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The Impact of Authoritative, Authoritarian, and Permissive Parenting Styles on Children’s Later Mental Health in Japan: Focusing on Parent and Child Gender
Journal of Child and Family Studies
Abstract
Few studies in Japan have examined whether children’s later mental health is influenced by the way parental authority is exercised, specifically with a focus on gender. Our main purposes of this study were to confirm the three-factor structure of the Japanese version of the Parental Authority Questionnaire (PAQ) and to verify its reliability and validity. We then used structural equation modeling to examine whether children’s later mental health was influenced by parents’ authoritative, permissive, and authoritarian parenting. The subcategories included in the Japanese version of the Clinical Outcomes in Routine Evaluation-Outcome Measure were chosen as mental health indices. A total of 1,320 people in Japan, including company employees, university students, and hospital staff members, were asked to recall and evaluate the parenting they received and to report on their current mental health. Confirmatory factor analyses verified the three-factor structure of the Japanese version of the PAQ, with a reduction in the number of items from the original version. The respondents, regardless of gender, evaluated their mothers as having been more authoritative than their fathers. Concerning the impact of parenting styles on respondents’ later mental health, both maternal and paternal authoritarian parenting styles worsened respondents’ later mental health, including symptomatic problems, risk to self and others, life functioning, and psychological well-being. Both maternal and paternal authoritative parenting had a beneficial impact on respondents’ later mental health. Simultaneous analyses of multi-groups demonstrated that the nature of these influences did not vary with respondent gender. We present the above results in detail, and discuss them from psycho-socio-cultural viewpoints.
... The age range was strictly adhered to, ensuring participants were between 13 to 19 years old. Conversely, the study excluded adolescents studying in special education systems, those whose parents were deceased, adolescents with parents living abroad for work or business reasons, and those temporarily separated from their parents due to familial conflicts (47)(48)(49)(50)(51)(52). Two primary instruments were employed for data collection: the Coping Response Inventory (CRI) and the Parental Authority Questionnaire (PAQ). ...
... The PAQ, adapted to Urdu by Barbree (1997) (47), measures perceptions of parenting styles across three categories: authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive. This scale demonstrated satisfactory internal consistency, with reliability coefficients ranging from .70 to .86 across different parenting styles and for both mothers and fathers (47)(48)(49)(50)(51)(52). The research procedure was rigorously designed to comply with ethical considerations, including obtaining permissions from the authors of the scales used and the consent of participating parents and educational institutions. ...
... The exploration into the dynamics between parenting styles and coping strategies among children of single parents revealed intricate correlations and predictive patterns that align with and, in some instances, diverge from prior research. The significant positive correlation identified between permissive and authoritarian parenting styles resonates with the findings of earlier studies (48)(49), suggesting a convergence in certain characteristics inherent to these styles. Contrarily, no significant relationship was found between permissive and authoritative parenting styles, nor between authoritative and authoritarian styles. ...
Background: The dynamics within single-parent families, particularly the influence of parenting styles on the coping strategies of children, have garnered significant attention in psychological research. The intricate relationship between a parent's approach to raising their child and the child's subsequent development of coping mechanisms to navigate life's challenges is pivotal to understanding the psychosocial well-being of children in single-parent families. Objective: This study aimed to elucidate the correlations between different parenting styles—permissive, authoritarian, and authoritative—and the coping strategies adopted by children of single parents. Additionally, it sought to identify which parenting styles significantly predict the coping strategies utilized by these children. Methods: A correlational and comparative study design was employed, involving 153 adolescents aged 13 to 19 from single-parent families in Faisalabad and Sargodha, Pakistan. The Coping Response Inventory (CRI) and Parental Authority Questionnaire (PAQ) were utilized to measure coping strategies and parenting styles, respectively. Data analysis was conducted using Pearson’s moment correlation, regression analysis, and Independent Samples T-Test to examine the relationships between parenting styles and coping strategies and to assess gender differences. Results: The findings indicated a significant positive correlation between permissive and authoritarian parenting styles (r ranging from .439 to .787, p < .01). Regression analysis revealed that logical analysis, positive reappraisal, and problem-solving were significant predictors of coping strategies (p < .001). Gender-based analysis showed females scored significantly higher in positive reappraisal, seeking guidance/support, acceptance/resignation, and emotional discharge coping strategies compared to males (p < .005). No significant gender differences were found in parenting styles. Conclusion: The study highlights the significant impact of permissive and authoritarian parenting styles on the development of coping strategies among children of single parents. Tailored interventions supporting single parents in adopting more adaptive parenting styles could foster better coping mechanisms in their children, enhancing their psychosocial well-being.
... Following Baumrind's typology 18,19 , authoritative parenting is emotionally supportive, sensitive to a child's needs, provides rational reasoning behind rules when directing the child's behavior, sets high standards, gives appropriate autonomy to the child, and facilitates clear, bidirectional communication [20][21][22] . Since authoritative parenting style provides an atmosphere with these qualities and is a strong predictor of young children's healthy adjustment and psychosocial competence 23 , experiencing a predominantly authoritative parenting style as a child has been suggested to be a protective factor against the development of internalizing symptoms, such as depression and anxiety, and maladjustment at different stages of socioemotional development and even among the elderly [24][25][26][27][28][29] . In contrast to the benefits of authoritative parenting, authoritarian parenting provides little nurturance and responsiveness to a child's needs and restricts the child's autonomy by instilling high obedience 20,22,23 , and permissive parenting has a lack of demands that do not provide a sufficient environment to guide the child through self-regulation 20 . ...
... Despite strong evidence that authoritative parenting style is a protective factor for child mental health problems [24][25][26][27][28][29] , very few studies have investigated authoritative parenting style's impact on children's mental health in the context of collective traumas and/or other large-scale societal stressors. Abu Baker et al. 11 found that authoritative parenting style was associated with less child mental health problems during the stressful context of traumatic political violence. ...
... The PPQ 19 was used to measure caregivers' parenting styles (authoritarian, authoritative, permissive) during the baseline visit only. For the purposes of this study, only the authoritative style subscale was used (ATV) because of its role in promoting children's mental health 24 . The ATV subscale has shown excellent internal consistency and factorial structure in previous work 19 . ...
Large-scale changes due to the Novel Coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic negatively affected children’s mental health. Prior research suggests that children’s mental health problems during the pandemic may have been concurrently attenuated by an authoritative parenting style and exacerbated by family stress. However, there is a gap in the literature investigating these mechanisms and whether pre-pandemic authoritative parenting had a lasting positive influence on children’s mental health while they were exposed to pandemic-related family stressors. The current study begins to fill this gap by investigating these unique relationships in a sample of 106 4–8 year old children (51% female). Before the pandemic, caregivers completed questionnaires on their parenting style and their children’s depression and anxiety symptoms. Shortly after the onset of COVID-19’s stay-at-home mandate, parents answered questionnaires about their children’s depression and anxiety symptoms and pandemic-related family stressors. Child depression and anxiety symptom severity increased. Higher levels of pandemic-related family stress were associated with increases only in child anxiety scores. Further, greater endorsement of a pre-pandemic authoritative parenting style was associated with smaller changes only in child depression scores. Study findings elucidate unique and complex associations between young children’s anxiety and depression symptoms severity and pre-pandemic parenting and pandemic-related family stressors.
... Some researchers succeeded in examining the parenting style. Uji et al. (2014) tried to validate the Japanese version of the Parental Authority Questionnaire and verified its reliability and validity by researching 1320 people in Japan, including employees, students, and hospital staff members, to recall and evaluate their parenting in relation to their current mental health. The result shows that mothers have been more authoritative than fathers. ...
... From the research conducted, the authoritarian and permissive parental communication styles influence the development of the child's character. Parents who communicate with children in an authoritarian and permissive manner tend to cause wounds and trauma to children and even the parents themselves (Hazizah, 2019;Uji et al., 2014). Even children do not have trust in their parents, so parents can be obstacles for children in realizing their goals. ...
... As told in the film, when a character named Awan violates her father's prohibition not to come home late, this results in a fight between Awan and her father. As has been proven by Uji et al. (2014) that the authoritarian parenting style has various negative impacts on the mental development of children in the future. In contrast to the restrictive authoritarian style, the permissive parenting style is the way parents treat children by giving them everything without the opportunity to use their abilities. ...
In the world of parenting, there are various parenting styles. Each of these parenting styles has its own impact on children. Parenting style can be reflected in the way parents communicate with children. This study focuses on the relationship between authoritarian or permissive parenting styles on aspects of language, especially expressive speech acts. A qualitative descriptive pragmatic approach is applied in this study. The data in this study are in the form of textual sources from the film "Nanti Kita Cerita Tentang Hari Ini". The film was chosen because it has a family theme and presents parent-child conflicts that can be examined in terms of parenting and linguistic aspects. Data was collected using the observing and note-taking method and then analyzed using the analytical technique introduced by Spradley (2016). This analysis applies theory from Yule (1996) regarding expressive speech act and Baumrind (1971) regarding parenting styles, especially authoritarian or permissive. In the film, it is proven that the authoritarian parenting style has various negative impacts on children in their mental health later. Meanwhile, the permissive parenting style impact that causes children to depend on their parents is not found in the film. This is shown by children who instead want to prove to their parents that they can be independent and have the right to decide for themselves what they want.
... Lloyd, 2001;Maxwell, Scourfield, Featherstone, Holland, & Tolman, 2012). Other studies have claimed that father involvement in the family contributes to children's social functioning, psychological well-being, and cognitive thinking (Renzetti & Edleson, 2008;Uji, Sakamoto, Adachi, & Kitamura, 2014). ...
... d. . These include the children's externalizing and internalizing behaviours, social competence (Bronte-Tinkew, Moore, Capps, & Zaff, 2006;Cia, Barham, & Fontaine, 2010;Formoso et al., 2007;Freeze, Burke, & Vorster, 2014;Ramchandani et al., 2013;Renzetti & Edleson, 2008), academic achievement (Cia, Barham, & Fontaine, 2012;Renzetti & Edleson, 2008), social functioning, psychological well-being, cognitive functioning (Renzetti & Edleson, 2008;Uji et al., 2014), overall health (Salonna et al., 2012), early development and growth (Ahmeduzzaman & Roopnarine, 1992;Jia & Schoppe-Sullivan, 2011;Lamb, 1997;Miller, 1994), personality development (Borisenko, 2007), and selfesteem are all more adaptive and resilient with father involvement (Jessee & Adamsons, 2018;Renzetti & Edleson, 2008;Strug & Wilmore-Schaeffer, 2003). The mother and the family as a whole also benefit such that the mother's intention and involvement in breastfeeding and the family's alliance (Frascarolo, Zaouche-Gaudron, Rouyer, & Favez, 2005). ...
Background and objectives. Fathers in families with disabled children play a crucial role in fostering child development. Previous research addressing emotions of father involvement in rearing children with special needs has been rare. Given the culture and masculine norms Chinese fathers experience, shame and guilt are emotions that may causally affect fathers' psycho-behavioural reactions and their involvement in parenting.
This study aimed to (1) study the meaning of fathers who rear children with special needs and their journey with shame and guilt emotions; (2) develop and validate scales measuring of this population's shame, guilt, involvement, and masculine norms; and (3) identify mechanisms of correlational effects of proposed variables and behavioural reactions.
