>0.05) between serum biochemical and colostrum bromatological parameters. ALB correlated positively with LAC and NFS. GLO correlated negatively with LAC and NFS. The A/G ratio showed a positive correlation with LAC. These correlations suggest that monitoring serum biochemical parameters may be helpful for the health surveillance of lactating sows and assessing the quality of colostrum and milk.
Keywords:
Monitoring; Sows; Animal production; Animal health
Resumo Com a seleção e progresso genético, o perfil das fêmeas foi modificado e a prolificidade tornou-se a principal característica. Como consequência, o desenvolvimento fetal foi afetado pelo aumento do número de leitões, o que resultou em maior competição uterina por nutrientes e espaço. O objetivo deste estudo foi analisar os efeitos da suplementação de glutamina e vitamina A na sobrevivência embrionária e fetal e sua influência no desempenho reprodutivo e produtivo de fêmeas. Foram selecionadas 71 fêmeas, oriundas dos cruzamentos Large White X Landrace X Meishan X Jianjing, de diferentes ordens de parto (OP) para a distribuição uniforme entre os tratamentos divididos em dois grupos. A suplementação de glutamina e vitamina A em períodos considerados críticos para a gestação mostrou-se efetiva neste estudo, em termos de coloração placentária, resultando em placentas mais escuras, o que poderia significar maior vascularização. A inclusão de glutamina e vitamina A influenciou em menos variabilidade em Natimortos por Leitegada (NL) e no Peso ao Nascer intra-leitegada dos Leitões Nascidos Vivos (PNLNV). Embora o tratamento não tenha influenciado o Peso Médio ao Nascer dos Leitões (PMNL), a suplementação reduziu a porcentagem de leitões leves (≤ 1000 g) em fêmeas de alta e baixa prolificidade.
The goal of this project was to determine the effects of a supraphysiological dose of oxytocin given to gilts or multiparous sows 8 to 12 h after the end of farrowing on the performance of their progeny. Sows from three parity groups (1 = parity 1; 2 = parities 2, 3 and 4; 3 = parities 5 to 14) received no injection (CTL, controls; n = 17, 27 and 23 for parity groups 1, 2 and 3, respectively) or one intramuscular injection of 75 IU of oxytocin (OXY, n = 17, 24 and 26 for parity groups 1, 2 and 3, respectively) 8 to 12 h after birth of the last piglet. Colostrum samples were obtained 8 h after oxytocin injection in 18 sows from parity group 2 (CTL, n = 10; OXY, n = 8). Standard milk composition was measured as well as the Na/K ratio, and IGF-1, IgG and IgA concentrations. The same sows were used to obtain blood samples from four male piglets of average litter BW 8 h post-treatment to measure concentrations of IGF-1, IgG, and IgA. Piglets and sows were weighed at farrowing and weaning (day 21) and sow feed intake and piglet mortality were recorded. There was no effect of OXY on sow or piglet BW at any measured times and percent pre-weaning piglet mortality was not affected by OXY or parity. First-parity sows had lower BW than multiparous sows at both times (P < 0.001), and piglet average daily gain from birth to weaning was greater in parity group 2 compared with first-parity litters (P < 0.05). Average daily sow feed intake over the first week of lactation tended to be greater in OXY versus CTL sows (P = 0.07), and multiparous sows consumed more feed than first-parity sows on all weeks of lactation (P < 0.001). Eight hours after treatment, there was a tendency for colostral Na to be greater in OXY versus CTL sows (P = 0.06), and none of the measured variables in piglet blood were affected by treatment. In conclusion, injecting 75 IU of oxytocin 8 to 12 h after birth of the last piglet did not prolong the period of colostrogenesis or improve the growth or survival of piglets and this was consistent across parities.
As in-feed antibiotics are phased out of swine production, producers are seeking alternatives to facilitate improvements in growth typically seen from this previously common feed additive. Kazachstania slooffiae is a prominent commensal fungus in the swine gut that peaks in relative abundance shortly after weaning and has beneficial interactions with other bacteriome members important for piglet health. In this study, piglets were supplemented with K. slooffiae to characterize responses in piglet health as well as fungal and bacterial components of the microbiome both spatially (along the entire gastrointestinal tract and feces) and temporally (before, during, and after weaning). Litters were assigned to one of four treatments: no K. slooffiae (CONT); one dose of K. slooffiae 7 days before weaning (day 14; PRE); one dose of K. slooffiae at weaning (day 21; POST); or one dose of K. slooffiae 7 days before weaning and one dose at weaning (PREPOST). The bacteriome and mycobiome were analyzed from fecal samples collected from all piglets at day 14, day 21, and day 49, and from organ samples along the gastrointestinal (GI) tract at day 21 and day 49. Blood samples were taken at day 14 and day 49 for cytokine analysis, and fecal samples were assayed for antimicrobial resistance. While some regional shifts were seen in response to K. slooffiae administration in the mycobiome of the GI tract, no remarkable changes in weight gain or health of the animals were observed, and changes were more likely due to sow and the environment. Ultimately, the combined microbiome changed most considerably following the transition from suckling to nursery diets. This work describes the mycobiome along the piglet GI tract through the weaning transition for the first time. Based on these findings, K. slooffiae administered at this concentration may not be an effective tool to hasten colonization of K. slooffiae in the piglet GI tract around the weaning transition nor support piglet growth, microbial gut health, or immunity. However, diet and environment greatly influence microbial community development.
A 2 × 2 factorial experiment was designed in order to study the effects of feeding level during rearing and of mating policy on the reproductive performance and food intake of first- and second-litter sows. Gilts were offered food during rearing either ad libitum (AL) or at 0·8 of the AL level (R) and served either at first (E1) or third (E3) detected oestrus. A total of 160 out of the 243 animals that started the experiment were culled by the end of the second lactation, with significantly more R than AL animals (71 and 60%, respectively). During the first pregnancy, the R sows gained more live weight (LW) and backfat thickness (BF) than their AL contemporaries (+5 kg and +1·2 mm, respectively) and lost less BF during the first lactation (1·2 mm less). At weaning, no difference remained in LW or BF between AL and R sows (174 kg LW on average). The E3 females gained less LW during both pregnancies compared with those on the E1 treatment, but they remained heavier until the second weaning (208 kg, on average). During the first lactation, R consumed more food during the weeks 2 and 3 (by 0·5 kg/day, on average) than those reared previously on the AL regime, and no difference was observed between E3 and E1 females. No difference in food consumption was noted during parity two. However, when measured over the first two parities, lean animals consumed more food than fat animals. The size and the weight of the litter at birth or at weaning were not influenced by the treatment prior to service. The weaning-to-oestrus interval was longer during parity one than during parity two (5·7 and 5·0 days, respectively; P < 0·01) but it was not affected by feeding or mating treatment.
Feeding flaxseed to sows during late-gestation and lactation affects mammary development but not mammary expression of selected genes in their offspring. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 88: 585Á590. Mammary gland composition and mammary gene expression were measured in pubertal gilts whose dam were fed a control (CTL) diet or a diet with a 10% supplement of flaxseed (FS) during late-gestation and throughout lactation. Parenchymal weight expressed as a percentage of body weight tended to be greater in offspring from FS compared with CTL sows (P B0.1) and to contain less fat (PB0.1). Offspring from FS sows had more parenchymal protein, whether expressed as a percentage (PB0.05) or total amount in tissue (P50.05), than offspring from CTL sows. No changes (P0.1) in mammary gland expression of the studied genes were observed with dietary treatment.
