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Hízose el milagro. La inversión directa estadounidense y la empresa española (c. 1900-1975)
Abstract
After fifty years of academic analysis of the multinational enterprise, we still know very little about its long-term interaction with local firms and entrepreneurs. This is a key issue to assess the contribution of foreign direct investment to economic growth. For this reason this article examines that interaction through the analysis of US direct investment in a relatively backward country, Spain until 1975. The results achieved: 1) stress the role played by local partners facilitating US firms’ entry and operations in the country; 2) show that the constitution of temporary joint ventures was an increasingly frequent mode of entry; 3) give evidence of an increasing involvement of US firms in the host market; 4) limit the effect on US firms of the economic nationalism that characterized the period of study; and 5) suggest that an environment favorable to cooperation between foreigners and domestic entrepreneurs was built throughout the 20th century.
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Best wishes,
Fernando.
From a country lagging behind in international tourism during the first third of the 20th century, although emerging, Spain became a tourist power. How and why did this transformation take place? What role did mass tourism play in the Spanish development model between 1939 and 1975? What socio-economic consequences did it have? Some of the answers to these questions are the main focus of this paper.
The 'Golden Age' refers to an era of rapid economic growth which led to dramatic changes within European society. The steady rise in income coupled with recently introduced paid holidays encouraged the new middle classes to emulate the lifestyle of the glamorous and privileged trendsetters of the Belle Époque and the 1920s. The outward trappings of this included the purchase of a car and annual holidays in the Mediterranean, amounting in the 1950s to a sort of yearly pilgrimage. In the Balearic Islands and the Costa Brava an ample tourist sector flourished against a political background that was essentially in opposition to it-the autarchic stage of the Franco
The call for a special symposium on ‘The Brand and Its History’ has led to two journal issues that focus on trademarks and brands, respectively. This issue is devoted to trademarks, the more concrete, well-documented, and measurable aspect of brands. This editorial introduces trademark studies; summarises previous contributions from economic, legal, business, and historical literature; provides a short overview of the topics and findings of the seven articles included in this issue; and reflects on further research.
This article explores the long-term effects of foreign direct investment on the human capital development of host economies, based on the historical analysis of the Spanish operations of four leading American firms: ITT, J. Walter Thompson, Merck Sharp & Dohme, and John Deere. Our research shows that the training and working practices of these companies had a positive impact on the Spanish subsidiaries in terms of technological upgrading and managerial development. However, the local context was also relevant, through mandatory agreements that empowered local partners from the start and the availability of locally educated professionals eager to absorb new knowledge.
El diseño de una nueva organización territorial del Estado fue uno de los principales elementos de fricción durante la transición a la democracia en España. Por este motivo, la génesis del actual Estado de las Autonomías fue contemplada con gran interés por el gobierno norteamericano. En Washington llegó a existir la preocupación de que una falta de acuerdo en esta materia pudiera llegar a hacer descarrilar todo el proceso democratizador. Junto a lo que acontecía en Cataluña, el principal foco de atención se fijó en el caso vasco dada la creciente actividad del terrorismo etarra en aquel periodo. A partir de los informes preparados por los servicios de inteligencia estadounidenses y las comunicaciones entre las legaciones norteamericanas en España y el Departamento de Estado, en este artículo se analizará cómo fueron evaluadas dichas demandas nacionalistas desde Estados Unidos y los debates generados en el seno del Ejecutivo.
The design of a new territorial organization of the State was one of the main elements of friction during the Transition to Democracy in Spain. For this reason, the genesis of the current State of Autonomies was regarded with interest by the US Government. In Washington there was a concern that a lack of agreement on this subject could completely derail the democratization process. Along with the Catalan demands, the focus of the attention was on the Basque case given the increasing activity of ETA terrorism. Taking into account the reports prepared by the US Intelligence and the communications between the American diplomatic posts in Spain and the Department of State, this article analyzes how these nationalist demands were evaluated from the United States and the debates generated within the Executive.