Methods. This study adopted a mixed-method research design. Addressing the first objective, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 31 fathers rearing 2-12-year-old children with special needs. An initial theme was generated to identify the fathers' implicit and explicit emotional expressions of shame, guilt, and behavioural reactions. A cross-sectional online questionnaire was conducted to achieve the other objectives. A sample of 437 effective questionnaires was collected to develop measuring scales and validate the proposed variables. Following path analysis, mechanisms underlying the association between different explanatory variables were investigated. Hereafter, the mediating role of emotion (shame and guilt), behaviour (avoidance and compensation) and moderating effects of masculinity were examined.
Results. Qualitative results (1) indicated that, according to the model of "Flagship of roles as fathers/men in rearing children with special needs", the roles of fathers and men in views of family and societal systems are somehow unique and mutually inclusive; (2) expanded the model of "Five stages of horseshoe-shaped emotional reactions of fathers rearing children with special needs" by highlighting that emotions of fathers in different stages of rearing their children with special needs are ambivalent, mixed and fluctuating; (3) proposed a unifying thematic framework of "Moral emotions (Shame and Guilt) and behavioural reactions of fathers and their children with special needs". Quantitative results highlighted the developing shame, guilt, avoidance, and compensation scales for fathers with children with special needs, validating the shortened form of assessing father involvement (Chinese version) and the Chinese Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory. All proposed variables were significant, except the negative relationship between shame and father involvement. Path analysis results indicated that fathers of children with special needs, their Chinese masculine norms, and the dialogistic period of children had negative effects on their shame, but positive influences on guilt emotions, respectively. These effects were mediated by their avoidance and compensatory behaviour influencing father involvement.
Conclusion. Previously, social science researchers and practitioners addressed the limitations of fathers' emotional expression and accessibility to social services. The results showed societal implications as showcasing the impact of shame and guilt emotions, and their reciprocal relationship influencing father involvement in rearing children with special needs. Fathers/men shared their views on expressing their emotions and underlying service accessibility issues. Stakeholders, including social workers, social science researchers, and policymakers, should echo this voice and review the research and services to address their needs.
... Notably, parenting styles are found to be an important predictor of future adults' psychological distress (Rutter et al., 2006;Zubizarreta, 2019). Different retrospective parenting styles have unique and broad influences on adults' current psychosocial functioning, including their emotional intelligence (Cameron & Manning, 2020), substance use/misuse (Luk et al., 2016), and mental health (Uji et al., 2014). Additional research conducted in various cultural contexts suggests that parenting styles during childhood are associated with adolescents' and emerging adults' current psychological distress. ...
... Taken together, warm and authoritative parenting styles are negatively related to psychological distress in Western and Asian adolescents and emerging adults, while rejection is positively related to psychological distress (Alika et al., 2016;Eun et al., 2018;Khalid & Aslam, 2012;Özdemir & Sağkal, 2019;Saleem et al., 2021). Research using a retrospective design further supports these findings (e.g., Anlı & Karslı, 2010;Givertz & Segrin, 2014;Irons et al., 2006;Uji et al., 2014). ...
The present study explored retrospective childhood parenting styles and retrospective childhood parent-child relationship quality as correlates of Chinese adults’ current psychological distress. An online community sample of 501 Chinese adults (aged 19-46 years, M = 28.55, SD = 5.38; 252 men) was recruited. Retrospective parenting styles and parent-child relationship quality were measured by asking participants to recall their childhood experiences (≤12 years old). With bivariate correlations, both retrospective parenting styles and parent-child relationship quality were significantly associated with adults’ current psychological distress. With multiple linear regressions, retrospective parental rejection was the only significant, positive correlate of current psychological distress (β = 0.36, p < 0.001). Gender significantly moderated the relation between retrospective parental warmth and current psychological distress (β = −0.12, p = 0.049) and the relation between retrospective parent-child relationship quality and current psychological distress (β = 0.18, p = 0.032). These findings suggest that Chinese adults’ retrospective parenting styles and relationship quality with their parents during childhood may relate to current mental health status as represented by psychological distress, highlighting the potential influence of family-of-origin.
... Also, internal motivation has a positive relationship and lack of motivation has a negative relationship with well-being, and motivational beliefs can play a mediating role. Uji et al. (2014) have conducted a study with the aim of investigating the effect of parenting styles on the mental health of Japanese children. The results of this research indicated that strict and unresponsive parenting styles have negative effects on children's mental health and will create problems and dangerous behaviors for themselves and others in their children in the following periods of development. ...
... In addition, the components of father's warmth, mother's warmth and Mother's autonomy support through problem solving have an indirect effect on psychological well-being. The findings of the present research are consistent with the results of studies by Khodabakhsh & Kiani (2014), Chirkov andRyan (2001), Pentrich andShank (2002), Moltfet and Khayyer (2012), and Uji et al. (2014). ...
... Parenting styles are parents' socialization practices (including emotion and attitudes), which classified parenting styles as authoritative, permissive, authoritarian, and neglectful based on two dimensions: demandingness and responsiveness [13][14][15]. Previous research has revealed that children's bullying is related to a range of parenting behaviours [16][17][18][19], and the influence of parenting on children may differ by gender and SES [20,21]. Children who receive warmer and more affection rarely commit bullying behaviours [22]. ...
... Moreover, this study further confirmed differences in bullying behaviour between boys and girls raised under different parenting styles [20]. Furthermore, for children from economically disadvantaged families, we found that those with authoritarian, permissive, and authoritative parents bully much less frequently than those with neglected parents. ...
Bullying is a problematic public behaviour of great concern worldwide, which occurs commonly in China. Parenting and emotional intelligence have previously been verified as crucial aspects in determining the bullying behaviours of adolescents. However, evidence of the interactive effect of these vital factors needs to be more extensive. This study attempts to analyze the relationships and mechanisms of parenting on bullying through emotional intelligence, which consists of interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence. Based on Chinese education panel survey data of 8730 adolescents, this paper used OLS regression and SEM methods to estimate the impact and mechanisms of parenting styles on bullying behaviours among adolescents. High-demand and responsive parenting styles can significantly reduce adolescents' bullying behaviours. Intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligence are important mediating variables, and parenting with high demandingness and high responsiveness can significantly improve the interpersonal intelligence of adolescents, thereby reducing children's bullying behaviour. Although low levels of intrapersonal intelligence would increase bullying behaviours in adolescents, high demandingness and high responsiveness of parenting can significantly improve adolescents' intrapersonal intelligence. Parents can reduce adolescents' bullying behaviours by increasing emotional responses and normative requirements. This result provides a new perspective on the solution to the problem of youth bullying.
... Previous research shows that responsive and supportive parenting, in which parents provide consistent attention and emotional support, can improve children's ability to regulate their emotions (Castro et al., 1997;Lin & Faldowski, 2023). On the other hand, authoritarian or permissive parenting tends to hinder the development of emotional regulation skills in children, which can lead to behavioral and emotional problems (Kiff et al., 2011;Uji et al., 2014;Dickson et al., 2019) Furthermore, parenting style can be influenced by various demographic factors such as parental age and parental education (Verhoeven et al., 2007;Cabrera et al., 2014;Castillo et al., 2011;Trifan et al., 2014;El-Deen et al., 2021), child's age (N. Cabrera et al., 2006;Lam et al., 2012;Phares et al., 2009;Roche et al., 2014;Verhoeven et al., 2012), gender of the child (Leaper, 2002;McKinney & Renk, 2008), and number of children (Downey, 1995;Catipay et al., 2023). ...
Parents face increasing challenges in educating Generation Alpha, yet limited research addresses this issue in Indonesia’s Islamic school context. This study investigates the direct effects of parental demographic background—namely, child’s gender, number of children, parental age, and education—on students’ emotional regulation, and examines the mediating role of parenting style. Data from 201 parents of elementary and junior Islamic school students were analyzed using PLS-SEM. Results show that permissive parenting had a strong positive effect on emotion regulation, while authoritarian and authoritative styles had limited or negative impacts. Child gender was weakly and negatively associated with authoritative parenting. The number of children correlated negatively with emotional regulation but showed low influence on permissive parenting, similar to parental age. Parental education showed strong negative associations with both authoritarian and permissive styles and had the strongest negative effect on authoritarian parenting. In Islamic education contexts, higher-educated parents were less likely to adopt authoritarian styles. The mediating roles of permissive and authoritarian parenting between parental education and emotion regulation were minimal. These findings underscore the importance of culturally contextualized parenting strategies in Islamic schools and call for further research on their long-term and cross-cultural applicability.
... They expect their children to obey authority and to follow its commands. Researcher (e.g., Uji et al., 2014) reported that authoritarian parenting leads to potential negative effect on the child's mental health in adulthood. In the short term, children of authoritarian parents feel parentally love-deprived and cannot understand their parents' behavior. ...
Social media use especially among children and adolescents has become a topic of concern in the Gulf region especially for parents. This chapter addresses the issue of social media use and its impact on family relations, and is comprised of six parts: (1) place of social media in sociology; (2) prevalence of social media in the Gulf region with an emphasis on how much use, nature of use and motivation for use; (3) positive and detrimental consequences of social media use; (4) impact of social media use, especially problematic social media, on family relations; (5) parents’ role in guiding their children toward reasonable and safe use of social media; and (6) conclusion and recommendations.
... In addition, grandparents with authoritative parenting reflect on the children's psychological needs and provide effective guidance. At the same time, authoritative parenting is beneficial to reducing children's loneliness and enhancing children's ability for self-psychological reconstruction (Uji et al., 2014). The concern shown by the grandparents in authoritative parenting conveys more love, encouragement, and appreciation to the child helps the child develop positive emotions and courage in the face of setbacks, and reduces the appearance of problem behaviors, such as depression and anxiety (Sun et al., 2024). ...
Introduction
When parents migrate to other cities for work, their children who are left behind show a high prevalence of behavioral problems, which affect social function. Although previous studies have found that emotional competence significantly predicts problem behavior, little is known about the mechanism(s) through which self-regulation and authoritative grandparenting styles affect emotional competence and problem behavior. This study examined the associations between emotional competence and problem behavior of preschoolers and the mediating role of self-regulation and the moderating role of authoritative grandparenting styles.
Methods
Participants included 449 left-behind preschool children (46.3% girls, mean age = 53.65 months). Grandparents reported their parenting styles with children and teachers reported children’s problem behavior. Children’s emotional competence and self-regulation were completed one-on-one by trained research assistants, following a standard protocol.
Results
The results revealed that children’s emotional competence is negatively related to problem behavior. Self-regulation partially mediates the effects of emotional competence on problem behavior. Authoritative grandparenting styles moderated the relationship between emotional competence and problem behavior in children, but not the relationship between self-regulation and problem behavior. Significantly, authoritative grandparenting styles enhanced the promoting effect of emotional competence and reduced children’s problem behavior.
Discussion
Our findings underscore the importance of intrinsic elements of child self-regulation, as well as adopting more authoritative parenting behaviors in their daily interaction with children, on developing stronger emotional competence and reducing problem behavior in preschoolers.
... Orang tua yang juga menerima toxic parenting dari orang tua sebelumnya berpotensi tinggi melanjutkan pola pengasuhan yang sama pada anaknya (Sunita, 2022). Budaya pengasuhan yang mengakar pada masyarakat dan dianggap lumrah juga menguatkan rantai perilaku toxic dalam pengasuhan (Uji et al, 2014). Tercatat, terdapat sebanyak 7.842 kasus kekerasan pada anak terjadi di Indonesia sepanjang tahun 2019 hingga tahun 2024 (Kementerian Pemberdayaan Perempuan dan Perlindungan Anak, 2024). ...