Three trials were performed in order to establish a method of estimation of colostrum intake based on weight gain in newborn pigs. The first trial involved 33 piglets, bottle-fed with sow colostrum and weighed regularly for 25 h. A regression equation relating colostrum intake (CI in g) to birth weight (BWB in kg), weight at CI estimation (BW in kg), age at first suck (tFS in min) and duration of colostrum intake ( t in min and with 17 h less than or equal to t less than or equal to 25 h) was established with a root mean-square error equal to 33 g. This equation was evaluated with a second data set using 15 further bottle-fed piglets (trial 2). Measured and predicted values were very close ( R 2=0.90). The third trial compared colostrum intake estimated either with the previous equation or with the deuterium oxide dilution method in catheterized sow-reared or bottle-fed piglets (no.=12 per group). The equation underestimated colostrum intake of those piglets, probably due to prior surgery. However, the feeding method (bottle-feeding v. sow-rearing) had no effect on the relationship between weight gain and colostrum intake. Therefore, the equation established in bottle-fed piglets may be applied to sow-reared piglets.
The high mortality rate observed in pig farming is mainly due to inadequate colostrum intake of piglets. Present work aimed to : (1) establish a method of evaluation of colostrum intake by piglets, (2) evaluate the variability of colostrum intake and colostrum production, (3) identify factors of variation of colostrum consumption and production, and (4) study consequences of colostrum intake on piglets’ immunity and survival. Mean colostrum intake between birth and 24 hours after the onset of farrowing (T 24 ) was 214 ± 94 g/kg. Intake differences were due to piglet birth weight and its difference with the litter mean birth weight, piglet birth vitality and litter size. Colostrum production by the sow averaged 3.5 kg for the first day. Litter size and weight had no influence on colostrum production which thus represents a specific characteristic of the sow. However, there were no significant correlations between hormones (prolactin, progesterone, oestradiol) concentrations in colostrum and colostrum production. Piglet’s immunity at T 24 depended on colostrum intake and colostrum immunoglobulins G (IgG) content. A positive correlation between IgG concentrations in piglet plasma was found at T 24 and at weaning. This highlights the importance of acquisition of a strong passive immunity by piglets. Less than 200 g colostrum intake led to a decrease in body temperature,
to catabolism, to small or negative weight gain and to IgG plasma concentration at T 24 below 20 mg/ml. In conclusion, early and abundant colostrum intake is essential for piglet survival. Colostrum intake partly depends on sow’s colostrum production. Selection of sows upon colostrum production ability could improve piglet survival. However, influence of metabolic and endocrine parameters on colostrum production needs to be further studied.
The possible role of the phytoestrogen genistein on prepubertal development of mammary glands, hormonal status and bone resorption was investigated in gilts. Forty-five gilts were fed a control diet containing soya (CTLS, n = 15), a control diet without soya (CTL0, n = 15) or the CTLS diet supplemented with 2.3 g of genistein daily (GEN, n = 15) from 90 days of age until slaughter (day 183 ± 1). Both basal diets were isonitrogenous and isocaloric. Jugular blood samples were obtained on days 89 and 176 to determine concentrations of isoflavone metabolites (on day 176 only), prolactin, estradiol, progesterone, insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1), and N-telopeptide of type I collagen (NTx; on day 176 only). At slaughter, mammary glands were excised, parenchymal and extraparenchymal tissues were dissected, and composition of parenchymal tissue (protein, fat, dry matter (DM), DNA) was determined. Histochemical analyses of mammary parenchyma were performed. Dietary genistein increased parenchymal protein (P < 0.05) while decreasing DM (P < 0.05) and tending to lower fat content compared with the CTLS, but not the CTL0, diet. There was more parenchymal DNA (1.26 v. 0.92 mg/g, P < 0.05) in GEN than CTLS gilts, likely reflecting an increase in the quantity of mammary epithelial cells. Circulating concentrations of genistein were increased in GEN gilts (P < 0.001) but concentrations of hormones or NTx (indicator of bone collagen resorption) were not affected by GEN (P > 0.1). Percentage of estradiol receptor alpha (ERα)-positive epithelial cells was lower (P < 0.05) in GEN than CTLS gilts, whereas 5-bromo-2′-deoxyuridine labeling index was unaltered (P > 0.1). Transcript levels for ERα, ERβ, IGF1, epidermal growth factor (EGF), epidermal growth factor receptor and transforming growth factor alpha were not altered by treatments. Supplementation of the diet with genistein during the growing phase in gilts, therefore, led to hyperplasia of mammary parenchymal tissue after puberty; yet, even though circulating genistein was increased, this was not accompanied by changes in mammary expression of selected genes or circulating hormone levels.
Colostrum yield and composition of 40 Landrace×Large White sows were determined from the onset of parturition until 24 h post partum. Colostrum yield was calculated by adding individual piglets' colostrum intakes for each litter. Colostrum was assayed for prolactin, progesterone, oestradiol-17β, immunoglobulin G and its nutritional composition was determined. Piglets' individual colostrum intake averaged 300 ± 7 g and sows' colostrum yield averaged 3.67 ± 0.14 kg (minimum 1.91 kg, maximum 5.31 kg). Live weight and characteristics at birth (umbilical cord already ruptured, splayleg, difficulty to breathe) were the major factors influencing individual colostrum intake. Colostrum yield was not affected by litter size, tended to be influenced by parity (P = 0.059) and was lower when farrowing was induced (P = 0.017). On the other hand, no relationships were found between hormone concentrations in colostrum and colostrum yield. Mean piglet birth weight and litter weight variation at birth were related to colostrum yield (r = 0.38; P = 0.015 and r = -0.34; P = 0.030, respectively). These results suggest that determinism of colostrum yield depends, in part, on global vitality of the litter but seems to be, most probably, affected by the capacity of sows to produce enough colostrum for the whole litter. Further studies are needed to understand the endocrine regulation of colostrum secretion in sows.
Within-litter variation of piglet birth weight (BW0) is associated with an increased piglet mortality and a high variability in pig weight at weaning and weight or age at slaughter. Data collected in two experimental herds were used to quantify within-litter variability in BW0 and to assess the influence of factors mainly related to the sow. Within 24 h after birth, piglets born alive were individually weighed and stillborn piglets were collectively (first data set) or individually (second data set) weighed. The first data set was restricted to litters with no or only one stillborn piglet (3338 litters). It was used to assess the influence of genetic selection on BW0 variation by comparing litter characteristics before (1994 to 1996) and after (2001 to 2004) the development of hyperprolific sows in this herd. The second data set included all litters (n = 1596) from sows born between 2000 and 2004. For each litter, mean BW0 (mBW0) and its coefficient of variation (CVBW0) were calculated. Then, variance analyses were performed to test the influence of litter size, parity, year of sow birth and season at conception. Prolificacy improvement was associated with an increased CVBW0 in litters from pure Large White (LW) and Landrace × Large White (LR × LW) crossbred sows. The CVBW0 averaged 21% and was significantly influenced by litter size and parity. It increased from 15% to 24% when litter size varied from less than 10 piglets to more than 15 piglets. The proportion of small piglets (i.e. weighing less than 1 kg) increased concomitantly. The CVBW0 was not repeatable from a parity to the following. It was lowest for first and second parities (20%) and thereafter increased progressively. The CVBW0 was positively related to sow's backfat thickness gain during gestation. Taking into account litter size, parity, year of sow birth and season at conception explained 20% of BW0 variation. Thus, major part of heterogeneity is due to other factors, presumably including embryo genotype, on the one hand, and factors that influence embryo and foetus development, such as epigenetic factors, on the other hand.