This article reflects on foreign direct investment (FDI) and intellectual property rights (IPRs) over the long term, and analyzes the case of Spain during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Although the interactions between IPRs and FDI have attracted significant research efforts in distinct economic and business areas, the results lack permanent answers. Our findings demonstrate that, from a macro-level perspective: (1) FDI and IPRs are effectively related over the long term; (2) weak IPR protection does not seem to have stopped FDI; and (3) the countries with major FDI in Spain were less worried about IPR management than were other countries with less FDI.
RESUMEN En este artículo se analiza el comportamiento de la inversión directa esta-dounidense en el Sur de Europa (1966-2014), atendiendo a variables institu-cionales que sirven para explicar el mismo. Para ello se utiliza un modelo que pone en relación la rentabilidad anual de las inversiones, medida ésta a partir del Return On Assets (ROA) gap, con la economía y el régimen político de los PIGS, además de contar con la incidencia de los cambios metodológicos en la estructura. Los resultados confirman cómo la influencia del régimen político parece menor que, por ejemplo, la expectativa de entrada a instituciones su-pranacionales como las Comunidades Europeas. La inexistencia de patrones comunes al estimar el modelo para países de Europa del Sur –durante dic-taduras, transiciones y democracias– prueba la complejidad que esconden las motivaciones de la inversión directa extranjera (IDE), mientras el caso de España resulta significativo por su originalidad.
This article analyzes the behavior of U.S. Direct Investment in Southern Europe (1966-2014), paying particular attention to the institutional variables. We use a model that connects the annual investment returns, measured through the Return on Assets (ROA) gap, with the economy and the political regimes of the PIGS, and also considering the impact of methodological changes in the model structure. The results support that the political conditions were less important than other factors as, for instance, the expectations to become members of supranational institutions like the European Communities. Within the absence of common patterns when checking the model estimates for Southern European countries –through dictatorships, transitional periods or democracies–, it remains clear the complexity of the motivations that guide the Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), whereas Spain appears as a peculiar case.
Tras la muerte del general Franco, los sucesivos gobiernos norteamericanos –tanto republicanos como demócratas– observaron atentamente los cambios socio-políticos que se estaban produciendo en España con objeto de asegurar los intereses estadounidenses en el país. Más allá del componente militar –clave de la relación hispano-norteamericana durante el franquismo– la situación de la economía española aparece como uno de los temas preferentes, tal y como queda al descubierto en los diversos informes remitidos desde la Embajada estadounidense en Madrid durante el proceso de transición a la democracia. Esta documentación servía a los Departamentos del Tesoro y Estado para evaluar el riesgo país de España en estos complejos años. Apoyándose en estas fuentes primarias, el presente artículo analiza cómo se percibía desde la Administración Reagan la posible llegada al poder de un gobierno socialista y cuál era su balance sobre el programa económico que presentaba el PSOE ante la cita electoral de 1982.
In this article, we study the behavior of French technical consulting firms in the Spain of the Planning (1959–1976), when
the Spanish market increased its competitiveness as a result of the liberalization and modernization of its economy. For this
purpose, the main players—both the French and their Spanish partners—have been identified, and the strategies, models, and
sectors in which the French technical consultancies specialized in Spain have been analyzed. Our research reveals that French
firms mainly operated via technical assistance contracts when providing services to the classical sectors of French investment
in Spain between the first and the second industrial revolutions. These sectors include mining, railroads, iron and steel,
chemicals, and electricity. The French role in these activities was based on their experience and knowledge of the market,
in turn resulting from their historical presence in the neighboring country. The article is also useful to assist the available
literature regarding business consultancy in the conceptualization of how management knowledge is transferred from one country
to another.