The Indonesian Central Statistics Agency reports that 30.2 million children require adequate social, economic, and educational protection, yet toxic parenting systems often become the main obstacle. The high prevalence of child abuse indicates the need for positive and culturally-based parenting approaches. This study aims to explore and test the Sapa Sira Sapa Ingsun philosophy as a positive parenting approach to address toxic parenting. The first study involved in-depth interviews with figures from the Surakarta Palace, revealing parenting principles such as the balance between intellectual, spiritual, and emotional intelligence, and two-way communication. The second study confirmed these findings through the opinions of parenting experts. The third study, a psychodrama experiment with 34 parents, demonstrated that positive parenting based on the Sapa Sira Sapa Ingsun philosophy is effective in reducing toxic parenting. Paired samples t-test results showed a significant difference between pre-test and post-test scores, with t(33) = 9.84 and p < 0.001. The effect size calculated using Cohen's d was 1.69, indicating a very large effect of the intervention. This shows a statistically significant difference between pre-test and post-test scores, suggesting a meaningful change after the intervention. In conclusion, the Sapa Sira Sapa Ingsun philosophy can be widely applied as a positive parenting solution to overcome toxic parenting.
... Other studies have claimed that father involvement in the family contributes to children's social functioning, psychological well-being, and cognitive thinking (Renzetti & Edleson, 2008;Uji et al., 2014). Nonetheless, children with special needs may experience varied involvement from their fathers over time, since a child's actual physical skills and perceived competence are significant predictors of father involvement (Lamb et al., 1987;Negura & Deslauriers, 2010;Renzetti & Edleson, 2008). ...
Background and objective. In families with children with special needs, fathers play a crucial role in their growth and development. However, there has been a lack of research on the emotional impact on fathers when caring for children with special needs. The Department of Social Work and Social Administration, The University of Hong Kong conducted the first local study in Hong Kong called the "Father's Moral Emotions and Needs in Caring for Children with Special Needs Survey." This 1.5-year research used a mixed method design and took into consideration the influence of Chinese culture and traditional male roles on fathers in Hong Kong. The study aimed to understand the psychological and behavioural responses, such as shame and guilt, that fathers may experience when caring for children with special needs, particularly the stress that male caregivers/fathers may face.
Currently, there are no official statistics in Hong Kong on the number of fathers caring for children aged 2-12 with special needs. Based on this research, it is estimated that by mid-2023, there are 12,554 such fathers. The survey was conducted from May 2022 to September 2023 in two phases. The first phase involved qualitative research, conducting in-depth interviews with 31 fathers raising children aged 2-12 with special needs. The second phase developed scales based on the qualitative research results to measure fathers' shame and guilt and conducted quantitative research. A total of 437 valid questionnaires were collected to study fathers' involvement, moral emotions, explicit behaviors, and traditional male roles, resulting in key findings from the sample analysis.
Result. Qualitative results indicated that, according to the model of "Flagship of roles as fathers/men in rearing children with special needs", the roles of fathers and men in views of family and societal systems are somehow unique and mutually inclusive; (2) expanded the model of "Five stages of horseshoe-shaped emotional reactions of fathers rearing children with special needs" by highlighting that emotions of fathers in different stages of rearing their children with special needs are ambivalent, mixed and fluctuating; (3) proposed a unifying thematic framework of "Moral emotions (Shame and Guilt) and behavioural reactions of fathers and their children with special needs". Among fathers interviewed qualitatively, 71% experienced shame while caring for children with special needs, leading to avoidance behaviors in 80% of cases; 90% experienced guilt, resulting in compensation behaviors in 93% of cases.
Quantitative results highlighted the developing shame, guilt, avoidance, and compensation scales for fathers with children with special needs, validating the shortened form of assessing father involvement (Chinese version) and the Chinese Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory. All proposed variables were significant, except the negative relationship between shame and father involvement. Path analysis results indicated that fathers of children with special needs, their Chinese masculine norms, and the dialogistic period of children had negative effects on their shame, but positive influences on guilt emotions, respectively. These effects were mediated by their avoidance and compensatory behaviour influencing father involvement. According to the relevant scales developed by the research team, only a small percentage of respondents in the quantitative study strongly disagreed with experiencing shame (9.8%), guilt (2.9%), avoidance (13.7%), and compensation (0.09%) behaviors when caring for children with special needs. The scale ranged up to 6 points, with average scores for shame (3.37), guilt (3.7), avoidance (3), and compensation (4.1) behaviors, showing that fathers experienced more guilt and compensation behaviors when caring for children with special needs.
The study also found that the reasons for fathers' experiences of moral emotions and outward behaviors can be divided into two main factors: social and family. Socially, when fathers and children with special needs exhibit socially inappropriate behaviors in public places (e.g., public transportation, playgrounds, malls) such as emotional outbursts or running away, they may feel shame due to negative reactions and remarks from others, leading to avoiding taking their children out and participating in social activities. Men tend to uphold their traditional male roles and faces, resulting in higher scores in relevant categories on the scale (shame – perceived negative reactions from others - 3.39; avoidance behaviors - reserved participation - 3.38). 5. In terms of family factors, interviewed fathers often feel extremely guilty about their intense emotional reactions when disciplining children with special needs. As men often value traditional male roles in discipline and tend to use harsh tones and punishment to control their children's abnormal behavior, these parenting methods often backfire, not only failing to help discipline special needs children but also lacking understanding and support from family members. This leads fathers to hope to reduce guilt through ongoing compensatory behaviors. Fathers' scores in relevant categories on the scale were also higher than the overall average (guilt - emotional wrongdoing - 3.86; compensation behaviors – recurrent compensation - 4.4).
In this study, the research team proposes the following recommendations:
Establish government-funded support centers for male/dad caregivers
In recent years, there have been tragic incidents involving caregivers of persons with disabilities under extreme stress, including many men/fathers' caregivers. Currently, services for caregivers of children with disabilities are often focused on women/mothers, while the needs of men/father’ caregivers are often overlooked, for example, group sharing sessions and service hours primarily during weekdays. This study illustrates the impact of moral emotions on men/fathers' caregivers' involvement in caring for children with special needs, both qualitatively and quantitatively. The government should consider funding non-governmental organizations to establish specialized services for men/fathers caregivers support centers, providing tailored service response strategies to meet the needs of men/fathers’ caregivers, such as incorporating moral emotion intervention theory, parenting courses for fathers, play/sports-based parent-child activities, and flexible open hours with mixed mode services to strengthen the support network for men/fathers’ caregivers and effectively relieve caregiving stress.
Promote father-friendly policies
The role of fathers in caring for children with special needs is irreplaceable, yet society still lacks sufficient recognition of this. The research team suggests that the government should promote the implementation of "father-friendly policies" and collaborate with various stakeholders (such as employers, policymakers, school administrators, etc.) to increase the amount of time fathers spend with their children and their involvement in caregiving through flexible work arrangements, incentives for father-child bonding, etc. This can enhance fathers' participation in family life, as well as increase public recognition of the unique role fathers play in caring for children with special needs.
Enhance community education to reduce stigmatization of children with special needs
The survey shows that when children with special needs exhibit social unaccepted behavior in public, fathers may feel shame due to onlookers' stares and negative reactions, leading them to avoid going out with their children and participating in social activities. If this situation persists, it may reduce fathers' involvement in caregiving and even affect the integration of children with special needs into society. In addition, reviewing the Disability Discrimination Ordinance (Chapter 487) and developing community education activities to promote acceptance of children with special needs can help eliminate stigmatization. The ultimate goal is to reduce fathers' feelings of shame and guilt when facing societal reactions to their children's abnormal behavior through these measures.
Conclusion. Previously, social science researchers and practitioners addressed the limitations of fathers' emotional expression and accessibility to social services. The results showed societal implications as showcasing the impact of shame and guilt emotions, and their reciprocal relationship influencing father involvement in rearing children with special needs. Fathers/men shared their views on expressing their emotions and underlying service accessibility issues. Stakeholders, including social workers, social science researchers, and policymakers, should echo this voice and review the research and services to address their needs.
... Children with secure attachment styles can better adapt to new peer relationships and environments. Authoritarian parenting may negatively affect children's mental health, daily life, and happiness (Uji et al., 2014). For example, Maalouf et al. (2022) found that children with preoccupied and dismissing attachment styles tended to show more hostility and aggression. ...
... Aydoğdu and Dilekmen 27 found no differences between authoritarian, overprotective, and permissive parental attitudes by gender. 28 Rejecting mother scores positively correlated with enmeshment/dependency, emotional inhibition, and emotional deprivation schemas. Insufficient self-control, emotional inhibition, and protective mother ratings were somewhat positively correlated. ...
Aims: The aim of this study is to examine the effect of psychological birth order on perceived parental attitudes and early maladaptive schemas. Methods: In this study, the Psychological Birth Order Inventory, Perceived Parental Attitudes Scale-Child Form, and Young’s Schema Scale were used. The sample consisted of 189 women and 102 men. Relational and predictive analyses were conducted regarding birth order, psychological birth order, perceived parental attitudes, and schema domains. Results: There was a moderate positive relationship between the sibling rank of the women who participated in the study and the emotional deprivation schema area. For female participants, being the middle child was found to have a moderately positive relationship with emotional deprivation, dependence, pessimism, and defectiveness schemas. A weak positive relationship was found between being the middle child and emotional warmth maternal attitude, overprotective mother/father attitude, and rejecting father attitude scores. Conclusion: The study concluded that there is a significant relationship between psychological birth.order and perceived parental attitudes as well as early maladaptive schemas.
... Additionally, adolescents with psychiatric disorders perceived their parents as less authoritative. This finding was in line with Uji et al. [23] who found that authoritative maternal and paternal parenting was beneficial to children's later mental health. This is explained by the balance between two aspects of authoritative parenting: communicating with the child in a way that respects their autonomy, and second using parental authority over them when needed. ...
Background
Worldwide, at least 10% of adolescents have a documented mental illness, which is a leading source of morbidity, mortality, and functional impairment. Among individuals aged between 10 and 24 years, psychiatric disorders account for 45% of all years lived with disability. Parenting discipline styles are fundamental in shaping adolescents’ emotional integrity, cognitive capabilities, and behavioral patterns.
To compare parenting styles and parental bonding dimensions in adolescents with different psychiatric disorders versus a group of healthy adolescents matched for age and sex.
Patients and methods
A case–control study conducted at Okasha Institute of Psychiatry, Ain Shams University Hospitals, involved 50 participants of adolescents diagnosed with variable psychiatric disorders and 50 matched healthy controls.
Results
Authoritarian parenting style was evident in mentally ill adolescents, while authoritative parenting style was prevalent in healthy controls. In terms of parental bonding, mentally ill adolescents experienced a low level of care and a high level of overprotection from both parents.
Conclusion
The results of the study demonstrated that parenting styles may serve as predictors and predisposing factors for psychiatric disorders in adolescents. Adolescents with psychiatric disorders perceived both parents as more authoritarian, less authoritative. They also received a low level of care and a high level of overprotection from both parents.
... This parenting style is a protective factor for child mental health problems and has beneficial effect. 36,37 These effects are emotional well-being, which reduces the risk of depression, anxiety and other mental health problems among the children. They include also a sense of self-esteem and confidence, social skills, ability to deal with stressful moments in a constructive manner, and developed work ethic, self discipline and intrinsic motivation. ...