Colostrum intake from birth to 24 h after the onset of parturition (T24) was estimated for 526 piglets from 40 litters. Plasma concentrations of immunoglobulin G (IgG), lactate, glucose and cortisol were determined at T24 for six piglets per litter. Plasma IgG concentration was also assayed at weaning (28 days) on the same piglets. Rectal temperature was measured at T24 on all piglets. Mortality was recorded until weaning and comparisons were made between piglets that died before weaning and those that were still alive at weaning. The piglets that died before weaning had lower birth weight, lower colostrum intake, lower weight gain between birth and T24, and had a lower rectal temperature, higher plasma cortisol concentration and lower plasma IgG and glucose concentrations at T24 than piglets still alive at weaning. In addition, a higher proportion of piglets that died before weaning had difficulty taking their first breath after birth and were affected by splayleg. Considering all piglets, colostrum intake was positively related to rectal temperature and plasma glucose concentration and negatively related to plasma cortisol concentration at T24. Plasma IgG concentration at T24 was explained by colostrum intake, IgG concentration in the ingested colostrum, birth weight and birth rank (P<0.0001). Plasma IgG concentration at weaning was related to plasma IgG concentration at T24 (r=0.54; P<0.0001) and to colostrum intake (r=0.32; P<0.0001). Finally, body weight was explained by colostrum intake, birth weight and age until 6 weeks of age (P<0.0001). These results show that colostrum intake is the main determinant of piglet survival through provision of energy and immune protection and has potential long-term effects on piglet growth and immunity.
Colostrum provides newborn piglets with energy, immunoglobulins and growth, thereby playing an essential role in piglet survival. However, colostrum yield and composition are highly variable among sows. Some of the factors involved in this variability have been identified. The aim of the study was to confirm previous findings on a large number of animals and to investigate other potential factors of variation, such as the process of farrowing and the morphological changes of the mammary epithelium that occur during the 24 h post partum. The experiment was conducted on 16 Large White (LW) and 56 Landrace (LR)×Large White (LR×LW) crossbred sows of mixed parities and their litters. Most farrowings were induced at 113 days of gestation and all farrowings were attended. Each piglet was weighed at birth and 24 h after farrowing started (t24). Colostrum ingestion by individual piglets was estimated using piglet weight gains from birth to t24. Colostrum production by sows was estimated by summing up colostrum intakes by each piglet of the litter. Colostrum was collected at the onset of farrowing (t0) and at t24 to determine concentrations of immunoglobulins G (IgG), Na and K. Analyses of correlations and multiple regressions were performed to identify the variables involved in variation of colostrum yield and IgG concentrations. Colostrum yield was not related to litter size and weight (P>0.1). It was negatively correlated with the number of stillborn piglets (r=-0.33, P=0.005) and within-litter variation of piglet birth weight (r=-0.24, P=0.04). It was not related to the Na/K ratio in the colostrum, which is an indicator of the integrity of the mammary epithelium. When sows were categorised according to their level of colostrum yield, sows that produced a low yield of colostrum had more stillborn piglets at birth than the other sows (P<0.05) and tended to have a longer birth interval during the early process of parturition (P<0.1). At t24, concentrations of IgG in the colostrum were positively correlated with the Na/K ratio in the colostrum (r=0.53, P<0.001), which indicates the concomitance of the cessation of IgG transfer to the colostrum and the changes in the morphology of the mammary epithelium. This study points out the need for future research on the role of the hormones involved in both the process of parturition and lactogenesis in the relationship between stillbirth, process of parturition and colostrum production.
The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effects of nutrient supply, plasma metabolites, and nutritional status of sows during the transition from gestation to lactation on performance of piglets during the colostral period and throughout lactation. Forty second-parity sows were fed 1 of 4 gestation diets containing a different quantity of dietary fiber (171 to 404 g/kg of DM) from mating until d 108 of gestation. From d 108 of gestation until weaning (d 28 of lactation), sows were fed 1 of 5 lactation diets with a different quantity of dietary fat [3 or 8% with different proportions of medium- (MCFA) and long-chain fatty acids (LCFA)]. Blood was obtained by jugular venipuncture on d 108 and 112 of gestation and on d 1 of lactation, and concentrations of plasma glucose, NEFA, lactate, acetate, propionate, butyrate, and fatty acids were analyzed. Piglet growth and mortality were noted throughout lactation. Piglet mortality during the colostral period (0 to 24 h) was affected by the lactation diets and was positively related to sow backfat (d 108) and plasma lactate (d 112) and negatively related to mean piglet birth weight (P < 0.05). Mean piglet live BW gain (LWG) was recorded in the periods 0 to 24 h, 7 to 10 d, 14 to 17 d, and 17 to 28 d relative to parturition as indirect measures of colostrum yield (0 to 24 h), milk yield in early lactation (d 7 to 10), and at peak lactation (d 14 to 17 and d 17 to 28). Effects of gestation and lactation diets on studied sow traits were tested on selected days during the transition period and the next lactation, and tested statistically on separate days. The LWG in the colostral period was positively correlated with mean piglet birth weight (P < 0.001), plasma concentrations of propionate and MCFA (P < 0.05), and plasma acetate and butyrate (P < 0.1) on d 1 of lactation. The LWG in early lactation was inversely correlated with plasma lactate on d 108 (P < 0.05), plasma glucose on d 112, and backfat thickness on d 108 (P < 0.10). The LWG at peak lactation was positively correlated with MCFA intake of the sow on d 113 to 115 and backfat thickness on d 108 during the transition, and negatively correlated with intake of LCFA and ME intake on d 108 to 112 (P < 0.05). In conclusion, feeding and body condition of sows during the transition from gestation to lactation is important for neonatal piglet survival, lactation performance of sows, and piglet growth during the next lactation.
The aim of this study was to examine the effects of litter size and parity on sibling competition, piglet survival, and weight gain. It was predicted that competition for teats would increase with increasing litter size, resulting in a higher mortality due to maternal infanticide (i.e., crushing) and starvation, thus keeping the number of surviving piglets constant. We predicted negative effects on weight gain with increasing litter size. Based on maternal investment theory, we also predicted that piglet mortality would be higher for litters born late in a sow's life and thus that the number of surviving piglets would be higher in early litters. As predicted, piglet mortality increased with increasing litter size both due to an increased proportion of crushed piglets, where most of them failed in the teat competition, and due to starvation caused by increased sibling competition, resulting in a constant number of survivors. Piglet weight at day 1 and growth until weaning also declined with increasing litter size. Sows in parity four had higher piglet mortality due to starvation, but the number of surviving piglets was not affected by parity. In conclusion, piglet mortality caused by maternal crushing of piglets, many of which had no teat success, and starvation caused by sibling competition, increased with increasing litter size for most sow parities. The constant number of surviving piglets at the time of weaning suggests that 10 to 11 piglets could be close to the upper limit that the domestic sow is capable of taking care of.