This article goes into the renewed main theories on the evolution of the multinational enterprise (MNE) providing evidence about how MNEs develop networking capabilities to strengthen their position in host markets characterised by uncertainty. In particular, the operations in Spain of the largest telecom group of the interwar period, ITT, are examined through an extensive use of both diplomatic and corporate records. It is argued that the alliances developed by the multinational around the host market's political and business elite, enhanced by the support given by the US government, allowed ITT to preserve their interests in the country in turbulent times characterised by rising economic nationalism and instability in international and local markets. The alliances set around locals, furthermore, compensated ITT's lack of both institutional and business market knowledge, that is, ITT's liability of foreignness and outsidership when entering Spain.
Este artículo analiza el papel de la ayuda internacional en la difusión de conocimientos entre países. Para ello se examina en perspectiva comparada el impacto que, sobre la formación de capital humano en las empresas españolas, ejerció el programa de asistencia técnica concedido por Estados Unidos a España en el marco de la Guerra Fría. El estudio muestra que, al igual que en el resto de Europa, la ayuda técnica sirvió para difundir las bondades atribuidas al modelo empresarial americano, que los empresarios españoles jugaron un papel relevante en la adopción y adaptación de parte de las ideas y técnicas asociadas a dicho modelo, que la ayuda militar y económica intensificaron los efectos de la ayuda técnica; y que tanto el atraso relativo español como la conciencia de que la propia ayuda generaba oportunidades de negocio diversas alimentaron la receptividad mostrada por los actores locales hacia las técnicas foráneas.
International capital flows are strongly influenced by country-specific patterns that can be best understood in historical and comparative perspective. A long-term empirical analysis of French and German investment in Spain reveals that the core capabilities of foreign firms and their relations with local partners have spurred the rise and development of two national models of international investment, characterized here as “political” and “technical.” The research identifies the main actors and ownership advantages of the two models, which have proved resilient over time.
RESUMEN
El principal objetivo de esta investigación es conocer las fuentes del crecimiento del producto real de la economía española en el período 1964–1973. Para ello se han distinguido los siguientes componentes: stock de capital, calidad del stock de capital, número de horas trabajadas, calidad de las horas trabajadas y PTF. Se ha utilizado una función de producción Translog y se han diferenciado el crecimiento de la calidad y el crecimiento de la cantidad de los factores productivos. El resultado que se obtiene es que el principal componente del crecimiento del producto es el crecimiento de la PTF.
RESUMEN
¿Cuáles fueron los efectos que la ayuda americana tuvo en la economía española de los años cincuenta? Este artículo afronta esta pregunta desde una perspectiva alejada de los enfoques que, enfatizando el desahogo de embotellamientos productivos, habían sido predominantes hasta la fecha en la historiografía económica española. Se elabora aquí una interpretación que sugiere que la concesión de la ayuda americana pudo tener, entre sus consecuencias, la rehabilitación de las expectativas empresariales privadas. El programa de ayuda americano, como parte del proceso de aceptación internacional del régimen de Franco, pudo generar una mejora de la credibilidad política del régimen que se tradujo en un clima de mayor seguridad y confianza de los agentes económicos, un aumento de la inversión y, con ella, del crecimiento económico. El artículo concluye con una llamada a profundizar la investigación sobre este episodio histórico.
This book challenges the widely accepted notion that globalization encourages economic convergence--and, by extension, cultural homogenization--across national borders. A systematic comparison of organizational change in Argentina, South Korea, and Spain since 1950 finds that global competition forces countries to exploit their distinctive strengths, resulting in unique development trajectories. Analyzing the social, political, and economic conditions underpinning the rise of various organizational forms, Guillén shows that business groups, small enterprises, and foreign multinationals play different economic roles depending on a country's path to development. Business groups thrive when there is foreign-trade and investment protectionism and are best suited to undertake large-scale, capital-intensive activities such as automobile assembly and construction. Their growth and diversification come at the expense of smaller firms and foreign multinationals. In contrast, small and medium enterprises are best fitted to compete in knowledge-intensive activities such as component manufacturing and branded consumer goods. They prosper in the absence of restrictions on export-oriented multinationals. The book ends on an optimistic note by presenting evidence that it is possible--though not easy--for countries to break through the glass ceiling separating poor from rich. It concludes that globalization encourages economic diversity and that democracy is the form of government best suited to deal with globalization's contingencies. Against those who contend that the transition to markets must come before the transition to ballots, Guillén argues that democratization can and should precede economic modernization. This is applied economic sociology at its best--broad, topical, full of interesting political implications, and critical of the conventional wisdom.