Abstract: Abstract: Background: Child’s mental health around the world is important to consider. More than 13% of young people age 10-19 have a mental disorder. Despite several initiatives that have been put in place to deal with child mental health, the importance of the family in mental health of the child is still critical. Parenting styles affect psy- chology of children in one way or another. There exist four parenting styles which are; authoritarian, authoritative, permissive and uninvolved. Objective: This review aims to explore the role of family, through the lens of parenting styles in child’s mental health. Participants and Setting: The Participants are children and Adolescents aged less than 18 years. Methods: This Review was conducted from May, 2023 to January, 2024. Studies used were pub- lished by researchers between 2019-2023. The study followed Jesson & Laccy's critical literature review methodol- ogy, utilizing academic databases like PubMed and Google Scholar, as well as WHO and official public health web- sites. Results: The review indicated the parenting approaches have positive and negative impacts on child mental health. These approaches include authoritarian, authoritative, permissive and uninvolved. There are psychological factors that influence the birth of these styles among parents. Conclusions: parenting style play greater role on overall mental health of the children. Parents should promote their children’s self-esteem by showing them a lot of emotional support, avoiding rejection, and refraining from being overly protective. To enhance their children’s self-esteem and psychological adaptability.
... . Variations in the relationship between parenting styles and PBJW among Chinese children and adolescents of di erent genders, living locations and ages Whether the relationship between parenting styles and PBJW varies across Chinese children and adolescents with different characteristics remains an open question. Previous research has noted that the effects of parenting styles vary by gender, age, and living location (Uji et al., 2014;Huang et al., 2024). Despite having similar parenting styles, children's perceptions of love, being valued, and fairness may differ depending on the specific context (Baumrind, 1971). ...
Introduction
The positive development of the personal belief in a just world (PBJW) plays a vital role in academic achievement and mental health among children and adolescents. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the influencing factors of PBJW better. The association between parenting styles and PBJW has been well established, but whether this association varies among different groups remains an open issue. The present study aimed to examine the strength of the associations between parenting styles and PBJW among Chinese children and adolescents and the role of certain moderators (gender, living location, and age) in these associations.
Methods
This study employed hierarchical regression and simple slopes analyses to examine data from the National Children's Study of China. The database includes 24,013 Chinese children and adolescents in grades 49 (M = 12.76 years, SD = 1.73), with 53.50% boys.
Results
The results indicated that (1) authoritative parenting was positively correlated with PBJW; (2) both authoritarian and permissive parenting styles were negatively correlated with PBJW; (3) the positive relationship between authoritative parenting and PBJW was more prominent in urban regions; the negative relationship between authoritarian and PBJW was stronger in urban regions; and the negative relationship between permissive parenting and PBJW was more pronounced among girls and older children and adolescents.
Discussion
These findings highlight important associations between parenting styles and the development of PBJW among Chinese children and adolescents, and suggest strategies for policy-makers, educators, and parents to improve PBJW for different types of Chinese children and adolescents.
... Ø The cases described present two different homes of which these entrepreneurs come from: parents who are very supportive, even permissive, and parents who are authoritative (e.g. Dwairy, 2004;Hubbs-Tait et al., 2008;Pilarinos & Solomon, 2016;Uji et al., 2014). Ø We are exposed, through the life stories of the three young entrepreneurs, to the lack of school influence on the professional track of gifted children and youths in general and gifted entrepreneurs in particular. ...
There are many parents of young talented and gifted children or adolescents, who insist on the traditional path of studies both for their sons and their daughters. In many cases these parents had been good students who had completed their educational track successfully which had helped them achieve satisfying professional positions. Such parents tend to believe, that the educational
way they had gone through is the only one ensuring the materializing of the children's potential.
However, the traditional way is not always better than any other, especially not for young entrepreneurs. According to Shavinina (2009), the entrepreneur "usually learns quickly and often operates in the absence of formal education" (p. 793). Though not perceiving formal education as a condition of being a successful entrepreneur or innovator, Shavinina (2013) "admits" that "there are some exceptions", such as Bill Gates or Jeff Bezos (p. 58). Ferrante (2005) is more traditional in his view. According to him: The most robust empirical finding of this paper is the positive link between entrepreneurial ability and the level of formal education, whereas experience, in contrast with the conventional wisdom, does not seem to play any role (p. 170). In cases parents strongly believe in the "traditional" way, of getting good grades in school, learning in a high prestige university department and working in a well-paid, respectable jobs, they usually insist that their
children, especially the gifted, on mathematics and science – including computer science in school, getting high grades, and dedicating a lot of time to school assignments. Gifted children in such families find it quite hard to become young entrepreneurs, as they have to delay any non-formal professional development to a much later than high school stage of their lives. I will hereby demonstrate, through three stories of two boys and one girl, all in their teens, several alternative
ways to success. These case studies will show that parents who embrace such ways, support and encourage their children who wish to try a new, challenging way rather than walking the old one,
might not only be financially rewarding but also contributing to child-parent relationship
... The cases described present two different homes of which these entrepreneurs come from: parents who are very supportive, even permissive, and parents who are authoritative (e.g. Dwairy, 2004;Hubbs-Tait et al., 2008;Pilarinos & Solomon, 2016;Uji et al., 2014). ...
There are many parents of young talented and gifted children or adolescents, who insist on the traditional path of studies both for their sons and their daughters. These parents have been good students in most cases, and they believe, that their own "success track"-the educational way they had gone through, is the only one ensuring the materializing of the potential for their children. In the cases the parents had either not taken the traditional way, of good grades in school, learning in a high prestige university department and working in a well-paid, respectable jobs they believe, quite often, that the reason is not being a good student, or having a learning disability. In such cases they tend to insist even more about learning mathematics and science-including computer science in school, getting high grades, and dedicating a lot of time just to school assignments. This presentation is to demonstrate, through three stories of two boys and one girls, all in their teens, that there are other, alternative ways to success. These case studies will show that parents who embracing these ways, support and encourage their children who wish to try a new, challenging way rather than walking the old one, might not only be financially rewarding but also contributing to child-parent relationship.
... Parenting styles have a significant impact on children's development in various aspects, including physical, emotional, social and cognitive development (Guo & Harris, 2000) (Li & Xie, 2017) (Singh, 2017) (Uji et al., 2014). The following is the impact of parenting styles on child development: a. Physical Development: ...
This research explores the relationship between parenting styles and child development in the community context. It delves into the various parenting styles, including authoritarian, democratic, permissive, and others, and examines their distinctive characteristics and effects on children's physical, emotional, social, and cognitive development. The study acknowledges the significance of the family environment in shaping a child's growth and development. It emphasizes that positive parenting practices, such as a balanced and democratic approach, tend to foster a healthy and independent developmental trajectory. However, it also underscores the influence of various factors such as culture, education, personal experiences, and socioeconomic context in determining parenting choices and practices. Furthermore, the research highlights the role of the broader community and the surrounding environment in influencing parenting styles. It discusses how schools, peer groups, and media contribute to the formation of parenting patterns. The practical implications of this research are substantial. The findings can be used to develop parent education programs, psychological support services, and community awareness campaigns aimed at promoting healthy parenting practices. Policymakers can also consider the research outcomes in designing policies that support families in adopting positive parenting approaches. Despite its valuable insights, the study acknowledges certain limitations, including sample constraints and the use of secondary data. Thus, there is room for further in-depth and extensive research in this area. In conclusion, this research significantly contributes to our understanding of parenting styles and their impact on child development in the community. It lays the foundation for efforts to promote healthier parenting practices and better child development in the future
... Therefore, parents exert control over their children while reasoning and offering them explanations about sexuality (Mowder et al., 1995). According to Uji et al. (2014), Japanese parents have two different types of authoritative parenting including (a) respecting the child's autonomy through mutual communication, and (b) exercising parental authority over the child when necessary. Japanese mothers were more likely to use direct guidance (what their children should or should not do based on the situation) regarding sexuality when they felt that they needed to teach or control their children's behaviors (Baumrind, 1975). ...
The purpose of this study was to explain Japanese mothers’ communication on sexuality education with elementary school-age children (7–11). There were six mothers who consented to participate in this study, sharing their thoughts, opinions, and experiences related to sexuality education. A constant comparative analysis method was used to analyze the data, with three themes emerging from the data: (a) teaching the importance of self-protective behaviors, (b) finding the right timing to have important conversations regarding sexuality, and (c) understanding the balance of what to cover at school versus what to cover at home. To advance the quality of parent and family communication regarding sexuality education, teachers and administrators need clear and focused goals related to the applicability and caliber of sexuality education programs and curricula at elementary schools.
... Entre estas competencias se encuentran las emocionales y sociales, necesarias para afrontar situaciones inesperadas, frustrantes, conflictivas o estresantes, tanto dentro como fuera del hogar (Wittkowski et al., 2017). El grado en que los padres y madres dispongan de competencias de autoconocimiento y autorregulación emocional, de asertividad, afrontamiento y control del estrés, entre otras, así como de habilidades sociales para empatizar, escuchar, expresarse, negociar o establecer normas y límites con sus hijos e hijas, puede influir diferencialmente en sus prácticas parentales (Uji et al., 2014); y, por tanto, en los efectos que éstas tengan sobre sus hijos e hijas y sobre sí mismos (Belsky et al., 2001;Kochanska et al., 2001). La adquisición de competencias parentales, al igual que las prácticas y estilos educativos, puede estar condicionada por factores socioeducativos, culturales y generacionales, facilitando la reproducción de modelos parentales a través de procesos observacionales y experienciales (Johnson et al., 2014). ...
Este texto revisa los aspectos fundamentales de la educación emocional en el ámbito familiar y justifica su necesidad para fomentar la convivencia familiar, basándose en enfoques teóricos sobre educación familiar, estilos educativos, competencias parentales y diversos condicionantes. Con base en directrices internacionales, presenta programas de educación parental basados en evidencias dirigidos a familias con hijos e hijas en distintas etapas escolares y evolutivas. Devela la necesidad de desarrollar estos programas con todas las familias, con independencia de su diversidad y adopta una perspectiva de promoción universal de la salud emocional que facilite la convivencia familiar y la prevención de conflictos que, de darse, podrían condicionar el desarrollo personal tanto de los adultos como de niños, niñas y adolescentes. A partir de ello, propone que los programas se desarrollen desde una perspectiva intersectorial y comunitaria, con metodología grupal y con diseños de evaluación que proporcionen evidencias de su eficacia. Para ello se requiere formación especializada de profesionales y la colaboración entre las instituciones encargadas de desarrollarlos y equipos de investigación. Ello facilita la transferencia de conocimiento y avanzar en procesos de innovación en intervención familiar que ayuden a construir una convivencia emocionalmente saludable en el sistema familiar.
... Parent gender seems to related with parenting styles. It seems that in most societies, mothers are expected to spend more time caring for children and showing affection, while fathers are expected to be providers and disciplinarians (Uji et al., 2014). In this study, we controlled parental employment without considering the work hours due to a lack of data. ...
Introduction: Children in developing countries, including Indonesia, have an increased prevalence of overweight and obesity. Parental socioeconomic status is one of the substantial risk factors. Objectives: To examine the presence of distinct developmental trajectories of BMI z-score in Indonesian children from age 5 to age 19 and assess whether their father’s and mother’s economic level trajectories influences them. Method: This study used four waves of data from the Indonesian Family Life Survey (1997-2014). Children's BMI Z-score and parental economic level trajectories were analyzed by group-based trajectory modelling (GBTM). This study also constructed multinomial logistic regression models while controlling other demographic, health, and socioeconomic characteristics. Results: Out of the 1,065 eligible children, it ends up 1,046 children for further analysis. The best model identified by the GBTM includes four trajectories for children's BMI z-score. For the parental economic level, the best-fit trajectories are the 2 group trajectories for father's and the 4 group trajectories for mother's. There was no association between father's economic level trajectories and children's BMI z-score trajectories. For mother's economic level trajectories, the increasing economic trajectory was associated with increased risk of becoming obese trajectories of children's BMI z-score. Conclusion: Overweight and obesity develop with distinguishable BMI z-score trajectories across childhood to adulthood. This work suggests that the mother's characteristics have more impact on children's development.