Salmon oil (16·5 kg /t), a source of long-chain polyunsaturated n-3 fatty acids, was included in diets offered to multiparous sows during pregnancy and lactation to measure responses in pre-weaning mortality and performance of piglets in two studies. The first study, carried out under commercial conditions, included 196 sows which were offered salmon oil and control diets from immediately post service until weaning. The same diets were also offered to 10 sows per treatment from day 58 of pregnancy in a controlled nutritional study which measured the effects of salmon oil on piglet tissue fatty acid composition. Offering salmon oil to the sow significantly increased gestation length and decreased individual piglet birth weight but had no effect on litter size at birth. Overall, salmon oil reduced pre-weaning mortality from 11·7% to 10·2% mainly by reducing the incidence of deaths from crushing by the sow. More detailed analysis of mortality using a general linear mixed model and 2294 piglet records, demonstrated that the incidence of pre-weaning mortality was significantly decreased with increasing individual piglet birth weight and by inclusion of salmon oil in the diet; the incidence of mortality increased with average piglet birth weight in a litter. Salmon oil inclusion had no effect on weight of litter weaned, sow lactation food intake or subsequent reproductive performance. In both studies, dietary salmon oil increased the proportions of long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in colostrum to a similar extent. In the nutritional study, inclusion of salmon oil reduced the proportions of 20 : 4 n-6 in piglet liver and brain at birth and increased the proportions of long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Therefore, despite reducing piglet birth weight, offering sows salmon oil reduced pre-weaning mortality of piglets. The nutritional study showed that the amount and type of marine oil used may not have been optimal.
The intake of immunoglobulin G (IgG) by sucking piglets from colostrum was estimated over the first 24 h of sucking by the weigh-suck-weigh technique using experimentally determined correction factors for metabolic and urinary losses and was related to appearance of IgG in piglet plasma. Colostrum immunoglobulin G (IgG) concentrations declined rapidly from 61 mg/ml at the start of sucking to 9.0 mg/ml after 24 h sucking. IgG was first detected in piglet plasma after 4 h sucking, increased to a maximum after 12 to 16 h sucking and thereafter declined. In piglets allowed to suck from birth, there was no significant relationship between estimated IgG intake and plasma IgG concentration suggesting that IgG intake did not limit acquisition of IgG by the piglet. When sucking was delayed by 8 or 12 h, colostrum intakes by piglets were not different from piglets allowed immediate access to the udder but IgG intakes were significantly (P < 0.001) decreased. Total plasma IgG (g/kg live weight) did not decline significantly as a result of delayed sucking. In conclusion, under the experimental conditions employed, the appearance of IgG in piglet plasma was limited by factors other than by colostrum IgG intake.
This chapter reviews the current knowledge on milk-borne bioactive compounds, particularly milk-borne immunoglobulins, lactoferrin, lysozymes, lactoperoxidase, leukocytes, epidermal growth factor, insulin-like growth factors, and transforming growth factors and their possible effects on intestinal function and maturation in neonatal pigs. Potential applications of these bioactive compounds in enhancement of intestinal maturation and in treatment of intestinal disorders in neonatal animals are also discussed. Immunoglobulins isolated from the milk of vaccinated cows may prevent or treat specific diseases, including gastrointestinal infections in neonatal pigs. In addition, the colostrum ingestion helps in the survival of the newborn pig. Recent studies have identified a number of growth factors, including EGF, IGF-I, IGF-II, insulin, TGF-βl, and TGF-β2, in porcine colostrum and milk. Experimental evidence indicates a regulatory role for the milk-borne growth factors in stimulating gastrointestinal tissue growth and functional maturation and in enhancing repair of damaged gastrointestinal mucosa in the suckling young. The milk-borne growth factors may be used to enhance gastrointestinal maturation in neonatal animals and to treat gastrointestinal mucosal damage. Potential therapeutic applications of milk-borne growth factors in both agricultural animals and human infants warrant further investigation.
This chapter discusses the development and the environmental regulation of the energy metabolism in the neonatal pig, a species devoid of brown adipose tissue. The newborn pig is poorly insulated and maintenance of its homeothermic balance is essentially related to its ability to produce heat. The skeletal muscle is the major contributor to the energy metabolism, with shivering being the main mechanism of cold-induced thermogenesis. The uncoupling protein-2 (UCP2) and uncoupling protein-3 (UCP3) are expressed in skeletal muscle. Major factors involved in the postnatal improvement in the cold-induced thermogenesis include changes in muscle structure and cardiovascular, biochemical and hormonal adjustments. Muscle maturation is suggested by the marked postnatal increase in myofibrillar mass and the transitory expression of α-cardiac heavy chain myosin and triad proliferation. Muscle mitochondria are functional at birth and both the increase in mitochondrial mass and their ultrastructural change account for the increased oxidative potential of the muscle. The effects of the shift in the energy source from carbohydrate to fat at birth on the development of metabolic pathways including gluconeogenesis, lipogenesis, and fatty acid oxidation are also examined. The chapter emphasizes the key role of carnitine palmitoyltransferase I (CPT-1) in the regulation of fatty acid oxidation.
The effect of feeding high-fiber diets during gestation on concentrations of prolactin (PRL), estradiol (E2) and progesterone and on peripartum behavior of sows was studied. Eighty-five gilts were fed during two gestations a diet based either on corn-soybean (D1), corn cobs and wheat bran (D2) or oats and oat hulls (D3). The total daily intake of energy and protein was calculated to be similar for the three diets. There was a tendency (P = 0.08) for PRL concentrations to be increased in sows fed D2. There was also a time × treatment interaction (P < 0.01) on E2, with the treatment effect being significant on days 35 and 112 of gestation and the treatment × parity interaction being significant at 24 h postpartum. Postural behaviors of the sows varied greatly in relation with time of farrowing and were also affected by parity. During the peripartum period, second parity sows fed D1 or D3 spent more time standing and less time lying on their side than first parity sows, but these differences were not observed when sows were fed D2. The present results indicate that sows fed the 10.1% CF diet (D2) throughout gestation tended to have greater concentrations of prolactin and also seemed calmer around parturition. Key words: Pig, fiber intake, bulky feeds, gestation, peripartum behavior, prolactin
We examined whether characteristics and behavior of the newborn piglet could be used to identify later mortality and poor growth. Thirty-seven litters were classified as having no mortality (n = 12), low mortality (one or two deaths, n = 17) or high mortality (three or more deaths, n = 8). The eight high-mortality litters accounted for 61% of the deaths. Starvation was the most common cause of death in the high-mortality litters while other causes predominated in low-mortality litters. The mortality in a litter was correlated with 3-d weight gain of the survivors suggesting that low milk production by the sow was a major cause of death. During the first 10 h of litter age, teat disputes were more frequent, total time fighting was longer, and synchrony between piglets in suckling developed more slowly in the high-mortality litters. Piglets that died did not differ from the surviving piglets in birth order. However, they tended to have lower birth weights, suckled less often, suckled fewer teats, took a larger proportion of their suckling bouts on the three anterior teat pairs, and were less successful in teat disputes. Piglets that had poor 10-d gains tended to spend a long time fighting, won few teat disputes and suckled less frequently during the first hours after birth, but the correlations were small. Thus, high-mortality litters can be identified before deaths occur. Early identification will improve the efficiency of management programs such as attendance at farrowing and early intervention and thus increase the survival and well-being of piglets. Key words: Neonatal piglet, suckling behavior, teat disputes, mortality, weight gain
Genetic parameters for survival at birth, litter size, birth weight and its variation within litter have been estimated in dam (D1, D2 and D3) and sire lines (S1 and S2) and genetic associations among these traits were examined. Genetic parameters, calculated as posterior means, were estimated at piglet (D1 and D2; 23,565 piglets) and litter level (all lines; 3497 litters) using a Bayesian approach. Posterior means of heritabilities for survival at piglet level (SVBP) were consistently low at 0.01, 0.06 to 0.07 and 0.04 to 0.06 for direct (h²d), maternal (h²m) and total (h²t) genetic effects, respectively, with positive posterior means of correlations between the direct and maternal effect (rg-dm). For survival at litter level (SVBL) heritabilities were between 0.05 and 0.20, with highest estimates in lines with lowest birth weight. For individual piglet birth weight (IBW) heritabilities were substantially higher than for SVBP, ranging from 0.13 to 0.19 (h²d), 0.16 to 0.28 (h²m) and 0.08 to 0.28 (h²t). Heritabilities for average litter birth weight (ALBW) ranged from 0.23 to 0.34, while heritabilities for variation of birth weight within litter (STD) ranged from 0.10 to 0.27. Heritabilities for number born in total (NBT) ranged from 0.11 to 0.16. Genetic associations between SVBL and NBT varied from favourable at 0.39 (D1) to unfavourable at − 0.22 (D2). Genetic correlations of SVBL with ALBW and STD were mostly favourable (0.22 to 0.55 and − 0.18 to − 0.52, respectively) except for SVBL-ALBW in D1 (− 0.50) and SVBL–STD in S2 (0.48). In D1 favourable genetic correlations were estimated between direct or maternal effects of SVBP and IBW whereas those for D2 were unfavourable. Consistently negative correlations were estimated between direct effects of SVBP and maternal effects of IBW. Adjustment for NBT resulted in slightly higher h²d and h²m for SVBP, with unfavourable rg-dm.