This article discusses the vast literature focusing on the historical evolution of multinational businesses. A broad consensus prevails among most students of the history of multinational enterprise that the modern multinational dates from the mid or late nineteenth century - that it is in fact a postindustrial revolution phenomenon. Only with steamships, railroads, and cables was it possible for managers to exercise control over business operations across borders in a meaningful manner. Transportation and communication revolutions were prerequisites for the existence of effective coordination within an individual firm. Over the years, however, this consensus has been challenged. Indeed, for decades it has been recognized that certain aspects of the modern multinational enterprise have had a long history. The research on pre-industrial age multinational enterprise adds new insights into the nature and history of this most important organization.
Among the factors that have assured the success of units of “multinational” firms like the International Telephone and Telegraph Company, according to Professor Little, is the willingness of the parent's home government to use its diplomatic strengths to assure that a host government lives up to its contractual obligations, even after radical changes in its leadership. Using diplomatic correspondence of the United States with ITT and the Spanish Republic of the 1930s, he demonstrates the vital nature of these strengths at a time when the tensions between “communism” and “fascism” were new and vigorous, and reaches a startling conclusion about the sameness under the skin of the two ideologies where the rights of foreign concessionaries are concerned.
RESUMEN
En este trabajo se examinan algunos efectos de la alianza política y militar entre España y Estados Unidos durante los años cincuenta y sesenta del siglo XX. Se examina la ayuda técnica, entendida como el conjunto de programas oficiales, contratos e inversiones privadas que sirvieron para transferir a España las técnicas de producción y organización norteamericanas. El análisis cuantitativo y cua litativo revela que tanto dicha ayuda como los círculos pro-americanos formados a su alrededor, en parte sustentados en relaciones de negocios anteriores, fueron esenciales en la articulación de los intereses económicos estadounidenses en España. El caso español muestra que la política económica exterior norteamericana de la Guerra Fría favoreció, si bien sólo indirectamente, a la comunidad empresarial de aquel país. En segundo lugar, el trabajo proporciona material e ideas para analizar el «milagro» español como un proceso de crecimiento exógeno.
The main task of this paper is to discuss ways in which production financed by foreign direct investment, that is, that undertaken by multinational enterprises (MNEs), has affected our thinking about the international allocation of resources and the exchange of goods and services between countries. The analysis takes, as its starting point, the growing convergence between the theories of international trade and production, and argues the case for an integrated approach to international economic involvement, based both on the location-specific endowments of countries and the ownership-specific endowments of enterprises. In pursuing this approach, the paper sets out a systemic explanation of the foreign activities of enterprises, in terms of their ability to internalise markets to their advantage. It concludes with a brief examination of some of the effects which the MNE is allegedly having on the spatial allocation of resources, and on the patterns of trade between countries.
Corporate political activities, or corporate attempts to shape government policy in ways favorable to the firm, are commonly employed by firms across countries. We review recent scholarly work from management, political science, economics and sociology in the area of corporate political activity (CPA), paying particular attention to the literature published since Shaffer’s [Shaffer, B. 1995. Firm-level responses to government regulation: Theoretical and research approaches. Journal of Management, 21: 495–514] review. To integrate this literature we provide a model of the antecedents of CPA, the different types of CPA, how firms organize to implement CPA and the outcomes of CPA both for public policy and firm performance. We conclude our review by proposing an agenda for future research in the area.