... Interestingly several studies indicated that the authoritarian style, with high control and sometimes use of corporal punishment, is a preferable parenting style among Asian fathers (Nguyen, 2008;Selin, 2013;Uji et al., 2014;Wang & Chan, 2010), including among Indonesians, since mothers tend to use permissive style (see Riany et al., 2017Riany et al., , 2021Zevalkink & Riksen-Walvaren, 2001). The authoritarian style is considered to be effectively controlling children's behaviour and establish discipline, politeness, and social behaviour among Asian fathers (Chao & Tseng, 2002). ...
Cyberbullying perpetration has emerged as a serious problem among adolescents worldwide. Living in Indonesia, a patriarchal country with approximately 260 million people, adolescents are at risk of being committed to cyberbullying. Cyberbullying behaviour and associated variables, including fathering style and peer attachment, were examined to understand the interrelationships among the associated variables. Using exploratory research, this study collected data from four hundred and ten adolescents aged ranged 14–18 years old. Participants were recruited online through schools chosen purposively within Jabodetabek, West Java, Central Java, East Java, Sulawesi, and Sumatra and parental networks on social media. Results found that the Authoritarian fathering style was linked to cyberbullying perpetration. Secure peer attachment was negatively associated with cyberbullying perpetration, while Insecure attachment was significantly related to cyberbullying. Authoritarian style and Insecure attachment by peers were revealed as predictors of cyberbullying, and three forms of cyberbullying (Cyber Verbal bullying, Hiding Identity, and Cyber Forgery). Meanwhile, Secure attachment from peers appeared as a protective factor against cyberbullying perpetration. Interestingly, gender was revealed as a predictor for cyberbullying perpetration in which boys were more likely to commit cyberbullying than girls. This study highlights some key concerns about involving the father and peers in strategies to reduce cyberbullying among adolescents in Indonesia.
... These responses can help generate positive emotions and psychological flexibility (Coyne et al., 2020;MacBeth & Gumley, 2012;Sirois et al., 2015), theoretically allowing for more expansive and adaptive coping responses (Folkman, 2008;Tugade et al., 2004). Among parents, more self-compassion has been associated with reduced feelings of parenting shame and guilt (negative emotions) (Sirois et al., 2019), lower levels of stress (Gouveia et al., 2016;Neff & Faso, 2015), and greater use of positive parenting practices (Gouveia et al., 2016), which may theoretically directly impact child wellbeing (Uji et al., 2014;Vostanis et al., 2006). ...
Objectives
When parenting-related stressors and coping resources are chronically imbalanced, there is risk of parental burnout, and consequent negative impact on parent and child wellbeing. The objective of this study was to determine the relations between structural and social determinants of health inequities, self-compassion (a theoretically indicated coping practice), and parental burnout during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Method
Participants were parents (n = 2324) with at least one child aged 4–17 in the household recruited from NORC’s AmeriSpeak Panel (a probability-based panel providing coverage of 97% of the US household population). Parents completed an online or telephone questionnaire in English or Spanish in December 2020. Structural equation modeling was used to test a system of relations between income, race and ethnicity, parental burnout, and parent and child mental health. Indirect effects and moderation by self-compassion were also tested.
Results
On average, parents experienced symptoms of burnout several days per week. Symptoms were the most frequent among parents with the least income, as well as female-identified and Asian parents. More self-compassion was associated with less parental burnout, and fewer parent and child mental health difficulties. Black and Hispanic parents were more self-compassionate compared to white parents, helping to explain similar levels of parental burnout and relatively better mental health outcomes, despite comparatively more stressors.
Conclusions
Self-compassion is a potentially promising target for interventions aiming to address parental burnout; however, such efforts must not detract from critical structural changes to reduce parenting stressors, particularly those impacting parents experiencing systemic racism and other forms of socioeconomic disadvantage.
Preregistration
This study is not preregistered.
... Dari keempat pola asuh tersebut, pola asuh otoriter (authoritative parenting) dianggap paling seimbang karena memberikan kehangatan namun juga memberikan control pada anak. Hal ini berlaku baik dari pola asuh ibu maupun ayah (Uji et al., 2013). Selain pola asuh, pengetahuan ibu juga berhubungan dengan pertumbuhan dan perkembangan anak. ...
Usia emas (golden age) merupakan seribu hari pertama kehidupan atau mulai dari kandungan hingga usia anak dua tahun, di mana pertumbuhan dan perkembangan berlangsung sangat pesat. Jika pemenuhan nutrisi dan stimulasi pada masa penting ini tidak di perhatikan, maka anak berisiko mendapat gangguan pertumbuhan dan perkembangan yang akan berdampak pada segala aspek kemampuannya, seperti: kognitif, verbal, sosial, dan emosional. Urgensi optimalisasi tumbuh-kembang anak guna melahirkan generasi penerus bangsa yang berkualitas sudah sepantasnya menjadi perhatian. Pemerataan informasi dan edukasi yang komprehensif diperlukan agar trend positif berkaitan dengan hal tersebut tidak hanya dijumpai di kota-kota besar. Oleh karena itu, penulis tertarik untuk mengembangkan dan menguji pengaruh Buku Ibuku yang sudah dirancang oleh penulis guna mendukung upaya optimalisasi tumbuh-kembang anak bawah lima tahun (balita). Subjek penelitian merupakan ibu balita di Dusun Tanjungsari, Desa Talunombo, Kecamatan Baturetno yang diperoleh menggunakan purposive sampling berupa total population sampling. Seluruh ibu balita yang menyetujui informed consent setelah penjelasan mengenai alur dan metode penelitian akan menjadi subjek pada penelitian ini. Pretest dilakukan dengan memberikan kuisioner mengenai pertumbuhan dan perkembangan sesuai usia anak. Posttest dilakukan 5-10 hari setelah pretes. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa rerata hasil posttest mengalami kenaikan apabila dibandingkan dengan pretest (82.73+11.622 vs 67.73+17.977). Perbedaan tersebut bekmakna secara statistika (p=0.001). Kesimpulanya, terdapat perbedaan yang bermakna antara nilai pretest dan posttest pada subjek penelitian dalam uji coba penggunaan Buku Ibuku sebagai upaya optimalisasi tumbuh-kembang anak bawah lima tahun (balita).
... The permissive type of parenting features the parents who receive or respond to the communication but does not give the control or direction in educating children that allows the negligence of the children's behavior [8]. Some characteristics of this parenting pattern are: the parents are given full freedom to the child, there is no punishment, supervision was minimal, and the child is given freedom in determining their limit. ...
The study was conducted to determine how the cadets’ characters maintain the parenting patterns applied in Politeknik Ilmu Pelayaran Makassar after being implemented under the parenting pattern guidelines mandated by the Ministry of Transportation in 2018. The study employed the qualitative method under the phenomenology approach. Data were obtained by interviewing four respondents, two women and two men, who have been educated for at least one year in Politeknik Ilmu Pelayaran Makassar. The results showed that the cadets who experienced Politeknik Ilmu Pelayaran Makassar’s parenting pattern have an emphatic, disciplined, and competent character.
... In various other research, the authoritarian and authoritative parenting styles had been separately studied for impact on child and youth development (Baumrind, 2012;Piko & Balazs, 2012;Uji, Sakamoto, & Adachi, 2014). These studies had demonstrated that authoritarian parenting produces negative impact, and authoritative parenting produces positive impact, separately. ...
This article explores the life story of Amir, a young adult from a rural village in Malaysia, who built resilience and developed soft skills to thrive in his life despite his vulnerable beginnings. Amir’s strong resilience and other soft skills that assisted him to be outstanding in his academics and career may have resulted from his caring and supportive authoritative mother, countering his strict and harsh authoritarian father, with an ecological system of protective factors and developmental assets strengthened by religiosity and spirituality. However, both his parents’ extremely different confrontive and coercive methods appeared to have worked together towards the development of certain soft skills, such as his entrepreneurial mindset. This fresh outlook may provide guidance to assist vulnerable children and youth from rural areas to thrive, while raising new questions for future research.
... According to Baumrind (1966Baumrind ( , 1967, permissive parents often attempt to behave in a non-punitive, acceptant, and affirmative manner towards the child's impulses, desires, and actions. The parents tend to present themself as a resource for their adolescents' children when they are in need, not as the ideal for them to emulate, nor as an active agent responsible for shaping or altering their ongoing or future behaviour (Masitah & Pasaribu, 2022;Uji et al., 2014). ...
The present research examined gender differences in perceived parenting styles of adolescents. Sample comprised of 579 adolescents with 316 females and 263 males and was recruited from 6 public schools in Klang Valley. Parental Authority Questionnaire was used for the study. Study reported that both male and females perceived their parents (paternal and maternal) as authoritative, however, there is no significant differences of gender differences in perceived paternal and maternal parenting styles. Findings suggested that Baumrind’s parenting typology is applicable in collectivist countries like Malaysia. Therefore, it is implicated that there are more similarities than differences in results between Western countries and Malaysia.
... A commonly used heuristic to study parental influences on child and adolescent behaviors is to employ parental socialization styles or parenting styles (e.g. Chao, 1994;Darling, 1999;Dwairy & Menshar, 2006;Pinquart & Kauser, 2018;Strom et al., 2008;Uji et al., 2014;Thompson et al., 2003;Timpano et al., 2010); previous research has provided evidence that these parenting styles exert important, yet differential effects on substance use (e.g. Becoña et al., 2012;Berge et al., 2016;Benchaya et al., 2019;Calafat et al., 2014;Hummel et al., 2013;Klanjšek & Tement, 2019;Velleman et al., 2005). ...
Related to some inconsistent evidence in the literature, the current study tested the links between three parenting styles and four measures of substance use in samples of adolescents and young adults from ten, socio-economically diverse countries in Southeastern Europe (N = 10,909, 50.3% males, Mage = 21.70, SD = 4.5); it also tested whether these links were moderated by a measure of social progress. Results indicated that only authoritative parenting style was negatively associated with substance use; both authoritarian and permissive parenting styles were positively associated with substance use. The country-level effect on substance use was modest, yet significant; it explained between 1% and 4% of the total variance. Findings also provided some evidence of a moderation effects by social progress. Exploratory follow-up HLM analyses also provided evidence of significant country level social progress effects on alcohol use, soft drug use, and hard drug use; however, no significant cross-level interactions effects were found. Key study implications include positive effects by both authoritarian and permissive parenting on young adult substance use, but importantly, negative ones by authoritative parenting. Findings have important implications for potential intervention and prevention efforts, in addition to addressing potential country-level differences.
... Parents who adopt authoritative parenting style have been found to have adolescents with better social competence, more positive behaviors, higher levels of self-esteem, creativity-generating thinking styles, better life functioning, high levels of psychological well-being, less aggressive behaviors, less exposed to cyberbullying victimization, and better mental health comparing with other parenting styles especially the authoritarian and neglectful styles (Fan & Zhang, 2014;Howenstein et al., 2015;Lei et al., 2018;Martínez et al., 2019;Ren & Pope Edwards, 2015;Uji et al., 2014). Talley (2014) found that authoritative parenting in this model moderated the relationship between race-related stress and coping with discrimination. ...