Two experiments were conducted to assess whether feeding level in the period from weaning to puberty can affect the amount of mammary tissue at puberty. Four female pigs from eight (exp. 1) to ten (exp. 2) litters were allocated to four treatment groups within litter. From day 28 to 90 of age (period 1) and from day 90 to slaughter, at approximately 5 1/2 months of age (period 2), the gilts were given either ad libitum or restrictive access to feed in a 2×2 factorial arrangement. Neither the amount of dissected mammary tissue nor the amounts of DNA or RNA were affected by feeding regime in period 1. However, ad libitum feeding in period 2 gave rise to more dissected mammary tissue (52%, P
In this study we focused on sow responsiveness towards piglet screams which are proposed to have an important link to posture changes and early piglet crushing. A sow's responsiveness to screams of her piglets was investigated along the first 24h after birth, the period of highest mortality, in 15 lactating sows housed in farrowing crates. We compared the sow's response to playbacks of screams of trapped piglets to her response to a control sound during birth, 8–12h postpartum and 20–24h postpartum. We did the same with playbacks of screams of fighting piglets during nursings 8–12h postpartum and 20–24h postpartum. The sow’ responsiveness to screams of own trapped piglets was analyzed within the whole 24h and to screams of fighting piglets 30min between 8 and 12h postpartum and 30min between 20 and 24h postpartum. A sow was scored as responsive if she changed her posture in response to the stimuli. Sows had a four times higher response towards playbacks with screams than towards the control stimulus. The proportion of the sows’ responsiveness to screams (44%) of trapped piglets did not change significantly between birth, 8–12h postpartum and 20–24h postpartum. Sows responded to 28% of playbacks of fighting piglets by terminating a nursing independently from the time after birth. Playbacks and real screams of own piglets were similarly effective in evoking a response for both types of screams. There was no significant association between the sows’ responsiveness to screams of trapped piglets and piglet mortality nor between screams of fighting piglets and weight gain. In conclusion our results indicate that sows maintained their responsiveness towards piglet screams during trapping and during fighting for teats within the first 24h. Playbacks and real screams were similarly effective in evoking a response. We discuss the importance of the sound characteristics of piglet screams related to the sows’ response.
Daily water intake was monitored for 40 sows during 5 days before and 14 days after farrowing. Intake averaged 9–12 l day−1 before farrowing, dropped to a mean of 6 l on the day of farrowing and increased gradually over 4 days to a plateau of ∼ 14 l day−1. Sows varied greatly in the degree of reduction in intake during the day of farrowing and the first 3 days of lactation, and those sows with low water intake on these days had low average weight gains by the piglets in the same period. Most of the piglet deaths in the study (14 of 19) occurred in the 10 litters whose dam consumed ≤6 l day−1 of water from Day 0 to 3 of lactation. Monitoring of 14 sows by time-lapse video recording showed that gross physical activity (percentage of time standing and sitting) varied greatly among sows during the first 3 days after farrowing, with the less active sows having significantly lower water intake. We suggest that some sows are excessively lethargic in the first days after farrowing and fail to consume adequate water, and that this could contribute to low milk production in early lactation.
The effect on intestinal macromolecular absorption capacity and immunoglobulin G (IgG) transfer of feeding sow colostrum at different intervals and in different quantities to newborn pigs was studied. An amount of 15 ml/kg body weight (BW) colostrum was fed at 3 (treatment 3–15), 6 (treatment 6–15) or 12 (treatment 12–15) h intervals, respectively, starting 0–4 h after birth for 24 h; or 30 ml/kg BW was fed at 6 h intervals (treatment 6–30) or 60 ml/kg BW at 12 h intervals (treatment 12–60), respectively. All studies had a split litter design. These pigs were compared to littermates kept with the sow (treatment With sow). The absorption of IgG and the capacity for macromolecular uptake into the blood at 12 h (BSA as marker) and at 24 h (HSA as marker) were measured at 3 h after marker feeding and followed to 48 h of age. Gavage feeding unsuckled pigs a total of 120 ml colostrum/kg BW divided into 4–8 feedings over the first 24 h after birth resulted in a blood plasma IgG profile at 48 h comparable to that of their suckling littermates. Pigs fed a total 24-h amount of 30 or 60 ml colostrum/kg BW, had significantly lower plasma IgG levels at 27 and at 48 h, respectively. Feeding these low quantities was enough to initiate closure, so that these pigs still had lower levels of circulating IgG at 48 h than their littermates, and they probably maintained these lower IgG levels throughout the suckling period. It was concluded that feeding 30 ml colostrum/kg BW 4 times over the first 24 h provided the pig with plasma IgG levels comparable to that of their suckling littermates.
Mammary development was measured in gilts from birth to day 112 of pregnancy. Non-pregnant gilts were slaughtered at age intervals of approximately 10 days and pregnant gilts were slaughtered at pregnancy stage intervals of approximately 10 days. Before pregnancy, accumulation of mammary tissue and DNA was slow until approximately 90 days of age. The rate of mammary tissue and DNA accretion then increased four- to sixfold. In pregnant gilts, almost all accumulation of mammary tissue and DNA occurred in the last third of pregnancy. The accumulation seemed to continue until term. The measurement of labelled mammary epithelial cells after an in vivo injection of the thymidine analogue bromodeoxyuridine could not detect small or moderate changes in the rate of mammary DNA accumulation. We conclude that mammary gland development in gilts appears to occur in phases with varying rates of mammary growth.