Drawing on a new database, this article presents the first systematic description and assessment of inward FDI into Denmark before World War II. A total of 168 cases were identified, with British, American and German firms dominating the overall picture as might be expected. The composition varies, however, over time and industries. The material shows that FDIs arrived in five distinct 'waves' each characterised by a lead nation and industry. The period under observation saw the transformation of an agricultural Denmark into an industrialised nation, which is reflected in the five waves, which were primarily directed towards 'new' industries. The article thus offers a link to Danish economic history in general. The material also enables a comparison with FDI into Norway and Sweden over the same period. For the purposes of allowing a discussion of the comparative aspect, FDI-related attitudes, legislation and policies are outlined. While Norway was an anti-FDI hardliner, Sweden took a softer stand and Denmark never abandoned its liberal attitudes. This new material allows us to conclude that, from an FDI perspective, the three nations were not one unit: Denmark broke the 'Scandinavian pattern'.
This book provides an essential historical framework for understanding global business. The author shows how entrepreneurs built a global economy in the nineteenth century by creating firms that pursued resources and markets across borders. It demonstrates how firms shifted strategies as the first global economy disintegrated in the political and economic chaos between the two world wars, and how they have driven the creation of the contemporary global economy. Many of the issues of the global economy have been encountered in the past. This book reveals how entrepreneurs and managers met the political, ethical, cultural, and organizational challenges of operating across borders at different times and in different environments. The role of multinationals is placed within their wider political and economic context. There are chapters on the impact of multinationals, and on relations with governments. The focus on the shifting roles of firms and industries over time provides compelling evidence on the diversity and discontinuities of the globalization process. The book explores the history of multinationals across a wide spectrum of manufacturing, service and natural resource industries. By providing an accessible survey of the history of international business worldwide, this book will be key reading for students taking courses in International Business, Business History, and Entrepreneurship; and of interest to academics and researchers working in these areas. Available in OSO: http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/oso/public/content/economicsfinance/0199272093/toc.html
The third edition of Multinational Enterprise and Economic Analysis surveys the contributions that economic analysis has made to our understanding of why multinational enterprises exist and what consequences they have for the workings of the national and international economies. It shows how economic analysis can explain multinationals' activity patterns and how economics can shed conceptual light on problems of business policies and managerial decisions arising in practice. It addresses the welfare problems arising from multinationals' activities and the logic of governments' preferences and choices in their dealings with multinationals. Suitable for researchers, graduates and upper-level undergraduates. The third edition of this highly accessible book incorporates the many additions to our knowledge of multinationals accumulated in research appearing in the past decade.
Este trabajo tienen por objetivo trazar la trayectoria de uno de los sectores de la inversión francesa en España con mayor éxito: la gran distribución. La hipótesis de partida es que la llegada y el éxito de los hipermercados franceses en el país se produjo por un conjunto de circunstancias atribuibles a la cercanía del mercado, al hecho de que España fuese un destino preferente para los turistas franceses, a la legislación del país y a la elección de buenos socios (tanto nacionales como franceses). El trabajo es un caso de estudio sobre la inversión internacional en un sector poco investigado, el de la gran distribución en el comercio minorista. El principal protagonista de la investigación es el grupo Carrefour (que engloba las historias de Pryca y de Continente en España), sin olvidarnos del grupo Alcampo. Es la historia de un negocio de crecimiento gradual, desde inversiones pioneras, y que parece encajar con el marco teórico desarrollado por varios autores de la Escuela de Uppsala en los años setenta.