... Parents who adopt authoritative parenting style have been found to have adolescents with better social competence, more positive behaviors, higher levels of self-esteem, creativity-generating thinking styles, better life functioning, high levels of psychological well-being, less aggressive behaviors, less exposed to cyberbullying victimization, and better mental health comparing with other parenting styles especially the authoritarian and neglectful styles (Fan & Zhang, 2014;Howenstein et al., 2015;Lei et al., 2018;Martínez et al., 2019;Ren & Pope Edwards, 2015;Uji et al., 2014). Talley (2014) found that authoritative parenting in this model moderated the relationship between race-related stress and coping with discrimination. ...
The current study was designed to test the correlation between racism, parenting styles, and mental health in
Palestine. To test the causal relationship between study variables, regression analysis was performed, while
Pearson’s correlation coefficient was administered to test the correlation between racism, parenting styles, and
mental health. Participants were 408 Palestinian adults, representing 266 females and 142 males, recruited using
on line methods. Results of the correlational analysis showed that authoritative parenting style positively
correlated with accepting attitudes (r = 0.18, p < .01), and mental health (r = 0.38, p < .01). Moreover,
authoritarian parenting style negatively correlated to accepting attitudes (r = 0.25, p < .05), and mental health
(r = 0.29, p < .05), while positively correlated with racist attitudes (r = 0.20, p < .05), and ethnocentric
attitudes (r = 0.16, p < .05). The regression analysis for predicting mental health found that authoritative
parenting style contributed in a statistically significant manner towards explaining variance in mental health (B
= 0.28, SE = 0.07, β = 0.29). Knowing what factors contribute to creating racism can be the first step in the
ability to reduce this public health crisis that leads to directly community conflict, war, differential access to
healthcare, education and career opportunities as well as unequal rates of incarceration, victimization, and death
even in highly conflictual zones. Further investigations are recommended to test the association between current
study variables and other related variables, and to develop intervention programs that targeting parenting styles,
and racism to enhance mental health outcomes among sons.
It has been demonstrated that there is a link between parental conflict and aggressive behavior. However, whether there exists a reciprocal longitudinal relation between them needs to be examined. In this longitudinal study, we tested the reciprocal impacts of parental conflict and aggressive behavior, considering the role of poor family functioning in these two aspect. Three measurements were conducted on 540 adolescents ( M age = 12.57, SD = 0.68) in China, with a 6‐month interval for each measurement. The first measurement was conducted in September 2022, the second in March 2023, and the third in September 2023. Adolescents' perception of the interparental conflict scale, family assessment device functioning scale, and direct and indirect aggression scale were used. Parental conflict at Waves 1 and 2 positively predicted poor family functioning and aggressive behavior at Waves 2 and 3, respectively. Poor family functioning at Waves 1 and 2 positively predicted aggressive behavior at Waves 2 and 3, while aggressive behavior at Waves 1 and 2 positively predicted poor family functioning at Waves 2 and 3. These results indicated the reciprocal relationship between poor family functioning and aggressive behavior. Additionally, the mediation analysis revealed that poor family functioning at Wave 2 serves as a mediator in the unidirectional association between parental conflict at Wave 1 and aggressive behavior at Wave 3. These findings indicated that poor family functioning partially accounts for the unidirectional predictive relationship between parental conflict and aggressive behavior over time. Consequently, the results provide valuable insights for reducing aggressive behavior.
Parenting patterns are one of the challenges and can also be risky in the lives of children including adolescents with physical disabilities if the patterns applied are not appropriate. This will greatly impact the process of achieving psychological well-being in the daily lives of adolescents with disabilities. For this reason, this study aims to determine the relationship between parenting style and psychological well-being in adolescents with physical disabilities. The method used is quantitative with cross-sectional correlation analysis. The participants in this study were 109 adolescents with physical disabilities. Research measurements used Ryff's Psychological Well-Being Scale (RPWBS) and Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire (PSDQ). The results prove a significant positive relationship between authoritative parenting style and psychological well-being (r = 0.564 and sig.= 0.000). There is a significant negative relationship between authoritarian parenting style and psychological well-being (r = -0.587 and sig.= 0.000). There is a significant negative relationship between permissive parenting style and psychological well-being (r = -0.557 and sig.= 0.000). The application of appropriate parenting patterns from parents will greatly help adolescents with physical disabilities face various challenges and tough situations in their daily lives.
The significance of family dynamics in shaping children's mental well-being is a vital area of research in developmental psychology. This systematic review investigates how various aspects of family influences-such as parenting styles, family structure, communication patterns, and socioeconomic status-impact children's mental health outcomes. Through an extensive analysis of existing literature, this review highlights both positive and negative effects of familial interactions, the role of resilience and protective factors, and the implications for interventions aimed at enhancing children's psychological well-being. By synthesizing findings from diverse studies, the review provides a comprehensive understanding of how family environments contribute to the mental health of children, laying the groundwork for future research and practical applications in clinical settings.
Los tres primeros años de vida en el niño, han sido priorizados por formar parte de una etapa fundamental en el desarrollo del niño. En el Centro de Desarrollo Integral “Mi Angelito Corre”, es necesario una planificación para estimular al párvulo en su desarrollo psicomotriz por medio de técnicas grafoplásticas, además de trabajar en una nivelación adecuada en las capacidades y destrezas del niño. El estudio se dirige en determinar si existe incidencia del desarrollo psicomotor fino y las técnicas grafoplásticas en los niños de 3 años. Este estudio tiene un enfoque cualitativo correlacional, que consiste en el desarrollo de pruebas de los factores psicomotriz fino lenguaje, actitudes sociales y motricidad gruesa mediante la aplicación del test de Denver. La información fue ingresada y analizada por medio del programa SPSS. El estadígrafo utilizado para corroborar la hipótesis planteada es el Chi-cuadrado. Se concluye que, la aplicación de las técnicas grafoplásticas en proceso de instrucción de preparación del niño a través, de actividades que generen satisfacción y deseo de aprender y desarrollar sus habilidades. Finalmente, se observó que algunas técnicas no fueron agradables a la percepción del niño y les fue complicado adaptarse a su estimulación
An individual’s capability and capacity for interpersonal communication is heavily dependent on environmental, personal, and social factors. This study explores the effects of sex, parenting styles experienced, and attachment styles on the interpersonal communication competence of adolescents. A sample of 240 senior high school students from De La Salle University Integrated School Manila was selected through convenience sampling. Results reveal that adolescent senior high school students are above average in overall interpersonal communication competence. They are excellent in the emotional support dimension of ICC and above average in the initiation, negative assertion, disclosure, and conflict management dimensions. Sex, parenting styles of mothers and fathers, and attachment style have no significant effect on the initiation and negative assertion dimensions of ICC. However, sex has significant effects on the emotional support and conflict management dimensions of ICC. Data show that females are significantly better at emotional support and conflict management regardless of attachment style, except for adolescents with an anxious attachment style, where males are better than females at emotional support and conflict management. On the other hand, only sex has a significant effect on the overall ICC of adolescent senior high school students.
Strengthening families through crisis management in high-risk situations can prevent a catastrophe and save lives. This chapter defines a crisis and high-risk behaviors such as self-harm, suicidality, and harm against others that affect children's safety and disrupt the family system. It discusses the important role that medical professionals play in managing crises in children, youth, and their families. This chapter discusses some of the risk factors that increase the risk of a crisis and protective factors that mitigate and increase resiliency in children and adolescents. Communication strategies and other recommendations for supporting high-risk children and family systems are provided to help support the family system.
Students do not learn from their mistakes because of too much permissiveness. The permissiveness refers to easy come easy go. Permissiveness at home is showing a willingness to allow the students behaviour that is not necessarily agreeable. Peer influence is an influence on people on their peers resulting to changes in their behaviour, attitude and values positively and negatively. The permissive discipline of the students at home can be influenced from their peers.
Prior studies seem to indicate a hypothetical concept that parenting styles and personality traits are of critical factors of academic achievements. Accordingly, the present quantitative study sought to find out the interrelationships of parenting styles, Islamic students’ personality traits, and their academic achievements. 101 Islamic students from an Islamic university in Bengkulu, Indonesia, were randomly assigned to be the samples. Their parents, 202 parents, were also involved to provide the data. The data were collected by distributing valid and reliable questionnaires to students and their parents. The results demonstrated that parenting styles had a positive and significant impact on Islamic students’ personality traits. Parenting styles had a positive and significant impact on Islamic students’ academic achievements. Islamic students’ personality traits had a positive and significant impact on their academic achievements. Lastly, both parenting styles and Islamic students’ personality traits had a positive impact on Islamic students’ academic achievements. It is recommended that further studies be undertaken in wider contexts across diverse students’ characteristics for the sake of revealing different data conditions and meanings.
Parenting is the general practise of child rearing that affects children's physical, emotional, mental, and social development in both the short-and long-term. Children's behaviour and behavioural symptoms are directly impacted by parenting style in the family. Numerous studies have shown a correlation between parenting style and behavioural issues in kids. In this paper, numerous parenting styles are examined along with the impacts they have on the children's lives in general. The work aims to make a unique addition by identifying gaps in the literature, making suggestions for further study on how parents influence their children's futures, and concluding with a clear and concise argument.
The study aims to reveal the correlation between patterns of family nurturing and behavioral problems among kindergarten children from the point of view of their mothers. The sample consisted of (70) mothers, who were chosen by the available random method. The researchers used two tools: behavioral problems scale, which included the two dimensions (aggression and hyperactivity), and the family nurturing scale, which included two dimensions (authoritarian and democratic). The results indicated that there is an inverse and strong correlation between the scores of the scale of the behavioral problem and the sub-degree of the (tolerant style) scale. Moreover, the study indicated that there is a direct and strong correlation between the scores on the scale of the behavioral problem and the sub-degree of the (authoritarian style) scale, and this indicates that the higher the score on the authoritarian style scale, the higher the level of behavioral problems. It was also found that there are statistically significant differences related to the gender on the scale of behavioral problems as a whole in favor of males at a level. The results also showed that there were differences in the tolerant style of nurturing in favor of females and there were differences in the authoritarian style of nurturing in favor of males and it was found that there were differences in the total degree of behavioral problems attributed to the style of family nurturing in favor of the authoritarian style. Keywords: patterns of family nurturing, behavioral problems, children in the kindergarten stage.