The effects of plane of nutrition on blood flow in the portal vein (PBF) and on the rate of clearance of progesterone from the circulation (MCR) were measured for 14 or 24 h in six ovariectomized gilts given 1 or 3 kg of food per day. On a body weight basis, PBF was significantly increased by the increase in food intake from a mean for all gilts of 14·9 ml/kg.min (1·34 litres/min) on 1 kg to 21·6 ml·kg. min (1·96 litres/min) on 3 kg, a mean increase of 45 %. Metabolic clearance of progesterone was increased by a similar percentage, 47·1%, from 41·0 ml/kg.min (3·70 litres/min) to 60·3 ml/kg.min (5·67 litres/min) by the increase in food intake. Both MCR and PBF were lowest between 04.00 and 06.00 h, increasing after each feed except that when 3 kg/day was fed the MCR remained high throughout the period between meals. In two gilts, blood flow in both the portal vein and hepatic artery (HAF) was measured. The mean PBF and HAF for each pig were 40·6 and 5·8, and 32·4 and 35 ml/kg, min respectively. HAF was 11·2% of total hepatic blood flow.
The nutritional and immunological importance of colostrum for the survival and development of the neonatal pig are reviewed. The pig is born with low body energy stores and devoid of serum immunoglobulins. Colostrum provides the piglet with both energy and maternal antibodies but its fat and protein composition is very variable. Colostrum is very digestible, and both colostral energy and nitrogen (N) are retained with a very high efficiency. Colostrum production by the sow assessed from the weight gain of the litter from birth to 24 h of age is very variable (from 1900 to 5300 g). There is no clear effect of litter size or parity, suggesting that colostrum production is a characteristic of the sow. Within a litter, colostrum consumption by the individual piglets varies considerably. It is independent of birth order, but related positively to birth weight and negatively to litter size. Other factors influencing colostrum consumption, including cold stress, premature birth and birth hypoxia, are discussed. Because of the epitheliochorial nature of the porcine placenta, the new-born piglet must acquire maternal immunoglobulin G (IgG) from ingested colostrum for passive immune protection until the immune system of the piglet becomes fully developed. Colostrum IgG concentrations in milk vary widely between individual sows both in initial concentration and in the rate at which concentrations decline during the first 24 h of life. The piglet can only absorb intact IgG prior to gut closure, which occurs in the first 24 h of life and is induced by intakes of colostrum which are insufficient to maintain piglet live-weight. As a result, the amounts of intact IgG absorbed by the piglet vary widely. The effects of colostrum consumption on neonatal survival are discussed. Consumption of colostrum in amounts sufficient to meet the energy requirement of the piglet is a major determinant for survival. Since most neonatal losses occur in the first 2 days of life, before acquisition of a maternal IgG for immune protection becomes important for survival, piglet serum IgG concentration does not correlate well with early survival but is important in later resistance to disease challenge. It is concluded that colostrum production is a good marker for the maternal quality of the sow. Future research should focus on the ability of the sow to produce more colostrum and on the possible delayed effects of passive immunisation on the health and performance of piglet at weaning and later in life.
Sixty Landrace × Large White piglets were removed from their mothers at birth and allocated to one of five treatments. Treatment A piglets were controls and did not receive any form of passive immunity after birth. Treatment B piglets were given by intraperitoneal injection 20 ml equine serum derived from horses previously hyperimmunized against porcine pathogens. Treatment C piglets received the same equine serum given orally. Treatment D piglets were given 20 ml pooled pig plasma by intraperitoneal injection. Treatment E piglets received the same pig plasma given orally. All piglets were reared to 2 weeks of age in an artificial-rearing device and were automatically fed a liquid diet every hour. Overall survival to 2 weeks of age was 90% (54/60) but treatment did not affect survival. The overall survival after 6 weeks of age was 47% (22/47) deaths being due to a variety of systemic disorders. Overall daily gain to 2 weeks of age was 143 g/day and the food/gain ratio was 0·88. Treatment did not affect performance. The concentrations of immunoglobulin class G (IgG) in the blood were measured at 42, 49 and 56 days of age. There were no differences between the treatment groups in IgG concentrations.
Accidental crushing by the sow is a major cause of death among domestic piglets. Piglets risk being crushed if they are underneath the sow as she lies down, but they may benefit from staying close to the sow by improving their access to teats during nursings and by increasing milk production. The prediction was tested that piglets with relatively low weight gains, and thus in greatest need of energy or nutrients, would spend more time in close proximity to the sow and therefore assume a higher mortality risk from crushing. Piglets (N=138 from 17 litters) were highly variable in birth weight, weight gain, and the amount of time they spent in the risky area underneath a standing or sitting sow. As predicted, piglets that had gained less weight spent more time in this risky area. The relationship held both within and between litters, and was largely because poor-gaining piglets spent more time actively nuzzling the sow's udder, an activity that may increase milk production of a teat.
Because of the epitheliochorial nature of the porcine placenta, the new-born piglet must acquire maternal immunoglobulins from ingested colostrum and milk for passive immune protection until the immune system of the piglet becomes fully developed. Concentrations of IgG in piglet plasma depend on the amount of colostrum ingested, IgG concentrations in colostrum and the timing of gut closure (when intact IgG can no longer be absorbed by the gastro-intestinal tract of the piglet). Much of the available information concerning IgG absorption by the piglet and the mechanism and timing of gut closure has been derived from studies using artificially-fed piglets. It is now recognised that, in addition to changes in colostrum IgG concentrations in the first 24 h of life, colostrum contains many bio-active compounds whose concentrations also change rapidly in the first 24 h of life. Modern sows are expected to rear increased numbers of physiologically less mature piglets and producers are faced with pressures to reduce antibiotic usage. Therefore it is critical that piglets absorb adequate amounts of IgG for disease protection. The review assesses the maternal supply of IgG and piglet absorption of IgG in naturally suckling piglets of modern genotype. Nutritional and other factors which may influence acquisition of IgG by the piglet are discussed and relationships between acquisition of passive immunity and development of active immunity addressed.
Growth, subsequent milk yield and subsequent reproduction traits were recorded in an initial number of 72 gilts subjected to one of three different rearing intensities, Semi ad lib. feeding (ad libitum for 30 min at the two daily feedings), Control (Danish standards), and 75% Control. The treatments were imposed between 6 weeks of age and mating. During four subsequent pregnancy and lactation periods, all animals were fed according to Danish standards. Daily gain between 6 weeks and 180 days of age was 717 g for Semi ad lib., 669 g for Control, and 552 g for 75% Control gilts. Age at mating was similar (221–225 days) in the three treatments, while weight at mating was 134 kg for Semi ad lib., 127 kg for Control, and 110 kg for 75% Control pigs. Average daily milk yield over four lactation periods was similar in all treatments (6.9–7.0 kg). Average litter size was between 9.1 and 10.1 live born piglets, and there was a tendency (P=0.14) towards a smaller litter size in 75% Control. For unknown reasons, animals in Control treatment had the lowest weight gain during pregnancy, while weight loss during lactation was similar. The interval from weaning to first oestrus was not affected by treatment. Ultrasound measurements of fat and muscle depths showed differences during the rearing period, but these differences levelled off as the experiment progressed.