This work analyses the relationship between technological change, firm size and market structure, applied to the Spanish economy during 1959-1973. Despite the voluminous literature, the theory yields ambiguous predictions about the effect of market concentration on innovative activity. My results support Schumpeter’s hypothesis that innovation increases with market concentration. This empirical work has also found that other variables, such as the extent of product differentiation, can affect innovative activity. KEY Classification-JEL: O33, 038, N44, L50
The aim of the paper is to contribute to a better knowledge of the existing relationship between the incorporation of technology and the industrial take-off, based on the case study of the sectoral dynamism of the Spanish industry during its period of highest development. The main hypothesis is that only an appropriate combination of the introduction of foreign technology and the creation of domestic technology guarantees the acquisition of the technological knowledge required for developing and less developed countries to reach a level closer to that of more developed countries. An evolutionary perspective has been applied considering that industrial growth depends on three types of variables: innovation or technology creation, dissemination potential and absorption capacity potential. The results confirm that the introduction of imported technology has been significant, both for unincorporated knowledge, shown in the growth of patents in the period 1960-1966, and that introduced through the importation of production technology by companies in the process of modernization.
Sumario: El aumento de la problación, una falsa pista -- Deuda exterior, capitales extranjeros y ferrocarriles -- La desamortización del suelo -- La desamortización del subsuelo -- El problema carbonífero -- Las dificultades de la siderurgia -- La industria algodonera catalana
Este trabajo analiza el papel de las redes empresariales en la evolución de la inversión directa extranjera en España. Para ello se estudia en profundidad el caso de una de las inversiones estadounidenses más relevantes en las primeras décadas del siglo XX, Telefónica, empresa cuya creación fue fruto de la acción conjunta de la multinacional International Telephone and Telegraph (ITT) y de algunos grupos financieros españoles, especialmente los bancos Urquijo e Hispano Americano. La investigación muestra cómo la red tejida por la empresa americana y sus socios, cuyos tentáculos llegaron hasta las administraciones de ambos países, facilitó su entrada y devenir en España, así como la continuidad de su gestión en la empresa telefónica hasta fechas posteriores a la nacionalización.
This article examines the evolution of the Spanish consulting industry and market during the twentieth century in an international context. It shows that Spain experienced a similar development compared to other industrialised countries, in terms of three distinguishable, but overlapping waves or "generations" of the consulting industry: scientific management, strategy and structure, information and communication. At the same time, there were marked differences in terms of the somewhat belated onset of the first and, especially the second wave and in terms of durations, with scientific management remaining pre-eminent well into the 1970s. Only the more recent developments, i.e. the increasing domination of IT-related, global consulting firms since the late 1980s, are almost identical to other countries. Based on a conceptual framework of how consulting works as a business activity, the final part of the article identifies a number of reasons for these differences in the Spanish "systemic context En este artículo se analiza la evolución de la industria y del mercado español de la consultoría a lo largo del siglo XX y en perspectiva comparada. El desarrollo español ha sido similar al de los países más avanzados, en la medida en que también aquí ha estado guiado por las tres "generaciones" de consultoras que han protagonizado la historia del sector: las especializadas, respectivamente, en organización científica del trabajo, organización y estrategia, y tecnologías de información y comunicación. Las diferencias más notables son de orden temporal. Así, la formación de la primera y especialmente de la segunda generación fue más tardía que en otros lugares, dominando la primera el sector en España hasta finales de los años setenta. Sólo en la etapa más reciente, marcada por la hegemonía de las consultoras globales de información y comunicación, es análoga la trayectoria española a la de la industria internacional. Aplicando al caso español un marco conceptual explicativo del funcionamiento del negocio de la consultoría empresarial, en la parte final del artículo se identifican varias razones que permiten entender la relativa especificidad de la experiencia española
Este trabajo trata de analizar emp�ricamente la influencia que ejercen ciertas tipolog�as estrat�gicas sobre la elecci�n de la empresa conjunta internacional. Para ello se han elegido tres tipos de estrategias: internacionalizaci�n, crecimiento y negocio. Despu�s de su desarrollo conceptual, se ha elaborado un modelo de regresi�n log�stica binomial con datos de panel sobre una muestra representativa del sector manufacturero espa�ol (2000-2005). Los resultados demuestran que el desarrollo de una estrategia multipa�s, de diversificaci�n y/o de liderazgo en costes condiciona la elecci�n de una empresa conjunta internacional versus una filial de plena propiedad.
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