Today, educational competitiveness is getting tougher. Viewing this condition, Pesantren strives to explore students' potential in entrepreneurship because the educational world must capably play an active role in preparing educated and ready-to-work human resources. This study sought to find a depiction of entrepreneurship education in Pesantren Darussalam of Kepahiang by applying a descriptive qualitative approach. This study revealed that first, students were fully directed and guided through courses based on their talents and interests, and they were taught to get working experiences directly. Second, the supporting factors encompassed full supports and appreciation from Pesantren Darussalam, available facilities for entrepreneurship, and full societal supports. Subsequently, the inhibiting factors included inadequate external organizations that could broadly cover students to participate in entrepreneurial activities in a more prolonged way, and some students still had less enthusiasm to benefit from Kiai and teachers' support.Saat ini persaingan dalam dunia pendidikan semakin ketat. Mencermati kondisi tersebut, pihak Pondok Pesantren berusaha menggali potensi para santri di bidang kewirausahaan, karena dunia pendidikan harus mampu berperan aktif menyiapkan sumber daya manusia terdidik dan siap kerja. Menyikapi hal tersebut, dengan menggunakan metode deskriptif kualitatif, penelitian ini berusaha menemukan gambaran tentang pendidikan kewirausahaan di Pesantren Darussalam yang terletak di Kabupaten Kepahiang, Provinsi Bengkulu, Indonesia. Penelitian ini mengungkapkan bahwa: Pertama, para santri diarahkan dan dibimbing dengan penuh tanggung jawab melalui penyediaan tempat kursus sesuai dengan bakat dan minatnya serta mereka diajarkan untuk terlibat dalam praktik kerja secara langsung. Kedua, factor pendukungnya yaitu: dukungan dan apresiasi penuh dari Pembina Pondok Pesantren Darussalam; tersedianya beberapa fasilitas-fasilitas pendukung yang berhubungan dengan kewirausahaan; dan dukungan penuh dari masyarakat sekitar. Faktor penghambatnya yaitu: keberadaan organisasi dari pihak luar yang mewadahi santri dalam melaksanakan kegiatan kewirausahaan belum mencukupi dan sebagian santri masih belum memiliki antusias tinggi untuk memanfaatkan dukungan yang sudah diberikan oleh Kiai dan para ustadz and ustadzah.
The current study was designed to test the correlation between racism, parenting styles, and mental health in Palestine. To test the causal relationship between study variables, regression analysis was performed, while Pearson's correlation coefficient was administered to test the correlation between racism, parenting styles, and mental health. Participants were 408 Palestinian adults, representing 266 females and 142 males, recruited using on line methods. Results of the correlational analysis showed that authoritative parenting style positively correlated with accepting attitudes (r = 0.18, p < .01), and mental health (r = 0.38, p < .01). Moreover, authoritarian parenting style negatively correlated to accepting attitudes (r = −0.25, p < .05), and mental health (r = −0.29, p < .05), while positively correlated with racist attitudes (r = 0.20, p < .05), and ethnocentric attitudes (r = 0.16, p < .05). The regression analysis for predicting mental health found that authoritative parenting style contributed in a statistically significant manner towards explaining variance in mental health (B = 0.28, SE = 0.07, β = 0.29). Knowing what factors contribute to creating racism can be the first step in the ability to reduce this public health crisis that leads to directly community conflict, war, differential access to healthcare, education and career opportunities as well as unequal rates of incarceration, victimization, and death even in highly conflictual zones. Further investigations are recommended to test the association between current study variables and other related variables, and to develop intervention programs that targeting parenting styles, and racism to enhance mental health outcomes among sons.
The purpose of the study was to examine the relations between authoritative and authoritarian parenting styles and social and school adjustment in Chinese children. A sample of second grade children, aged eight years, and their parents in Beijing, People’s Republic of China, participated in this study. The children were group administered a peer assessment measure of social behaviour and a sociometric nomination measure. Teachers completed a rating scale on school-related social competence and problems for each child. Data concerning child-rearing practices were obtained from parents. In addition, information on children’s academic and social competence was obtained from school records. It was found that authoritarian parenting was associated positively with aggression and negatively with peer acceptance, sociability-competence, distinguished studentship and school academic achievement. In contrast, parental authoritative style was associated positively with indices of social and school adjustment and negatively with adjustment problems. The results indicated that, inconsistent with the argument in the literature (e.g. Steinberg, Dornbusch, & Brown, 1992), authoritative and authoritarian parenting practices were relevant to social and academic performance in Chinese children.
Attempted (a) to replicate or modify parent-child relationships found in 2 previous studies by D. Baumrind (see record
1967-05780-001) and D. Baumrind and A. E. Black (see record
1967-10271-001); and (b) to differentiate further among patterns of parental authority and measure their effects upon the behavior of preschool children. Data were based upon observational procedures, and were analyzed for boys and girls separately. Ss were 146 white preschool children and their families. Results include the following: (a) authoritative parental behavior was clearly associated with independent, purposive behavior for girls but only associated with such behavior for boys when the parents were nonconforming; (b) authoritative parental control was clearly associated with all indexes of social responsibility in boys compared to authoritarian and permissive parental control, and with high achievement in girls, but not with friendly, cooperative behavior; and (c) contrary to expectations, parental nonconformity was not associated with lack of social responsibility in either boys or girls. (45 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This article examines the impact of authoritative parenting, parental involvement in schooling, and parental encouragement to succeed on adolescent school achievement in an ethnically and socio-economically heterogeneous sample of approximately 6,400 American 14-18-year-olds. Adolescents reported in 1987 on their parents' general child-rearing practices and on their parents' achievement-specific socialization behaviors. In 1987, and again in 1988, data were collected on several aspects of the adolescents' school performance and school engagement. Authoritative parenting (high acceptance, supervision, and psychological autonomy granting) leads to better adolescent school performance and stronger school engagement. The positive impact of authoritative parenting on adolescent achievement, however, is mediated by the positive effect of authoritativeness on parental involvement in schooling. In addition, nonauthoritativeness attenuates the beneficial impact of parental involvement in schooling on adolescents achievement. Parental involvement is much more likely to promote adolescent school success when it occurs in the context of an authoritative home environment.
This 4-phase study of Hong Kong Chinese adolescent-parent relationships (906 adolescents and 1,091 parents) revealed the following: (a) Adolescents and their parents differ in their perceptions of parenting style. (b) Autonomy is negatively associated with parents' perceived authoritative parenting style and school achievement. (c) Neither parenting style nor measures of parents' beliefs in training their children (R. Chao, 1994) are associated with self-reports of school achievement. However, (d) parents of students from the highest (Band 1) academically oriented schools in Hong Kong rated themselves as higher in authoritativeness and lower in authoritarianism than parents of adolescents from the lowest academically oriented (Band 5) schools. Findings are discussed in relation to posited differences in adolescent-parent relationships in Western and Chinese cultures.
The aim of the study was to investigate the extent to which adolescents' achievement strategies are associated with the parenting styles they experience in their families. Three hundred and fifty-four 14-year-old adolescents completed a Strategy and Attribution Questionnaire and a family parenting style inventory. Analogous questionnaires were also completed by the adolescents' parents. Based on adolescents' report of the parenting styles, four types of families were identified: those with Authoritative, Authoritarian, Permissive, and Neglectful parenting styles. The results further showed that adolescents from authoritative families applied most adaptive achievement strategies characterized by low levels of failure expectations, task-irrelevant behaviour and passivity, and the use of self-enhancing attributions. Adolescents from neglectful families, in turn, applied maladaptive strategies characterized by high levels of task-irrelevant behaviour, passivity and a lack of self-enhancing attributions. The results provide a basis for understanding some of the processes by which parenting styles may influence adolescents' academic achievement and performance.
An acceptable, standardised outcome measure to assess efficacy and effectiveness is needed across multiple disciplines offering psychological therapies.
To present psychometric data on reliability, validity and sensitivity to change for the CORE-OM (Clinical Outcomes in Routine Evaluation--Outcome Measure).
A 34-item self-report instrument was-developed, with domains of subjective well-being, symptoms, function and risk. Analysis includes internal reliability, test-retest reliability, socio-demographic differences, exploratory principal-component analysis, correlations with other instruments, differences between clinical and non-clinical samples and assessment of change within a clinical group.
Internal and test-retest reliability were good (0.75-0.95), as was convergent validity with seven other instruments, with large differences between clinical and non-clinical samples and good sensitivity to change.
The CORE-OM is a reliable and valid instrument with good sensitivity to change. It is acceptable in a wide range of practice settings.
Impact of perceived parenting style on adolescents' self-reliance, interpersonal relations, sense of inadequacy, and attitude to school, after controlling for effects of adolescents' self-esteem, was examined in a sample of 548 Asian adolescents. Fathers' perceived parenting style was significantly associated with adolescents' sense of inadequacy for the entire sample as well as for Chinese adolescents. Fathers' perceived parenting style was also significantly associated with Malay adolescents' self-reliance. Mothers' perceived parenting style was significant only for Malay adolescents' attitude to school. The meaning and consequences of parenting styles, in particular, the authoritarian parenting style, and the differential impact of paternal parenting style versus maternal parenting style on adolescent outcomes in an Asian context will be discussed. Implications for educators and mental health practitioners working with adolescents and their families will also be explored.
This article assesses whether perceived parental style influenced the extent to which adolescents became increasingly conscientious and whether changes in conscientiousness influenced academic grades 1 year later. Parental styles, conscientiousness, verbal, and numerical ability at Time 1 were measured. One year later conscientiousness was again assessed, and 1 year after that end-of-year exam results were obtained. More than 784 students (mean age=12.3 years, SD=0.49) participated in the 1st year. The data of 563 students were matched across the 3 years. Conscientiousness tended to decrease from Time 1 to Time 2. Structural equation modeling showed that adolescents with more authoritative parents experienced less of a decrease in conscientiousness at Time 2 than did students with less authoritative parents and the same baseline level of conscientiousness at Time 1. Additionally, the decrease in conscientiousness at Time 2 predicted worse grades at Time 3, even after controlling for baseline levels of academic achievement.
The relationships between four parenting styles and academic achievement in school children were investigated in Hong Kong, the United States, and Australia. Results indicated that Australian parents were lower than both Chinese and American parents in academic authoritarianism. Compared to the two English-speaking groups, Chinese parents were higher in general authoritarianism, but lower in academic and general authoritativeness. In all three cultures, academic achievement was negatively related to academic authoritarianism, but showed no relationship with academic authoritativeness. Finally, academic achievement was positively related to general authoritarianism in Hong Kong and among children from the United States and Australia whose parents did not have any college education. Academic achievement was positively related to general authoritativeness only in the two English-speaking groups.
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between perceived paternal and maternal parenting styles (permissive, authoritarian, and authoritative) and students' academic achievement (Form Three public examination results). The sample consisted of 247 Form Four students in two secondary schools. The data were collected using questionnaire. Results showed that majority of the students perceived both their father (n = 200) and mother (n = 197) as authoritative. The findings revealed that perceived paternal permissive, authoritarian, and authoritative parenting styles were not significantly correlated with students' academic achievement. The findings also revealed that perceived maternal permissive, authoritarian, and authoritative parenting styles were not significantly correlated with students' academic achievement. Implications of the study were discussed and recommendations for future research were suggested.
The effect of parental authority upon the self-esteem of 230 college students was studied. Authoritarianism and authoritativeness of the mother and the father were found to correlate significantly with self-esteem; authoritarianism was inversely related to self-esteem while authoritativeness was directly related to self-esteem. Permissiveness of the mother and the father were not significantly related to self-esteem. Regression analyses revealed that the proportion of variance in self-esteem that was associated with parental authoritarianism and authoritativeness was over twice as great for females as for males.
Two new scales of parental care and overprotection, and their combination as a Parental Bonding Instrument, are described. On measurements of reliability and validity the scales appear to be acceptable, and are independent of the parent's sex. It would appear that mothers are perceived as significantly more caring and slightly more overprotective than fathers, but that those judgements are not influenced by the sex of the child. Overprotection appears to be associated with lack of care. The scales and scoring method are appended. Norms for a general Sydney population are presented, and the possible influence of age, sex and social class examined.