To examine the relationships between passive acquisition of immunoglobulin G (IgG) by piglets from colostrum and concentrations of plasma IgG at weaning, IgG concentrations in the blood plasma of piglets naturally suckling the sow were measured in the first week of life and at 28 days of age in three experiments. In two experiments the quantities of specific antibodies (anti-Newcastle disease virus, NDV) transferred from the sow to the piglet in colostrum were also quantified. The concentrations of IgG in piglet plasma at 28 days of age were significantly and positively related to concentrations in plasma at 2 and 7 days of age. NDV–IgG in piglet plasma declined more rapidly than total IgG between 7 and 28 days of age, but not between 2 and 7 days of age. In one experiment, concentrations of IgG in piglet plasma at 28 and 35 days of age were related to the diet the sow received during pregnancy, with diets including marine oil giving higher values. Estimates were made of the total amount (rather than concentration) of IgG in piglet plasma at different ages and these showed that amounts of IgG increased between 7 and 28 days of age, but not between 2 and 7 days; a similar conclusion was made from the dilution of NDV IgG in piglet plasma. Therefore, these estimates suggested that naturally suckling piglets begin synthesising IgG from 7 days of age and that the amounts of IgG synthesised are positively correlated with the amounts of IgG absorbed from colostrum.
An experiment was conducted to determine if manipulation of conceptus number could alter estrogen, progesterone or prolactin concentrations in gilts and thereby influence mammary development. Estradiol-valerate injections, oviduct ligation or no treatment were utilized to form three groups of gilts with zero (n=5), 4 to 7 (n=4), or 8 to 11 (n=4) conceptuses, respectively. Blood samples were taken throughout pregnancy, and at day 110 of gestation all gilts were slaughtered and total mastectomies were performed. Mammary glands were analyzed for wet weights, dry weights, RNA and DNA contents. Results indicated conceptuses stimulated mammary development since mammary glands from pseudopregnant gilts had only 22% as much DNA as mammae from pregnant gilts. However, mammary DNA was not different between gilts with 4 to 7 or 8 to 11 conceptuses. The relationship between conceptus number and mammary gland DNA in gilts was best described by the quadratic equation y = 577 + 583x − 38x2, where y = total mammary DNA (mg) and x = conceptus number. Significant positive among-animal and within-group correlations between estrogen-sulfate or estrone concentrations in blood and maternal mammary DNA content suggest that estrogens may be the primary conceptus-derived mammogenic hormone in gilts.
Data collected from 965 litters from the start of the Pig Research Station of ITP in July 1998 until October 2000 (12,041 piglets born) were used to evaluate the variation of piglets’ birth weight and its consequences on post-weaning performance. All piglets were individually weighed at birth and at 27 days of age (weaning) but only some of them were studied after weaning. Increasing litter size from ≤11 to ≥16 piglets results in a reduced mean birth weight from 1.59 to 1.26 kg, which corresponds to a mean decrease of 35 g per each additional piglet born. Concomitantly, the proportion of small piglets, i.e. weighing less than 1 kg, increases from 7 to 23% of total born in these litters. Below 1.0 kg BW, more than 11% of piglets are stillbirths and thereafter more than 17% die within the first 24 h. The corresponding values above 1.0 kg average 4 and 3%, respectively. Despite a low number of small animals still alive at weaning, our data indicate that the higher is the birth weight the higher is the average daily gain both over the sucking, the post-weaning and the growing–finishing periods.
This study investigated whether the within-litter weight distribution at birth is already established by the end of the embryonic stage of pregnancy (Day 35) and whether it is related to embryonic mortality rate. All data were obtained from Dutch Landrace gilts which had been inseminated with semen of Dutch Landrace boars. A total of 373 foetal litters (Day 27-Day 110) and 826 litters at term were classified into one of five litter types on the basis of the within-litter weight distribution. Independent of stage of pregnancy, within-litter weights were normally distributed in approximately 67% of all litters. The within-litter weight distribution at birth was already established by the end of the embryonic stage. Embryonic mortality rate was lower in litters with two discrete subpopulations than in litters with a normal distribution, except for litters with giants (growth-enhanced foetuses). The latter had the highest average embryonic mortality rate. The type of within-litter weight distribution might be a consequence of the very early existence of variation in embryonic development and the functioning of an intrauterine mechanism of selective mortality to reduce developmental variation before implantation.
An experiment was conducted to study whether piglet growth rate is related to mammary gland size. It involved three primiparous sows and four multiparous sows that were fed ad libitum during the lactation period. The piglets received no creep feed. The weight and teat order of the piglets were recorded. The sows were slaughtered after approximately 4 weeks of lactation (25–28 days). The amounts of mammary tissue and mammary DNA were larger in multiparous than in primiparous sows, and the concentrations and amounts of mammary RNA as well as mammary RNA/DNA ratios were highest in the front glands, intermediate in the middle and lowest in the rear glands. Average daily gain of the piglets was of the same magnitude regardless of gland position in the primiparous sows. In the multiparous sows, the piglets suckling the front teats had the highest gain while those suckling the middle teats had intermediate gain and those suckling the rear teats had the lowest gain. Average daily gain of the piglets in the lactation period was positively correlated to the amount of mammary tissue (0.35), mammary DNA (0.41) and mammary RNA (0.31), while correlations to mammary RNA concentration (0.28) and RNA/DNA ratio (0.22) did not reach significance. There were no significant correlations between piglet start weight and any of these mammary gland compositional traits.
To determine the relationship between within-litter birth weight variation and pre-weaning survival and weight gain, and to provide practical guidance on fostering low-birth-weight piglets, we analyzed piglet survival and weight gain in litters of piglets from 52 sows followed through eight consecutive parities. Litters with high variation in birth weight had more deaths, especially if the litter’s mean birth weight was low. High variation in birth weight was also associated with high variation in weaning weight, but was not significantly related to mean weaning weight. Piglets with birth weights well below the range of most of the litter (‘low-birth-weight piglets’) were more likely to die than their litter-mates, but their weight gains were normal for their birth weight if they survived. These piglets experienced particularly low survival in larger litters and litters from sows of sixth parity or older. Litters containing low-birth-weight piglets started, on average, with more piglets born alive and had a lower pre-weaning survival (with the majority of deaths being low-birth-weight piglets), but did not wean significantly more piglets than litters without low-birth-weight piglets. The majority of litters had a negatively skewed distribution of birth weights, with more piglets well below the mean than well above it. Our data are consistent with the hypothesis that high variation in birth weight contributes to reduced survival, at least for litters of low mean birth weight, and to variable weaning weights. Our data also support the hypothesis that in terms of survival, small piglets have a competitive disadvantage compared to their heavier litter-mates, a disadvantage that is exacerbated in large litters and litters from older sows. Our data suggest that selection for increased litter size that results in more low-birth-weight piglets per litter may not be beneficial unless measures are undertaken to improve the survival of low-birth-weight piglets.