This article examines the impact of authoritative parenting, parental involvement in schooling, and parental encouragement to succeed on adolescent school achievement in an ethnically and socio-economically heterogeneous sample of approximately 6,400 American 14–18-year-olds. Adolescents reported in 1987 on their parents' general child-rearing practices and on their parents' achievement-specific socialization behaviors. In 1987, and again in 1988, data were collected on several aspects of the adolescents' school performance and school engagement. Authoritative parenting (high acceptance, supervision, and psychological autonomy granting) leads to better adolescent school performance and stronger school engagement. The positive impact of authoritative parenting on adolescent achievement, however, is mediated by the positive effect of authoritativeness on parental involvement in schooling. In addition, nonauthoritativeness attenuates the beneficial impact of parental involvement in schooling on adolescent achievement. Parental involvement is much more likely to promote adolescent school success when it occurs in the context of an authoritative home environment.
The view that those with obsessive compulsive disorder or obsessional personality have been exposed to overcontrolling and overcritical parenting is examined. Two measures of obsessionality (the Maudsley Obsessional-Compulsive Inventory and the Leyton Obsessionality Inventory) were completed by 344 nonclinical subjects. They also scored their parents on the Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI), a measure assessing perceived levels of parental care and overprotection, before and after controlling for levels of state depression, trait anxiety and neuroticism in the analyses. Those scoring as more obsessional returned higher PBI protection scale scores. Links with PBI care scale scores were less clear, essentially restricted to the Maudsley Inventory, and variably influenced by controlling other variables.
We explored mothers’ and fathers’ time spent with their adolescents and found that mothers reported spending more time with
their adolescents than did fathers. Developmental patterns were found for some aspects of time involvement, with both mothers
and fathers reporting higher involvement with younger adolescents. Ratings of time-spent were not associated with adolescents’
self-reported emotional/behavioral problems. Both mothers and fathers agreed that mothers had more responsibility for adolescents’
discipline, daily care, and recreational activities. Mothers and fathers reported comparable levels of satisfaction with this
arrangement. Mothers, and to a lesser extent fathers, reported greater satisfaction with the division of labor when fathers
showed higher levels of responsibility for adolescents’ activities. Satisfaction with the division of labor was inversely
related to interparental conflict. Few differences were found based on adolescent gender for any of these variables. Results
are discussed within the context of mother–child and father–child relationships and family functioning.
Over three consecutive years, Chinese secondary school students experiencing and not experiencing economic disadvantage (n=280 and 2,187, respectively) responded to measures of perceived family life quality (parenting attributes and parent-child
relational quality) and emotional well-being (hopelessness, mastery, life satisfaction and self-esteem). While participants
experiencing economic disadvantage generally had more negative perceptions of parenting quality and parent-child relational
quality than did adolescents not experiencing economic disadvantage, the differences were more pronounced for the father-adolescent
dyad than for the mother-adolescent dyad. Emotional well-being was also different in adolescents with and without economic
disadvantage. Although adolescents experiencing different intensity of economic disadvantage differed on some paternal parenting
processes, no related differences were observed for other measures of family life quality and emotional well-being. The present
study fills the research gap pertinent to the relationship between economic disadvantage and family as well as emotional quality
of life in early adolescence in the Chinese culture.
Chinese secondary school students (N = 3,017) were asked to respond to instruments that measure subjective evaluation of parental behavioral control (indexed
by parental knowledge, expectation, monitoring, discipline, and demandingness, as well as Chinese parental control attributes),
parental psychological control, and parent–child relational qualities (satisfaction with parental control, child's readiness
to communicate with the parents, and perceived mutual trust). Results showed that Chinese adolescents perceived their fathers
and mothers to be different in terms of the above indicators, and they suggest that the notion of “strict father, kind mother”
in traditional Chinese culture has changed to “strict mother, kind father” in contemporary Chinese culture. Results also showed
significant main effects of the child (boys vs. girls) and interaction effects of parents and gender of the child. Finally,
parental educational levels were positively related to perceived parental control processes and parent–child relational qualities.
Although the relationship between parenting and outcomes for children and adolescents has been examined, differences between maternal and paternal parenting styles have received less attention, particularly in the case of late adolescents. As a result, this article examines the relationship between late adolescents’ perceptions of their mothers’ and fathers’ parenting styles and
their own emotional adjustment. Findings of this study suggest that mothers and fathers use different parenting styles for their sons and daughters. It also suggests that different combinations of maternal and paternal parenting (e.g., a permissive father parenting with an authoritarian mother) are related to late adolescents’ emotional adjustment, with late adolescents who have at least one authoritative parent showing better adjustment than those who do not have such a parent. Overall, this study emphasizes the importance of examining dyadic parent–adolescent relationships, and it suggests that having one authoritative parent may be a protective factor for late adolescents.
This study examined the reliability and validity of the Japanese version of the Clinical Outcomes in Routine Evaluation-Outcome Measure (CORE-OM), a standardized, brief, but comprehensive outcome measurement. The target population consisted of 1684 Japanese company employees, hospital staff, and university students. A confirmatory factor analysis proved that our data fit the factor structure of the original CORE-OM. We also examined its internal consistency, test-retest reliability, convergent validity, and sensitivity in discriminating between clinical and nonclinical samples. After demonstrating these results, we discuss how the Japanese version of the CORE-OM can be used both in clinical and research settings.
Research suggests that parenting styles are related to the types of discipline parents utilize and that the coupling of parenting styles and discipline techniques are related to child outcomes. Although extant research examines the effects of parenting styles and discipline on child and early adolescent adjustment, less is known about adjustment in late adolescents, also described as emerging adults. Thus, the current study investigated the relationships among parenting styles (e.g., authoritative, authoritarian, permissive), discipline strategies (e.g., non-violent discipline, psychological aggression, physical assault), and emerging adult emotional adjustment (e.g., self-esteem, depression, and anxiety). The sample consisted of 526 participants ranging in age from 18 to 22 years. Results were analyzed with structural equation modeling and suggest that, although perceived parenting styles and discipline are both correlated with emerging adult emotional adjustment, perceived parenting is associated with emerging adult emotional adjustment for females but not males when examined simultaneously with perceived discipline. This finding demonstrates the importance of examining the direct and indirect relationships in the context of gender dyads.
It has been suggested that the quality of early parenting received by depressed adults is more negative than that received by non-depressed people. Since perceptions of parenting are usually examined only when subjects are depressed, depressed subjects' negative reports may be distortions due to their depression, rather than accurate recollections. In the present study, both depressed and remitted women reported experiencing greater parental overprotection than did non-depressed women, but only depressed subjects also reported less parental caring. The results are discussed with respect to the early experiences of depressed individuals, the distinction between parental caring and overprotection, and the importance of interpersonal factors associated with depression.
In a recent study of current patterns of parental authority and their effects on the behavior of preschool children, the data for the 16 black children and their families were analyzed separately since it was thought that the effect of a given pattern of parental variables might be affected by the larger social context in which the family operates. The major conclusion from this exploratory analysis was that if the black families were viewed by white norms they appeared authoritarian, but that, unlike their white counterparts, the most authoritarian of these families produced the most self-assertive and independent girls.
Synopsis
Associations between retrospective ratings of parental behaviour and adult affective symptoms were investigated in a British national sample. Symptom scores at ages 36 and 43 years showed low but significant correlations with care (negative) and control (positive), as measured by the Parental Bonding Instrument. Prevalence of high symptom scores was much greater in respondents with low care–high control (affectionless control) parents than in those with high care–low control parents, but there was no synergistic effect of combined care and control. Degree of affectionless control was progressively related to risk of depression. No significant gender differences were found in these associations. Findings could not be explained as spurious relationships resulting from association with other features of childhood adversity, and there was evidence that distorted recall arising from contemporaneous depressed mood was not responsible. Work is needed to establish the causal mechanisms underlying observed associations, including inter-relationships between parental style and other early adversity, and factors mediating or moderating the long-term effects of parental behaviour.
The hypothesis that inadequate parenting promotes the development of pathological narcissism was tested in a sample of 370 undergraduate students. They responded to the O'Brien (1987) Multiphasic Narcissism Inventory (OMNI) and to measures of parental permissiveness, authoritarianism, and authoritativeness. Perceived parental permissiveness and authoritarianism served as independent predictors of greater narcissistic tendencies. The students who scored high on the OMNI were also less likely to evaluate both of their parents as having been especially strong in their use of the adjustment-promoting authoritative style. Theoretical efforts to link narcissism with inadequate parenting therefore may have merit and may deserve additional research attention.
This article investigates how children and their parents rate their parenting styles, and how this rating is associated with academic achievement, alcohol, and tobacco use. We surveyed students and their parents in two public school districts. A total of 386 matched parent-child pairs from eighth- and ninth-grade students were analyzed for parent and student classification of parents as authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, or mixed parenting styles. Agreement on parenting styles between parents and children was poor. Students perceived parents as less authoritative, less permissive and more authoritarian than parents considered themselves. High grades were associated with child and parent perception of higher authoritativeness, lower permissiveness, and lower authoritarianism. Child tobacco and alcohol use was associated with child perception of lower authoritativeness, and higher permissiveness while parent perception of parenting style was not associated with child substance use. This study provides further evidence that parenting styles and adolescents' perceptions of them are associated with child achievement and substance use. While we cannot determine whether child or parent perception of parenting style is more accurate, child perception is more strongly associated with grades and substance use than is parent perception. It is likely that parents would benefit from understanding how they are perceived by their children.
In this longitudinal study, the relationships between perceived parenting characteristics and adolescent psychological well-being were examined in a sample of Hong Kong Chinese adolescents (N = 378). The results indicated that global parenting styles and specific parenting behaviors are concurrently related to hopelessness, life satisfaction, self-esteem, purpose in life, and general psychiatric morbidity at Time 1 and Time 2. Longitudinal and prospective analyses (Time 1 predictors of Time 2 criterion variables) suggested that the relations between parenting characteristics and adolescent psychological well-being are bidirectional in nature. The results indicated that the strengths of association between perceived parenting characteristics and adolescent psychological well-being are stronger in female than in male adolescents. Relative to maternal parenting characteristics, paternal parenting was found to exert a stronger influence on adolescent psychological well-being.
A questionnaire was developed for the purpose of measuring Baumrind's (1971) permissive, authoritarian, and authoritative parental authority prototypes. It consists of 30 items per parent and yields permissive, authoritarian, and authoritative scores for both the mother and the father; each of these scores is derived from the phenomenological appraisals of the parents' authority by their son or daughter. The results of several studies have supported the Parental Authority Questionnaire as a psychometrically sound and valid measure of Baumrind's parental authority prototypes, and they have suggested that this questionnaire has considerable potential as a valuable tool in the investigation of correlates of parental permissiveness, authoritarianism, and authoritativeness.
Although parent-adolescent interactions have been examined, relevant variables have not been integrated into a multivariate model. As a result, this study examined a multivariate model of parent-late adolescent gender dyads in an attempt to capture important predictors in late adolescents' important and unique transition to adulthood. The sample for this study consisted of 151 male and 324 female late adolescents, who reported on their mothers' and fathers' parenting style, their family environment, their mothers' and fathers' expectations for them, the conflict that they experience with their mothers and fathers, and their own adjustment. Overall, the variables had significant relationships with one another. Further, the male-father, male-mother, and female-father structural equation models that were examined suggested that parenting style has an indirect relationship with late adolescents' adjustment through characteristics of the family environment and the conflict that is experienced in families; such findings were not evident for the female-mother model. Thus, the examination of parent-late adolescent interactions should occur in the context of the gender of parents and their late adolescents.
Current patterns of parental authority. Devel-opmental Psychology Monographs
- D Baumrind
Baumrind, D. (1971). Current patterns of parental authority. Devel-opmental Psychology Monographs, 4, 1–103.