The evolutionary strategy adopted by the pig is to produce a large number of relatively undeveloped offspring. Such a strategy demands that relatively little investment is made in each individual piglet pre-natally, and that piglets which are surplus to resources should die at an early stage with least prejudice to their littermates. Thus, inherent variation in neonatal competitiveness is an advantage and survival of the strongest is promoted. Genetic selection strategies resulting in increased litter size and reduced physiological maturity at birth have compounded these effects, making piglet mortality an intractable problem. Records of piglet mortality in commercial units indicate that most deaths of liveborn piglets are attributed to crushing and starvation, but these ultimate causes are often secondary to the effects of perinatal hypothermia. Piglet survival is the outcome of complex interactions between the sow, the piglet and the environment. Commercial strategy has focused on improving the farrowing environment to modify sow behaviour and increase human intervention. However, concerns about the welfare implications of confining sows in farrowing crates may limit the use of such approaches in the future and change the focus towards genetic selection for characteristics in both the dam and offspring which promote survival. Methods of improving the inherent viability of the piglet, for example by increasing birth weight, neonatal vigour and thermoregulatory ability, have been commercially less effective to date, with intra-partum hypoxia exerting an overwhelming influence. A better understanding of neonatal and maternal physiology in relation to placental transfer of nutrients, regulation of the parturition process, colostrum transfer and expression of appropriate maternal behaviour is required for the development of effective future solutions.
The possible role of dietary flax on pre-pubertal development of mammary glands and bone resorption was investigated in gilts. Fifty-seven gilts were fed 1 of 4 diets from 88 d of age until slaughter (d 212 +/- 1). Diets were control without flax (n = 14); 10% flaxseed supplementation (n = 13); 6.5% flaxseed meal supplementation (n = 15); and 3.5% flaxseed oil supplementation (n = 15). All diets were isonitrogenous and isocaloric. Jugular blood samples were obtained on d 78 and 210 to establish the fatty acid profile and to determine the concentrations of prolactin, estradiol, and cross-linked N-telopeptides of type I collagen. At slaughter, the mammary glands were excised, parenchymal and extraparenchymal tissues were dissected, and the composition of the parenchymal tissue (protein, fat, DM, and DNA) was determined. Histochemical analyses of the mammary parenchyma were performed, and fatty acid profiles in the extraparenchymal tissue were evaluated. Dietary flax increased (P < or = 0.001) the concentrations of PUFA and decreased those of SFA (P < 0.01) and MUFA (P < or = 0.001) in plasma and extraparenchymal tissues, which was largely due to the inclusion of 10% flaxseed or 3.5% flaxseed oil (P < or = 0.01) but not 6.5% flaxseed meal. Circulating concentrations of prolactin and estradiol were unaltered by treatments (P > 0.1), but concentrations of cross-linked N-telopeptides of type I collagen tended to be greater (P < 0.1) in flax-supplemented gilts. The DM content of parenchymal tissue was the only mammary compositional value affected, showing an increase with flax addition (P < 0.05). No change (P > or = 0.1) in the bromodeoxyuridine labeling index or estrogen receptor localization was observed with treatments. Dietary supplementation with flax as seed, meal, or oil, therefore, brought about the expected changes in the fatty acid profile but had no beneficial effects on mammary development or bone resorption.
Rate of decline in plasma progesterone concentration may influence the success of lactogenesis in the sow. The aim of this experiment was to investigate whether progesterone concentration and rate of decline of progesterone in the periparturient sow could be manipulated by changing her feeding level. Forty-two sows received either 1.15 or 2 times maintenance energy daily from day 100 of gestation up until and including the day of farrowing. Blood samples were taken on days 98 (pre-treatment baseline) and 109 of gestation, during farrowing, 6h after farrowing and at 09:00 h for the 3 days following farrowing. Plasma progesterone concentration was determined and progesterone half-life was calculated for each sow. High intake feeding had no effect on plasma progesterone concentration at any time of sampling. Progesterone half-life averaged 41.2 +/- 3.81 h and did not differ between treatments. There was no relationship between progesterone concentration, or half-life, and litter weight gain, although there was a weak correlation between decline in progesterone in the first 6h after birth and piglet growth rate from birth to 6 days of age (R(2) = 0.109, P < 0.05). It was concluded that increasing feed intake in late gestation cannot be used to increase progesterone clearance rate and hasten the onset of lactogenesis in sows.
Gilts were assigned as controls (CTL, n = 6) or received orally 10 mg of bromocriptine thrice daily from d 110 of gestation until farrowing, (BRPP, n = 7), from d 1 to 6 postpartum (PP) (BRL1, n = 6), from d 7 to 13 PP (BRL2, n = 7), from d 14 to 20 PP (BRL3, n = 6), or from d 21 to 27 PP (BRL4, n = 6). Weights of pigs were recorded at birth, 24 h later, and on d 7, 14, 21, 28, 31 (weaning), 42, and 56 PP. Jugular blood samples were collected from sows on d 109 of gestation and every other day until farrowing, as well as on d 1, 6, 13, 20, and 27 PP. Behavioral observations of sows and litters were taken every 3 min for a 24-h period beginning 48 h after the onset of the treatments. In experimental sows, bromocriptine induced marked reductions in prolactin levels during treatment (P < .001). Compared to CTL sows, concentrations of IGF-I were higher at d 21 (P = .01) and 28 (P = .003) PP in BRL3 and BRL4 sows, respectively. In bromocriptine-treated sows, weight gain of litters was either drastically reduced or abolished (P < .001) during the week of treatment. Treatments also altered significantly the suckling behavior of pigs at all stages studied. Therefore, the present results strongly suggest that prolactin is essential for the initiation and the maintenance of milk production in sows. Results also indicate that prolactin does not seem to be involved in the maintenance of lactational anestrus during a 4-wk lactation.
Hormonal changes involved in the farrowing process partly control the initiation of lactation. Inducing farrowing by injection of PG may alter the normal prepartum hormonal cascade. The aim of the study was to investigate the consequences of farrowing induction on colostrum yield and composition, as well as newborn piglet growth. Gilts were treated with 2 mg of alfaprostol on d 113 of gestation (induced farrowing, IF, n = 9) or were injected with 1 mL of a saline solution (natural farrowing, NF, n = 11). Colostrum production was estimated during 24 h, starting at the onset of parturition, based on piglet BW gains. Colostrum samples were collected during the 36 h after the onset of parturition. Blood samples were collected from sows as of d 112 of pregnancy until d 2 postpartum (d 0 being the day of parturition). Piglet blood samples were obtained at birth, on d 1, and on d 21. Litter size and litter weight at birth did not differ between groups (P > 0.10). Farrowing induction did not influence (P > 0.10) colostrum yield (3.96 ± 0.20 kg) or piglet BW gain during d 1 postpartum (116 ± 8 g). At the onset of farrowing (T0), lactose content in colostrum was greater in IF sows than in NF sows (P < 0.05), whereas colostrum ash and protein contents were less (P < 0.05) in IF sows. Concentrations of IgG in colostrum were similar in both groups of sows, whereas concentrations of IgA at T0 were less in IF than in NF sows (P < 0.01). Overall, endocrine changes in blood from d -2 until d 2 (cortisol, prolactin, progesterone, and estradiol-17β) were not altered by farrowing induction (P > 0.10), but 1 h after the injection of alfaprostol, IF sows had greater circulating concentrations of prolactin (P < 0.01) and cortisol (P < 0.10) than NF sows. The greater concentration of lactose in colostrum from IF sows could be attributed to this transient increase in prolactin and cortisol. At birth, concentrations of white blood cells were less in piglets born from IF sows (P < 0.01). On d 1 and 21, piglets from IF sows had similar IgG concentrations in plasma to piglets from NF sows (P > 0.1). In conclusion, farrowing induction at 113 d of pregnancy induced transient hormonal changes in sows and alterations in colostrum composition, without significantly affecting colostrum yield. It also modified some hematological variables of piglets at birth.